The proposal is classified according to the following criteria:
1) Function (the purpose of the statement).
2) Emotional coloring.
3) Modality.
4) Structure.
According to the purpose of the statement three types of sentences are distinguished: 1) Narrative (message), 2) Interrogative, 3) Incentive.
By emotional coloring sentences are distinguished: exclamatory and non-exclamatory.
By modality, that is, by the nature of the expressed sentence, the relationship to reality, affirmative and negative sentences are distinguished. “There is no happiness in the world, but there is peace and will.”
By structure, groups of proposals are distinguished:
1) By the number of predicative parts, simple and complex sentences are distinguished. In simple sentences, one predicative unit, in complex sentences, two or more.
2) One-piece and two-piece. The nature of the predicative basis. A two-part sentence has two main members (subject and predicate), a one-part sentence has only one main member (either subject or predicate).
3) By the presence or absence of secondary members, proposals are distinguished between common and non-common. In common sentences, in addition to the main ones, there are secondary members. "You can't reach your goal with hope alone." Non-common sentences consist only of the main members: "Night and silence."
4) According to the completeness of the composition, complete and incomplete sentences are distinguished. In complete sentences, all syntactic positions are occupied by members of the sentence. In incomplete sentence members can be skipped. "Youth is a golden time: eat and drink and sleep in peace."
5) According to the absence or presence of complicating elements (homogeneous, isolated members, appeals, etc.), complicated and uncomplicated sentences are distinguished. "Do not expect good by doing evil."
There are three aspects of the study of the proposal: 1) the structural aspect. 2) Semantic aspect. 3) Communicative aspect.
1) Structural aspect. In Russian linguistics, since the middle of the 20th century, they began to pay special attention to the formal structure of the sentence. Linguistics introduces the concepts of the structural scheme of the sentence (Author N.Yu. Shvedova), which is understood as the basis of the sentence, its main members. N + Vf . The guests have arrived, the daughter is taking exams, the boy is reading a book, the horse is eating scrap. M + A (adjective). The weather is wonderful, the song is cheerful. M + M - sister doctor, teacher friend. Inf - be silent, stop! There are about 56 sentence models in total.
2) Semantic aspect. Presented by the works of N.D. Artyunova, V.G. Gaga. From the point of view of semantics in the structure of the sentence, information about objective reality is explored, which represents a certain situation: "The son is engaged in music, the daughter is working on a project." The objective meaning of this statement lies in the fact that the sentence highlights the subject of the action, the predicate (the action of the subject), denoting the action, and the object of the action, which can be direct (passed a note to a friend), or instrumental (what is written in a letter, you can’t cut it down with an ax) .
3) Communicative aspect. It is represented by the works of I.P. Raskopov, I.I. Khvastunova, and the aspect is referred to as the actual division of the sentence. The actual division of the sentence is the allocation in the sentence of the new, the rheme, the unknown and the known information, the topic. Division into theme and rheme.
Aktuá membeŕ offeŕ nia- used in linguistics separation principle suggestions on the:
the original, initially given component (what is considered known or can be easily understood), called topic , starting point or basis;
a new constituent affirmed by the speaker (what is reported about the starting point of the utterance), called rhema or core;
elements transition.
For example: "he (theme) turned out to be (transition) an excellent teacher (rhema)."
The central grammatical unit of syntax is the simple sentence. This is determined by the fact that a simple sentence is an elementary unit intended for the transmission of relatively complete information, possessing such properties that make it possible to attribute what is reported to one or another time plan.
In addition, a simple sentence is the main unit involved in the formation of a complex sentence and text. A simple sentence consists of phrases and word forms, has its own grammatical characteristics: 1) it is formed according to a special grammatical pattern; 2) it has linguistic meanings, formal characteristics, intonation pattern and ability to change (Brief Russian Grammar, p. 405). A simple sentence, like the previously studied units of the language system, enters into paradigmatic relations. Paradigmatic relations are formal changes in the structure itself (particular manifestations of a general categorical meaning), expressed by special means. Particular grammatical meanings of a simple sentence are expressed by significant or functional words, syntactic particles, word order and intonation.
A simple sentence enters into syntagmatic relations - the members of a simple sentence are combined with each other according to certain rules (ibid., p. 407)
The formal and semantic organization of a simple sentence is especially complex. Each simple sentence is built according to a certain formal pattern, which is called a predicative basis or structural scheme. Such schemes are abstractions abstracted from an unlimited number of concrete proposals. Compare examples: The child is having fun. The train is coming. The boy is reading. The sentences are built according to the model: noun + conjugated verb, expressing the relationship of the procedural attribute and its carrier in one or another time plan.
Work is added. The water is decreasing. – Rod.p. noun + Ch. in the form of the 3rd l.s. The scheme expresses the relationship between the procedural state and its bearer.
Winter. Night. - Im.p. noun - states the fact of existence.
The forms of words that organize the predicative basis are called the components of the structural scheme, the main members, the predicative center (Kr. Russian Grammar, p. 408)
The grammatical meaning of a simple sentence is predicativity - a category that, by a whole complex of formal syntactic means, correlates a message with one or another temporal plane of reality. Thus, the block diagram of a sentence has grammatical properties that allow us to indicate that what is being reported is either actually carried out in time (present, past, future), that is, has a real time plan, or is thought of as possible, due, desired, then there is an unrealistic plan, or temporary uncertainty.
The meanings of time and reality/irreality are merged together, their complex is called objective modality.
Thus, the concept of predicativity as an abstract syntactic category is made up of the concepts: structural scheme, temporal plan of the reported and reality/irreality of the reported (ibid., p. 409)
The main means of forming predicativity is the category of mood, with the help of which the message appears in the aspect of reality / unreality.
The idea of the essence of predicativity (as well as the term itself) is not unambiguous. Along with the concept of V.V. Vinogradov (spec. article) and his school (Grammar of the Russian language-54, -80), the term "predicativity" also denotes the property of the predicate as a syntactic member of a two-part sentence. The concept of predicativity is included in the concepts of "predicative connection", "predicative relations", which denote relations that connect the subject and the predicate, as well as the logical subject and the predicate; in this use, predicativity is no longer understood as a category of the highest level of abstraction (inherent in the sentence model as such, in the sentence in general, regardless of its composition), but as a concept associated with the level of division of the sentence, that is, with such sentences in which the subject can be distinguished and the predicate (V.V.
Babaitseva, p.58).
Thus, it is important to distinguish between these notions of predicativity. When qualifying the grammatical meaning of a simple sentence, the term "predicativity" is understood as a syntactic category. (See literature).
semantic structure. The sentence combines in one of its grammatical forms several meanings of different levels of abstraction. Firstly, the structural pattern of a simple sentence itself has an abstract meaning common to all sentences, the so-called predicativity. The meaning of predicativity inherent in the sample is transferred to a specific sentence and modified in the paradigm of the sentence, that is, in its various syntactic forms, expressing the meanings of reality and unreality. But in specific sentences there is one more meaning coming from the components of the predicative stem and from their relations + the lexical meaning of the words. For example: The student writes - the subject and its active action; Thunder rumbles - the subject and its presence, existence; Dawn - the presence of a subjectless action; A lot of things to do, little joy - the subject and its quantitative sign, etc.
All of the above is related to the semantics of the block diagram or to the semantic structure of the sentence (Kr.rus.gr., p.410).
Thus, the semantic structure is its linguistic meaning, which is created by the interaction of the semantics of the structural scheme and the lexical meaning of words.
The categories of the semantic structure are the predicative feature, the subject is the carrier of the predicative feature and the object; at the level of the sentence, these meanings are specified and differentiated. Sentences that have a different grammatical organization, but a similar semantic structure, are considered in some studies as transforms, then transformations of one into another, for example: Evening is coming - Evening is getting dark; The son is learning - The son is a student.
In addition to the meaning of predicativity and semantic structure, the sentence has its functional meaning associated with the distribution of the communicative load between its members; this meaning is expressed by actual articulation, that is, articulation into theme and rheme, word order and intonation.
The previous characteristics (aspects) of the sentence: the structural scheme, the semantic structure are statistical (see V.A. Beloshapkova, op. op.), and the communicative aspect is dynamic. Considered in the statistical aspect, the proposal is autonomous and self-sufficient, all its properties are explained from the inside, by its own formal structure. Considered in a dynamic aspect, the sentence appears not by itself, but as part of the text, that is, in the linguistic and extralinguistic context in which it exists (see lecture 1). The separation of the static and dynamic aspects of the sentence began in the 20-40s of our century almost simultaneously in the works of scientists from different Slavic countries.
The communicative aspect was most developed in the Prague Linguistic School (W. Mathesius, the founder of the actual division), later than others, only in the 2nd half of the 20th century, the semantic structure was singled out as a special scientific object (one of the first works was the article by F. Danesh “On three aspects of syntax”, Prague, 1964). See in more detail: I.P. Chirkina, part 4, pp. 72-89).
Currently, quite a lot of attention is paid to the pragmatic aspect of the proposal, which has great potential. The language provides the speaker (writer) with a variety of opportunities to express in a sentence their attitude to the subject of speech, to the situation that is being reported, to the addressee. This pragmatic triad, which is realized in different sentences either completely or in some part of it and interacting with its semantic structure, makes the sentence a linguistic unit with a deep and multi-stage semantic structure (see Pragmatics in LES).
Thus, the sentence in the understanding of modern syntactic science is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon that can hardly ever be fully studied.
Topic plan
1. The concept of a proposal.
2. The main features of the proposal:
Predicativity;
intonation of the message;
grammatical organization;
The current division of the proposal.
3. Offer types:
Types of sentences according to the purpose of the statement;
Classification of sentences of the Russian language by structure;
Types of sentences by emotional coloring.
The concept of a proposal
The sentence is the basic unit of syntax. Offer - the main means of expression and communication of thought. Its main function in language is communicative, that is, the function of a message. This function cannot be performed either by a word, or a phraseological unit (the equivalent of a word), or a phrase: they are the names of objects, features, and actions. In order to become a means of communication, they must either be combined into sentences or receive the properties of a sentence.
Exercise:
Compare:
sun, way, you, get up, happy, seven Fridays in a week -
Sun is up;
Are you getting up?;
You are happy;
You have seven Fridays in a week;
The sun!;
Let's hit the road!;
Get up!;
Have a nice trip! etc.
The sentence names a situation, an event. The specific features of the sentence, which distinguish it from other units of the language, including the phrase, are the predicativity and intonation of the message.
The main features of the offer
Predicativity
Predicativity- this is the relation of the statement contained in the sentence to reality, established and expressed by the speaker. Predicativity is manifested and revealed in the syntactic categories of modality, tense and person. Each of them has its own content and means of expression; in any sentence they have one or another manifestation.
Modality- this is an assessment of the statement from the point of view of reality / unreality. Reality - this is correspondence to reality, expressed by syntactic means.
For example:
The dawn has come;
The dawn will come soon;
Dawn;
Brother brought a book;
Brother will bring a book.
unreality- this is a discrepancy with reality, the presentation of what is expressed as desired, required, established (assumed) by the speaker.
For example:
Dawn would soon come;
Brother, bring a book;
Book!;
Will dawn come soon?;
Did your brother bring a book?;
When will the brother bring the book?
The meaning of reality/irreality in the sentence is based on the verb forms of the mood (in their main use): reality is expressed in the forms of the indicative mood, irreality is expressed in the forms of the imperative and subjunctive moods. Modal assessment is also conveyed by intonation. So, interrogative intonation expresses unreality, regardless of the form of inclination.
For example:
Do you want me to tell you a song?(M. G.);
BUT could you play the nocturne on the drainpipe flute?(M.)
The meaning of unreality can be expressed by the particle would and in the absence of a verb.
For example:
Now would be in a sleigh with legs(M.);
More like dawn!
Along with the meaning of reality / unreality, which is called objective-modal, in a sentence with the help of introductory components (of course, no doubt; maybe, probably, perhaps etc.) subjective-modal meanings of certainty or presumptiveness can be expressed.
For example:
Perhaps the wings will lift you up and you will live a little more in your element(M. G.)
Time is the relation of the utterance to the moment of speech. With the help of verbal forms of time, it can be designated specifically - as preceding the moment of speech, coinciding with it, or following.
For example:
The waves were roaring;
The waves are roaring;
The waves will roar
Syntactic time can manifest itself in the form of timelessness, that is, without a definite relationship with the moment of speech.
For example:
They don't beat the recumbent(Last)
In sentences constructed without a verb, the meaning of the present tense usually appears.
For example:
Caucasus below me(P.);
Late fall(N.)
Face is the relation of the utterance to the speaker. It manifests itself either in the direct attribution of an action, a sign to the speaker, interlocutor or a third person,
For example:
I lived a good life! .. I know happiness!(M. G.);
O brave Falcon! In battle with enemies you bled...(M. G.),
or in comparison of the subject, the figure with the speaker.
For example:
So that's the beauty of flying into the sky! She is- in the fall!(M. G.)
The means of expressing a syntactic person are personal forms of verbs, personal pronouns and constructive features of the sentence.
For example:
The expression of the subject noun is an indicator of the 3rd syntactic person: And the waves of the sea beat against the stone with a sad roar(M. G.)
In addition to the specific meaning of one of the three persons, a syntactic person may have an indefinite or generalized meaning.
For example:
They sing in the garden;
Good is not sought from good(Last)
In different types of a simple sentence, different meanings and indicators of a syntactic person are observed.
The meanings of modality, time and person in the complex convey the relation of the statement to reality, i.e. predicativity. The predicativeness of the sentence relies primarily on verbal forms, but in case of their insufficiency or absence, it is expressed by other indicators.
For example:
I saw the sky... You won't see it so close!...(M. G.) - in the second sentence, the conjugated verb with its indicators denotes the modal meaning of reality, future tense, 2nd person; in the first sentence, the forms of the verb are sufficient only to express modality and tense, the person is expressed using the subject I.
In nominal sentences Why pride? Why reproaches?(M. G.) predicativity is expressed differently: modality is conveyed by intonation, the present tense is based on a zero indicator (significant absence of a verb), the meaning of the 3rd person follows from the existential meaning of the sentence, which is not associated with either the speaker or the interlocutor. The set of indicators of predicativity is the grammatical form of the sentence. Differences in grammatical form are one of the main criteria for classifying sentences.
Message intonation
The intonation of the sentence has a closed structure:
Start;
Development;
Completion.
Without these elements of intonation, it is impossible to build a real sentence.
For example:
In a complex sentence Cannonballs are rolling, bullets are whistling, cold bayonets hang(P.) - three predicative parts; however, if any of the parts is reproduced with the intonation that is inherent in it as part of a complex one, none of them forms an independent sentence. On the contrary, even a formally incomplete construction, uttered with the intonation of a message, functions as a complete sentence.
For example:
Tonight for example, it can be perceived as an incomplete replica of the dialogue ("When you're going?"- "Tonight").
Intonation- a complex phonetic phenomenon. It is associated with the linear nature of the sentence, that is, with the consistent pronunciation of its constituent words. The linear arrangement of word forms and their pronunciation correspond to their syntactic and semantic role in the sentence.
The structure of intonation includes the main acoustic indicators: voice power (dynamics), pitch (melody), as well as the rate of speech, the presence, place and duration of pauses, the timbre of the voice. The intonation of a particular sentence is a combination of changes (modulations) in strength, pitch, tempo and timbre. However, each of these aspects can be analyzed separately. In this case, one speaks of the dynamic structure of the sentence, its melodic structure, etc.
For example:
In a sentence So that's the beauty of flying into the sky!(M. G.) with the greatest force (loudly) pronounced here, further the volume decreases; highest pitch in a word charm(melodic peak), ascending-descending melody; the pace of speech, slow at the beginning, accelerates towards the end of the sentence; pause after a word charm insignificant; timbre coloration is characterized by elevated tones that convey an emotional attitude - surprise, irony.
Target lectures: introduce grammatical features and grammatical categories of the sentence.
1. Communicative essence of the sentence. The main features of the sentence: grammatical organization; intonation; semantic completeness; predicativity (relations of the content of the statement to reality).
The sentence is the main unit of syntax, since it is the sentences that find expression in the most essential functions of the language: cognitive or expressive (language as a tool, tool of thinking) and communicative (language as a means of communication). The sentence is the main means of expressing and communicating thoughts.
The science of language knows fundamentally different approaches to the study of a sentence as a syntactic unit. The collection of sentence definitions has exceeded 1000. However, in the end, the existing definitions of a sentence as a syntactic unit allow for generalization.
Thus, there are definitions based on an orientation towards extralinguistic reality (extralinguistic approach). There are also definitions that are distinguished by an orientation towards linguistic factors proper (linguistic approach).
Offer definition types:
1. Definitions based on extralinguistic factors.
The representative of the logical-grammatical direction in linguistics F.M. Buslaev defined a sentence as a judgment expressed in consciousness (orientation to extralinguistic reality. A.A. Potebnya believed that a sentence cannot be determined through a judgment, because languages are specific, original, this is a historical category. A.A. Potebnya resorted to bright comparisons: "To define a sentence by a judgment is the same as if someone had defined the great Socrates that Socrates is a human being."
2. Definitions based on linguistic (linguistic) factors.
A.A. Potebnya, in his search for an adequate definition of the sentence, turned to purely linguistic grounds. The most important point for him was that the sentence consists of parts of speech, that is, generalized classes of words. For A.A. Potebni sentence is a syntactic unit with a conjugated verb (verbum finitum).
3. Complex definitions of the proposal, reflecting the multidimensional.
V.V. Vinogradov was looking for ways to overcome these shortcomings in approaches to a new definition of supply. He managed to overcome the one-sidedness of each of the previous types of definitions by including both extralinguistic and proper linguistic factors in the definition of a sentence.
In order for an utterance to take place, a subject is needed, a person who is speaking, who will create this utterance. Extralinguistic orientation is the most essential primary background of a sentence. Therefore, in the definition of the proposal, there must be a reliance on this objective surrounding reality. Before thinking - reality. Understanding the need to focus on the extralinguistic factor, V.V. Vinogradov comes to concrete reality.
The second part of his definition focuses on linguistic factors proper. The scientist saw in the sentence such a category as predicativity, which reflects the position of the speaker in relation to what is reported in the sentence. Usually this is done with the help of a verb - through the morphological categories of person, tense, mood. The predicativity of a sentence (the relation of a statement to reality) is formed in the syntactic categories of modality, syntactic tense, and syntactic person.
V. V. Vinogradov gave the following definition of a sentence: “A sentence is an integral unit of speech, grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, which is the main means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts.”
From this definition it follows that the main features of the proposal are:
1. Grammatical organization;
2. Intonation formality;
3. Semantic completeness;
4. Predicativity.
1. Grammar organization.
Each sentence has main members and there may be secondary members, between which a certain type of syntactic connection is established: predicative, subordinating, coordinating, semi-predicative, etc. Separate types of complication of a simple sentence are also allowed: homogeneous members, isolated members, inversion, introductory and plug-in constructions .
2. Intonation formality.
Each sentence is intonationally complete and is separated from the other sentence by a separating pause. The role of intonation formation as an obligatory formal feature of a sentence is clearly revealed when comparing simple words and words-sentences. Any word can become a sentence when pronounced with a predicative intonation. The intonation of completeness just serves as an indicator of predicativity.
3. Semantic completeness.
Every sentence contains a relatively complete thought.
4. Predicativity.
The sentence has a grammatical meaning, which is expressed in predicativeness. According to V.V. Vinogradov, predicativity is the correlation of an utterance with objective reality, formalized in the syntactic categories of modality, syntactic tense, and syntactic person.
If predicativity is the grammatical meaning of a sentence, then the language must have means expressing this meaning. Among the syntactic categories expressing the meaning of predicativity are the categories of modality (syntactic mood), temporality (syntactic tense) and personality (syntactic person).
Syntactic modality is the assessment of the statement from the point of view of reality/irreality. Reality - correspondence to reality, expressed by syntactic means. Irreality is a discrepancy with reality, the presentation of the statement as desired, required by the speaker. The meaning of reality / unreality in a sentence on verb forms of mood. Compare: I remember a wonderful moment (objective real modality, expressed by the personal form of the indicative verb). I would have gnawed out bureaucracy like a wolf (objective unreal modality, expressed by the personal form of the subjunctive verb).
Subjective modality is expressed by modal words, modal predicates, adjectives, nouns with modal semantics, etc. For example, it seems to be snowing (objective real modality is expressed by the personal form of the indicative verb, subjective modality is expressed by the modal word “apparently”).
The syntactic tense of the sentence most often coincides with the morphological category of the tense of the verb - on the verbs of the indicative mood of the present, past and future tenses.
However, a sentence may not have a verb, and yet the sentence always has a syntactic tense category.
Syntactic tense can be expressed not only by sentences with personal forms of the verb, but also by the very structure of the sentence (e.g., Winter.), adverbial words with temporal semantics (e.g., words yesterday, today, tomorrow, etc.), null verbs connectives that can be null only in the present tense (e.g., Brother is a student), the semantics of the sentence, i.e. context (cf .: Raise the flag. Would go with a friend - syntactic future tense).
The syntactic person also relies on the morphological person, which is possessed by personal pronouns and verbs of the indicative mood of the present and future tenses, the imperative mood (verbs of the past tense and the subjunctive mood do not have a morphological category of a person due to their origin and formation). The syntactic person can be expressed by the structure of the sentence (for example, Winter. - present syntactic tense; Dusk. - 3 syntactic person, impersonal meaning; Ran - 3 syntactic person, indefinitely personal meaning).
3. The concept of syntactic connection and its varieties.
Syntactic units usually consist of several components. Only proposals can be single-component. The components of syntactic units are with each other in certain semantic relationships - syntactic relationships, which are formally revealed by the syntactic relationship.
A syntactic connection is a formal, structural relationship between the components of syntactic units. As part of syntactic units, syntactic links combine components of a different nature:
1. Word + word form (eg, subscribe to a newspaper);
2. The form of the word + the form of the word (eg, the garden is blooming);
3. Simple sentence + simple sentence, etc.
In a sentence, the main type of connection is predicative. This is a connection between the main members of the sentence, a mutually directed connection. In the sentence, subordinating and coordinating types of communication are frequent.
Comparative characteristics of coordinating and subordinating
coordinating relationship subordinating relationship
Connection grammatically equal Connection grammatically unequal
components, bilateral. right components, one-
ronnyaya, there is a main and a dependent
single function components multifunctional components
Occurs between homogeneous Occurs in phrases, in
members of a sentence, in complex sentences,
composed sentences, between the main and the adverbial part-
du homogeneous adnexal in ty.
complex sentences.
Means of expression - does not express - Expressed by the forms of words, sentences
using forms of words, only compositions in phrases, in complex
solid unions of subordinate sentences - sub-
repairing alliances and allied
Can be open or closed Always closed
Other types of syntactic connection in a sentence:
1. Connection of free accession or free relation (determinant). Outwardly, it is similar to adjunction, but differs from it in a non-verbal character. The word form extends the sentence as a whole. Nr, Under old age / life is such a muck.
2. Attachment, also propositional, is not observed at the level of word connection. This connection is secondary, the elements of the statement do not appear in the mind immediately, but only after the main idea is expressed. It is characterized by an intonational and syntactic break with the main statement. N-r, Two such magazines arrived - and on the same day.
3. Applicative (Raspopov's term) or semi-predicative connection. Occurs when the sentence is complicated by isolated members at the junction, graphically indicated by a comma. For example, we walked along the street / leading to the center of the village.
4. Explanatory connection (marked by unions, namely, somehow) and is always postpositive in relation to the part being explained due to its explanatory nature, etc.
Literature
1. Valgina N.S. Modern Russian: Textbook. - M., 2001.
2. Valgina N.S. Syntax of the modern Russian language: Textbook. - M., 1991.
3. Babaitseva V.V., Maksimov L.Yu. Modern Russian language: In 3 parts - M., 1987. - Part 3.
4. Modern Russian language / Ed. L.A. Novikova: Textbook. - SPb., 2001.
5. Modern Russian language / Ed. E.I. Dibrova: In 2 hours - M., 2001. - Part 2. –S.252, 257-258.
6. Russian language / Ed. L.L. Kasatkin. - M., 2001.
7. Beloshapkova V.A. Modern Russian language. Syntax: Tutorial. - M., 1977.
8. Modern Russian language / Ed. V.A. Beloshapkova. M., 1989.
9. Skoblikova E.S. Modern Russian language. Simple Sentence Syntax: Study Guide. - M., 1979.
10. Barkhudarov S.G. Russian language. Grade 8: Textbook. - M., 1989.
11. Babaitseva V.V. Russian language. Theory. Grades 5-11: Textbook. - M., 2000.
12. Russian language: Textbook for grade 8 / Ed. MM. Razumovskaya, P.A. Lekanta. - M., 2001.
13. Russian grammar: In 2 volumes / Ed. N.Yu. Shvedova. - M., 1980. - T.2.
test questions
1. The general concept of the proposal (to know the definitions from university and school textbooks, compare them). The main features of the sentence, its difference from the phrase. What does it mean: communicative-relatives and communicative-sentences, their correlation. Do you agree with this understanding of relatives by L.A. Novikov? Why is the sentence the basic unit of syntax?
2. The grammatical categories of the sentence that shape the predicativity: syntactic mood (modality), syntactic tense (temporality), syntactic person (personality). The grammatical form of the sentence. The concept of a sentence paradigm, types of paradigms, the initial form of a sentence paradigm. The grammatical meaning of the sentence.
3. The concept of syntactic connection. Syntactic link levels. Open and closed communication. Mandatory and optional connection. Types of syntactic connection in a sentence: predicative (its varieties), coordinating, subordinating, determinant, semi-predicative (applicative), connecting, explanatory, etc.
Offer is a statement containing a predicative syntagma. Simple sentences are divided into communicative types: narrative, interrogative, incentive, exclamatory. According to the nature of the expression of attitude to reality, sentences are divided into affirmative (approved as real) and negative (approved as unreal). By the presence or absence of secondary members, common and non-common sentences are distinguished. complex a sentence is a union, according to certain grammatical rules, of two or more sentences on the basis of one or another grammatical connection. The connection of parts of a complex sentence is carried out with the help of: 1 intonation 2 unions (coordinating and subordinating) 3 allied words (significant words that serve as a means of connecting the subordinate clause with the main one and simultaneously perform the function of a member of the sentence): a) pronouns (what, which, whose , how much) b) adverbs (where, when, from where). Depending on the means of communication, sentences are divided into allied, allied, compound, compound.
The most important feature of a proposal is predicativity - the relation of the statement to reality, which is grammatically expressed in the categories of modality (inclination), time, person. (Vinogradov).
Polypredicativity - the presence of several predicates in the sentence. (These days are dim, sick 2 and the mists are cold 3).
Aspects of studying the proposal :
1. Logical (judgments, inferences, etc.)
But the suggestion are not always logical.
2. Communicative (offer considered as a carrier of information that is relevant to the speaker)
subject t - starting point of the statement
rheme r - message about the topic.
Highlighting topics and rhemes in a sentence - current membership.
3. Semantic (interpretation of a specific situation with the help of a sentence)
4. Structural (analysis of the sentence in itself)
Vocabulary. The word as a subject of lexicology
Vocabulary - the level of the language that provides the vocabulary of the language.
1. Lexicology (from the Greek lexis - word, logos - teaching) - a science that studies the word and vocabulary of the language as a whole, its functioning and development.
2. The subject of lexicology are the following questions:
The word from the point of view of the general theory of the word (the role of the word in the structure of language and text);
The structure of the vocabulary of the language (the principles of combining words into different groups);
The functioning of lexical units of the language, the nature of the compatibility of words in terms of compatibility / incompatibility of their concepts;
ways of replenishment and development of the vocabulary of the language (ways of creating new words, forming new meanings, using the resources of other languages);
· the ratio of vocabulary and extralinguistic reality (patterns of designations of the realities of the outside world by lexical means of the language).
3. Depending on the goals and objectives solved by lexicology, distinguish:
general lexicology - considers general issues related to the structure and functioning of the vocabulary of the world's languages;
private - studies the vocabulary of a particular language;
historical - describes the history of the development of the vocabulary of the language as a whole or its individual groups;
Comparative - studies the vocabulary of various languages in order to identify their genetic relationship, the general patterns of development of their lexicons;
Applied - associated with lexicography, translation theory, culture of speech, linguistic pedagogy, etc.
4. Lexicology includes the following sections:
Onomasiology (from the Greek opto "name" and logos "teaching") - a science that studies the theory of nomination; exploring the process of naming, naming objects and phenomena of the outside world;
Semasiology (from the Greek semasia "meaning" and logos "teaching") - the meanings of words and phrases;
Phraseology (from the Greek phraseas "expression" and logos "teaching") - the phraseological composition of the language, the nature of phraseological units, their types, categorical features, features of functioning in speech;
onomastics (from the Greek onomastike "the art of giving names") - names
own in the broad sense of the word: geographical names are studied by toponymy, names and surnames of people - anthroponymy;
etymology (from Greek etymologia< etymon "истинное значение" и logos "наука") - изучающая происхождение слов, процесс формирования словарного состава языка, реконструирующая словарный состав языка древнейшего (обычно дописьменного) периода;
· Lexicography (from the Greek lexikos "related to the word" and grapho "I write") is a science that deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.
Monosemy and polysemy
Monosemia is the property of words to have one meaning
Polysemy - polysemy, the presence of a word (language unit) of two or more interconnected and historically determined meanings.
In modern linguistics, grammatical and lexical polysemy are distinguished. So, the form of 2 persons unit. hours of Russian verbs can be used not only in a proper-personal, but also in a generalized-personal sense. Wed: “Well, you will outshout everyone!” and "You will not be shouted down." In such a case, one should speak of grammatical polysemy.
Often, when they talk about polysemy, they mean, first of all, the polysemy of words as units of vocabulary. Lexical polysemy - this is the ability of one word to serve to designate different objects and phenomena of reality (associatively related to each other and forming a complex semantic unity). For example: sleeve - sleeve ("part of the shirt" - "branch of the river"). The following relationships can be established between the meanings of a word:
Transfer types:
By the nature of language motivation:
Metaphor
For example: horse - horse ("animal" - "chess piece")
According to the frequency of use and stylistic role, metaphors are:
a) dry or worn out - ugly and known to everyone (dead alley)
b) general poetic - figurative, known to everyone, used in poetry (gray fog)
Types of metaphors:
1. The similarity of the form - the golden ring - the ring of roads
2. Location similarity - bird wing - building wing
3. Similarity of functions - bird feather - steel feather
4. Color similarity - golden earrings - golden autumn
5. Evaluation similarity - clear day - clear view
6. Similarity of impression - warm day - warm welcome
7. Similarity in the way of presenting the action - embrace with hands - gripped by anxiety
Metonymy
For example: dish - dish ("type of dishes" - "portion of food")
Metonymy - renaming by adjacency
Types of metonymy:
2. Material per product (silver exhibition)
3. Action on the result (term paper)
4. Action on the means of action (nice packaging)
5. Action on the scene (underpass)
6. The object of science on the branch of knowledge (vocabulary as a science)
7. Phenomenon, sign, quality per owner ()
8. Name of a person on an object discovered by him (X-ray)
Synecdoche (a type of metonymy)
Transferring a part to a whole, a set to a single, a generic to a species, and vice versa (“The buyer chooses quality products.” The word “Buyer” replaces the entire set of possible buyers.)
Types of synecdoche:
1. Plural instead of singular (as the Frenchman rejoiced)
2. A certain number instead of an indefinite one (a thousand-headed crowd)
3. Specific instead of generic (take care and save a penny)
4. Attribute name instead of item (all flags will visit us).
