The morphologically invariable part of the word that carries the lexical meaning is the basis, it is depending on it that non-derivative and derivative words are distinguished. Each basis is characterized bilaterally: structurally and semantically.
Differences
The non-derivative stem is not semantically motivated, since it cannot be explained with the help of related words, and morphologically it is indivisible. In its structure, it is equivalent. For example: forest-a; brave th; kind-about; rivers-and so on.
These bases are non-derivative. And derivative words can be distinguished precisely by these features: semantically motivated, explained by the selection of a related stem. Its structure is easily divided into two blocks of equal importance, that is, the very basis that forms derivative words, and the word-forming affix. The examples will be the same: forest-Noah; brave-awn; kind-from-a;
First block - base
Non-derivative and derivative words belong to the field of word formation, where the central concept is the basis - basic or generating. From the base in form and meaning, that is, bilaterally, a derivative is derived, which is precisely why it is considered motivating for the derivative basis. This means that the base of the derivative word is the basis of the motivating one. For example, in the word forest-east- base base - forest, but wooded- is the basis of the adjective motivating. Thus, non-derivative and derivative words are distinguished.
The first block of this word-formation structure is the basis forest, it is the base, as in any other derivative word. It, in turn, can become non-derivative, because everything depends on the ability to break down into separate terms. For example, the word forester-awn. In all cases, everything is decided by the stage of production. That is, the first step is a derivative word derived from the root morpheme, here the base is non-derivative, and all subsequent steps make the word derivative.
Scheme
Derivative and non-derivative in their word-formation structure can be represented by the following schemes:
1. Basic basis (I) + (II) + flexion. Examples: proud-awn; rech- to-a; books-n-th.
2. Derivative prefix (II) + base stem (I) + inflection. Examples: on- always-Yes; great- inside-to.
3. Derivational prefix (II) + base stem (I) + derivational suffix (II) + inflection. Examples: co- conversations-Nick; at- pestilence-sk-th.
Thus, it is possible to formulate the main regularities from the above schemes. The derivative and non-derivative stem of the word are quite easily distinguished.
Basics
The first rule: a word is always formed from the basic stem that is available in the language, and word-building affixes help in this process. In general, the basic basis is a functional concept, since it can be the same for a number of words, because from one root we form several, and sometimes many others. For example, all kinds of adjectives come from a noun, which differ only in word-forming affixes: goals-a - goals-n-oh - goals-ast-th; eye - eye-n-oh - eye-ast-th and so on.
All words have the property of derivative and non-derivative, the meaning of the word mainly depends on this. But all derivatives have a basic basis. If the base itself is segmentable, then there are difficulties and even errors in the definition of word-forming affixes. For example: a noun like talent, comes from adjective talented and not vice versa, as always happens. Noun talent first had to form talent-liv-y, and already from here a new noun appeared with the help of an affix - awn. Otherwise, it would have talent-ost", somehow ugly.
affixes
The second rule: all words in the same meaning of the basic stems are obtained using the same affix or one of its types. Here the principle of semantic deducibility operates, which serves as the foundation of motivational relations of basic words and their derivatives. Of course, adding complexity to this principle is such a phenomenon as in the Russian language, most of them are polysemic, and this is reflected in word formation.
The semantic structure of the derivative and polysemantic source words quite often radically differ from each other. A derived word usually has some one, isolated meaning, which is what distinguishes it from the basic stem. Here the main role is played by the derivative and non-derivative stem of the word. Examples can be found everywhere. Let's take an adjective old. It has several meanings: a person, an animal or an object that has reached old age; something ancient, existing since ancient times; used for a long time, dilapidated, deteriorated from time to time; old; worthless, invalid; old, outdated, outdated and much, much more. The group of derivatives of this word is numerous and is associated with the first, original meaning of the basic stem: senile, old man, grow old, old man, old woman, old age, grow old and so on. From here, derivatives appear that change the original value.
non-derivative words
It is known that the boundary between classes, which would represent an exact opposition, which words are derivatives and which are non-derivatives, is not strict enough. Accentological analysis makes this distinction in such a way that words that do not have any semantic connection with any really existing word in the Russian language belong to the category of non-derivatives. A lot of them: baggage, author, live, water, strong, take and so on. In addition, non-derivatives should be words with a monomorphic stem - barking, running and so on. Also among the non-derivatives there will be words, so to speak, "simplified".
What does "derivative and non-derivative words" mean becomes more clear when the principle of adding morphemes is clarified. Attachment may or may not be tight. How are two word forms combined into one word? Its main part is an independently existing word form. Recycling and oil refining, red and lovely, entrance and exit- a million examples. Here is the latter - tightly joined, and the first - loosely.
words-workers
In no way should one confuse a derivative and a generating word. The producing one works, and the derivative appears directly from it, repeating the parental features with its material backbone, but not completely, but in the same way that the son is approximately similar to both the mother and the father, and even to the great-aunt: there the ending is truncated, and sometimes and the suffix disappears. Worker-nickname - work-at; pri-chain-shchik - attach-chain-it and so on. Here, the generating word is unchanged here, and the derivative is obtained with the help of affixes and is often not identical to the usual stem of the word.
On this topic - "Derivative and non-derivative words" - it would turn out to be interesting, since word formation is very strongly connected with all manifestations of human existence. The teacher is simply expanse in the selection of examples, comparisons, illustrations.
Analysis
In analysis, it is impossible to compare a derivative word with words related to it, that is, close in meaning and sound, and this is done very often. It is very difficult to give an exhaustive answer to the question of what words are called non-derivatives. Derivatives are easier to work with. This term in itself is too broad, since it covers a huge word-building nest, where there are derivatives not only with a generating base that interests us, but also a lot of words that are not directly related to it, a lot of related formations.
For example, the adjective talkative. Here are some related words: talking, talking, talking, talking, talking, talking or talking. And here only one, the second, will be generating, it is from it that this adjective is directly formed. The last two are generally superfluous, they do not contribute to the direction of analysis we have chosen, because the adjective talkative formed not from a verb, but from a noun talk, that is, from its substative generating stem, and the past tense (form) - from the infinitive, which included suffixes as additional elements in addition to everything else. From here you can observe what the derivative and non-derivative stem of a word in word formation means.
And yet, the definition
Non-derivative words can be considered those that are not formed and are not formed from any other single-root word existing in the language. Concerning derivative words - all on the contrary. These are formations from words that already exist in the language, using various models of word formation. The motivation for it is the relationship of two words with the same root. The value of one of them is determined either through the value of the other ( crab - crab-ik, that is, a small, but still crab), or through identity in all components, excluding the grammatical meaning of the part of speech ( white-th - white-out-a, run-a-t - run and so on).
They name a number of words with a single root that are consistently motivated. The initial, initial link is an unmotivated word, then with each newly formed word, motivation grows. Thus, both derivatives and non-derivatives are defined. Examples: old-th - old-et - y-old-et - y-old-ate-th - y-old-ate-awn. There are four degrees of motivation here, and together they make up a word-formation nest, in which there are many more chicks. The original word is like a mother bird, a kind of peak - it is unmotivated. From it come word-building chains that have the same source word.
Morphemes
First you need to define each element of the structure. The part of the word where its lexical meaning is expressed is called the stem. Inflection is an ending that always indicates the relation of this word to others. Root - part of the word, which is common to all relatives. Affixes (or formants) are morphemes that join the root and serve to form new words.
Modern Russian word formation occurs in different ways - both morphological and non-morphological. First of all, there is a regularity in the combination of morphemes in the process of word formation.
Ways of word formation
Morphological ways of word formation are quite numerous.
1. Addition of foundations, that is, the formation of complex and compound words (earth-quake, sky-vault, steam-stroke and paradise-com, face-without, savings bank).
2. A rarely used non-affix method, it works only for nouns, the consonant at the end and the stress change there, but the stem remains unchanged.
3. Affix - one of the most productive, when morphemes are added to the root, creating both lexical and grammatical forms.
4. Suffix - a suffix is added to the base.
5. Prefix - a prefix is added.
6. Suffixal-prefixal - respectively, both are added.
7. Postfix - an affix is added after the end.
There are only three non-morphological ways of word formation: lexical-semantic (a word with a new meaning), lexical-syntactic (former phrases like crazy) and morphological-syntactic, when words become other parts of speech. Having mastered these rules of word formation, a person will already be able to answer which words are derivatives and which are never non-derivative.
According to their morphological composition, the bases of all significant words are divided into derivatives and non-derivatives.
A non-derivative (non-motivated) stem is a single whole, indecomposable into separate morphemes (meaningful parts). A derivative (motivated) basis is a composite unity divided into separate morphemes.
The segmentation of a derived stem into morphemes is a morphological feature of this stem and distinguishes it from a non-derivative one. Yes, basic words hottie, chicken are derivatives, are divided into separate morphemes, because in the SRL there are non-derivative bases corresponding to them mountains, chickens.
A derivative stem loses its ability to divide into morphemes and becomes non-derivative if the non-derivative corresponding to it disappears from the language or ceases to correlate with it. Yes, basic words shelf, bowl lost their articulation into separate morphemes, became non-derivative in the SRY, because the non-derivative stems that corresponded with them in the Old Russian language ( fell, miss) fell out of the vocabulary of the SRY.
A non-derivative stem can act as a separate morpheme (in a related form), combined with affixes or another stem. Yes, basic words ponytail, wood are derived from the stems of words tail, forest, which act as separate independent words in SRY. Such foundations appear in their pure form. Other individual stem morphemes ( hurry, hold on) are not separate words, but act exclusively as coherent stems as morpheme roots ( hurry-and-be, hold-a-be).
To refer the stem to derivatives, it is sufficient to have at least one related word in the modern language that has a correlated stem in pure or related form ( branch-branch).
Non-derivative stems of words, for example shaft, glass, sea, do not make it clear why these items are called so. The meaning of the non-derivative basis, which, as it were, is inherent in itself, is unmotivated. Values of derived bases roller, cup holder motivated (roller - a small shaft, cup holder - a stand into which a glass is inserted).
Summarize.
Derivative base:
breaks down into separate morphemes
exists as a derivative as long as there is a corresponding non-derivative
means objects of reality indirectly.
Non-derivative basis:
1) is not divided into separate morphemes
2) denotes objects of reality unmotivated.
Manufacturing base.
The term generating (or forming) basis indicates the word-formation role of the basis, and not its morphological properties. The basis (derivative or non-derivative) is called generating, on the basis of which, with the help of one or another technique, a word is formed (which, of course, is derivative, motivated). So, in related words brushwood, brushwood, brushwood the stems are morphologically transparent: in the first word the stem is non-derivative, in the second and third it is derivative. For derived bases twig- and twig- generating bases are, respectively, brushwood-(non-derivative) and twig-(derivative).
Articulation and production of bases.
There are non-segmented stems (that is, not divisible into morphs containing one morph, for example house, zero) and segmentable into morphs (that is, consisting of two or more morphs, for example wrestler, knife, scatter). The weakening of the degree of articulation of the stem is observed when one of the parts of the word (root or affixal) is defective in any respect. This happens in the following cases.
Linked Roots.
In Russian, there are words whose roots live in the language only in combination with suffixes and prefixes. The stems of such words are called connected: Withverg kick, fromverg down, downverg nut. Linked roots are not full roots. They are proposed to be called radixoids (from Latin radix - root and oid - similar). From the above example, it is clear that the radixoid verg-/verg- in the NSR is not clear. Its meaning can be understood only from the composition of those words in which it is included. A special category of words with related roots are foreign borrowings: agitate, agitate, agitator. In these words, the associated root is everywhere.
2. Unique parts of a word.
In Russian, there are such words in which, with ordinary root morphemes, there are segments that are not repeated in other words: -ov in love, spruce in death etc. These segments in the composition of the word do not serve as building material for the formation of new words, but are only part of separate words that are atypical in their structure for the modern language (constructed according to patterns that existed in the language earlier or borrowed from other languages). These type segments are ov and - spruce, that is, single segments outside the words in which they are fixed are insignificant. Such segments are called unifixes, since the main property of such units is uniqueness. Unifixes appear only in a bound form.
3. There are also words with related roots that occur in combination with only one affix: planing. Such words have roots connected and, moreover, unique, so to speak "uniradixoids".
Ticket number 26. Morphonological phenomena accompanying the formation of a derivative word.
1. Alternation of phonemes.
A) alternation of consonants.
For Russian word formation, alternations on the morphemic suture of the root (or stem) and suffix are most characteristic, for example: friend - friendship. Alternating suffixes include, for example, the suffix of nouns - onok/-at(a). He
causes alternations: posterior lingual / hissing, d/t, d/f, paired hard consonants / paired soft, for example: wolf - wolf "onok, camel - camel cub, bear - bear-onok.
Suffixes coinciding in form but different in meaning, as a rule, behave in the same way with respect to alternation, that is, they cause the same alternations. Wed derivatives with suffix im(s) from the bases to the back-lingual ones, which have the following meanings: a) magnification, b) singularity, c) type of meat. For example: a) rhinoceros - rhinoceros, b) pea - pea, in) beluga - beluga.
Suffixes that start with a phoneme uh, cause alternation of paired
hard consonants with paired soft ones, for example: thick (th) - thick (th), Leningrad - Leningrad "-ets.
Like other morphological phenomena, alternations can be productive and unproductive. Unproductive alternations are preserved in old formations, and even in them they are found irregularly. Such, for example, is the alternation d/f: camel, teddy bear, but swan. In neoplasms, unproductive alternations are usually absent.
In word formation, the following types of consonant alternation are most productive: paired hard consonants with soft ones (for example, t/t’, d/d’, n / n') elephant - elephant'onok, cat - cat'-ische, posterior lingual with hissing ( g/w, c/h, c/w: legs - legs, sand - sand)
Less common, although productive, alternation b/bl’, p/pl’, v/vl’, f/fl’, m/ml’. It acts in the formation of nouns denoting an abstract action, from verbs into -it: declare - declaration.
Unproductive and rare are alternations c/h (father-
paternal), d / f (camel - camel meat), s / w (Circassian - Circassian Enka),
s / f (prince - princely).
Alternations in borrowed stems.
In the production of adjectives on -ic from the bases of foreign nouns with an outcome on -s, -s, -siya, -ziya, -zm there is an alternation s / t ', s / t ', zsh / st ': chaos - chaotic'-ic, hypnosis - hypnotic'-ic.
Alternation in warp morphs.
These alternations are unproductive in modern Russian (such as reap - reap.)
Alternation in affixal morphs.
Phoneme alternations t'/h
After d, t morphs usually appear with a phoneme sch: flute - box.
B) vowel alternation.
Vowel alternations for Russian word formation are less characteristic than consonant alternations. In Russian word formation, only the vowel/nil alternation plays a significant role. For example: forehead-Ø - l # b-ische, left-Ø - l’ # in-itsa.
Alternation in root morphemes of vowel phonemes o/a productive in the formation of forms of the imperfect form of the verb with the help of a suffix willow-: brings out - brings out. This alternation is not regular, that is, it does not apply to all cases of the formation of these forms.
Interfixation
It consists in the fact that an asemantic spacer is inserted between two morphemes, eliminating combinations of phonemes that are prohibited by the laws of morphology or uncharacteristic of the structure of the Russian word. For example: zhi-(l)-ets, pe-(c)-uch.
Interfixation is one of the morphological means used to connect morphs in a word.
Fixing interfixes:
In Russian word formation, interfixes are usually used to connect 1) a stem and a suffix 2) two stems as part of a compound word. Consider the most typical cases of using interfixes.
A) After a stem ending with a vowel phoneme, before a suffix beginning with a vowel, an interfix consisting of a consonant phoneme is usually used.
Interfix -t -: slang - slang-(t)-ism. Interfix n- : morphine morphine-(n)-ist.
Interfix l- connects a verb stem into a vowel and a suffix search: inhabited-(l)-ische, zhi-(l)-ische.
B) Consonant interfixes also usually appear after vowel stems if the suffix begins with a consonant. In this case, interfixes are most often used - sh-, -v-, -n-, attached to nominal foreign language stems into vowels or abbreviations.
From the basics e, -i: coffee-(th)-ny, blinds-(th)-ny
In nouns with the suffix - nick, - shield, produced from the same bases:
Coffee-(th)-nick.
In adjectives with a suffix -sk-, derived from place names
vowel stems.
Abbreviations: Moscow State University emgeu-(sh)-ny, PTU peteu-(sh)-ny.
C) In derivatives with stems ending in a group of consonants, before a suffix beginning with a consonant, interfixes beginning with a vowel are usually used.
-ov-: columns-ts column-(s)-sky.
-in-: Yalta yalt-(in)-sky.
D) Using interfixation to connect two (or more) bases in a composition
compound word.
Example: chimney.
Truncation of derived bases.
This phenomenon is the opposite of interfixation. During interfixation, an increase in the stem (derived stem) occurs, and when its reduction is truncated, the stems of nouns, adjectives and verbs can be truncated. The end part of the base is truncated.
The suffix or final vowel of the root is usually truncated.
When deriving from noun stems, two types of truncations occur: a)
Truncation of the final vowels of the stem of indeclinable nouns. (libretto -
librett-ist, sambo - sambo-ist.) b) Truncation of final suffixes or submorphs ( pipe - dud-et, swindler - cheat-nichat).
Overlay (or interference).
Superposition of morphs (disappearance of one of two identical syllables immediately following each other) a) stems and suffixes: lilac + -ovate \u003d lilac; taxi + -ist = taxi driver b) stems and interfixes: NATO - NATO; Dynamo + -(ov)ets= Dynamo
Interfixation can also occur when the generating base is truncated, for example: radio - radio operator.
Ticket number 27. Form-forming basis, word- and form-forming affixes.
The affixes with the help of which new words are formed are called word-forming, and the affixes that form forms of the same word are called formative.
The use of affixes for word formation and form formation is subject to certain patterns.
The choice of one or another affix, its inclusion in the composition of the word depends on the lexical and grammatical properties of the word or stem. Each affix has its own word-formative and formative connections with those morphemes that are represented in a particular word and stem. For example, suffixes -at-, -ast- are used, as a rule, to form adjectives from the stems of nouns denoting parts of the human body or animal body ( bearded, toothy etc.).
endings th, th, th, th, th and others are used primarily for the formation of adjectives, and endings -u, -yu, -eat, -eesh, -et, -it etc. for the formation of verb forms.
Not all word-formation types of words and not all forms of words are represented in the language in the same way in terms of quantity. In the circle of nouns and adjectives, single word-formation models of words stand out, for example: groom, young man, thin etc., and in the sphere of verbs singular forms: ladies, eat.
In the process of development and improvement of word formation and form formation, affixes expand or, conversely, narrow their possibilities of word formation and form formation. Some affixes are more productive, others are less productive.
Affix -awn in the modern Russian literary language it is highly productive, and in the Old Russian language (until the 17th century) this affix was limited in relation to word-formation connections, combined only with non-derivative stems of adjectives.
Nominative plural ending -a, previously characteristic only of neuter nouns, expanded its productivity and began to be applied to masculine nouns: cities, meadows, doctors, professors etc.
From the point of view of productivity in the formation of words and forms in the modern Russian literary language, affixes fall into two groups: living and dead affixes. Living affixes include affixes that form words and forms in the modern language; they are clearly distinguished in the composition of the word from the point of view of living connections and relationships in the language, for example: story, narrator. Dead affixes are distinguished in a word only with the help of etymological analysis, for example: suffix - R- in the word old, console su- in the word spouse.
Living affixes available in the modern system of word formation and shaping are divided into three types: unproductive ones that do not produce new words and forms, but are distinguished as part of words; productive abundantly producing new words and forms and easily distinguished; unproductive, rarely producing new words and forms, but singled out in word-formation analysis.
Unproductive affixes among prefixes: great-grandfather, soo-gloom, flood and etc.; among suffixes: past-tukh, n-tukh, empty-yr, in-water-yr, yellow-out-a, count and etc.; among the endings of verbs and nouns: ladies, eat, horse-mi, bones-mi and etc.
Productive affixes among prefixes: before-, times-, at- and etc.; among noun suffixes:- ik, -nick, -its (a), -chik, -shchik, -stv (o); verbs: -yva-, -iva-, -well-; adjectives: - k-, -sk-, -chiv- and many others; among the endings of names and verbs, the overwhelming number of endings.
The distinction between unproductive and unproductive affixes is often not clear. In the word-formation system of the modern Russian language, there are frequent cases when the same suffix reveals unequal effectiveness in the formation of words that are different in their semantics and structure. Yes, the suffix ec, which forms nouns from nouns with the meaning "belonging to", is highly productive (for example, michurinets, militia etc.). At the same time, the suffix is characterized as unproductive in the formation of nouns with the meaning of person from verb stems (for example, singer, merchant, messenger etc.). Verb suffixes -yva-, -iva- productive only in relation to prefixed verbs ( walk around, sit etc.). productive ending -ov for masculine nouns in the genitive plural ( factories, tables) is unproductive in neuter words ( clouds, poles, hangers, glasses).
Ticket number 28. The main ways of word formation in modern Russian.
Ways of forming words that have one motivating basis:
1. Suffixation. It is carried out by adding a suffix to the generating stem.
Teacher(suffix body+ system of inflections of adjectives of adjective declension)
thrice(suffix waiting)
With zero suffixing ( exit, bully) the formant includes zero
derivational suffix.
2. Prefix. The formant is the prefix.
Great-grandfather, re-write.
3. Postfix. The formant is postfix:
1) wash, butt(postfix Xia) 2) some. pronominal prefix and postfix, in
unlike a suffix, they are attached to the whole word, and not to the stem.
The term postfix has two meanings: 1) any affix that comes after the root 2) affix,
standing after inflection and contrasted on this basis with a suffix.
4.(prefix combined with suffix,
materially expressed or zero): seaside, table, in a new way.
5. prefix-postfix method(prefix combined with postfix):
run away, take a walk.
6. Suffixal-postfixal way(suffix combined with postfix):
be proud, need.
The last three methods are called mixed. In mixed methods, the formant includes several word-forming means (for example, a suffix and a prefix).
Accordingly, the first three are unmixed.
7. Substantiation of adjectives and participles.
A formant is a system of inflections of a motivated word (noun),
which is part of the system of inflections of the motivating (adjective and
participles) a system of inflections of one grammatical gender or only plural
numbers: nouns sick, new, per diems .
Ways of forming words that have more than one motivating stem.
1. Addition(or pure addition) a derivative word is formed by combining
one or more stems of any part of speech with an independent word. The last component is the main one in addition, since it is he who is the carrier of morphological indicators. The composition of the word-formation format in pure addition includes: a) an interfix indicating the connection of the components of a compound word; b) a single main stress, mainly on the supporting component. Interfix can be null: Tsar Cannon.
2. Mixed the method of word formation is suffixally complex, or addition in combination with suffixation (materially expressed or zero): explorer, multilingual, bread cutter.
3. Fusion is a method of word formation, which differs from addition in that the words formed by this method, in all their forms in morphemic composition, are completely identical to a synonymous phrase and, thus, the syntactic connection of this phrase (connection of control or adjunction) is preserved as a living connection in the structure of the word motivated by him: insane, evergreen. The formant consists of: a) fixed order of components preposition of a subordinate component; b) a single main stress on the supporting component.
4. Abbreviation is a method of word formation that combines all types of compound and abbreviated formations. The formant includes: a) derivative (indifferent to morphemic division) truncation of the stems of the words included in the motivating phrase (the last of which may not be reduced). b) a system of inflections in accordance with the assignment of the abbreviation to one of the types of declension of nouns. For example: USSR, university, savings bank.
With fusion and abbreviation, the derivational meaning is conjunctive, as in pure addition.
There are also such mixed ways: prefixal-suffixal-postfixal
(joking around); prefix-complex ( appease) etc. There are also phenomena intermediate between abbreviation and addition ( pioneer camp).
In the formation of a derivative word, mutual adaptation of the connecting morphs often occurs. According to the laws of the Russian language, not all combinations of sounds are allowed on the border of morphemes. On the border of morphemes, four types of phenomena can occur: 1) alternation of phonemes (the end of one morph changes, adapting to the beginning of another).
2) interfination between two morphs, an insignificant (asemantic) interfix element is inserted. 3) superposition (or interference) of morphs, the end of one morph is combined with the beginning of another. 4) truncation of the generating stem, the end of the generating stem is cut off and is not included in the derived word.
Ticket number 29. Noun. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns.
Noun- a part of speech that combines words with the meaning of objectivity. Nouns can be names not only of specific objects, things, substances, living beings and organisms, phenomena of objective reality, but can also denote a wide variety of abstract properties and qualities ( courage, horror, achievement, blue), actions and states ( drinking, jumping, cleaning, resting).
Nouns are divided into two groups: proper and common nouns. Proper names are the names of single objects ( Pushkin, Moscow, Mars, Izvestia newspaper). Common names are generalized names of homogeneous objects, phenomena, actions, states ( pine, thunderstorm, walking, fatigue).
In a sentence, nouns act mainly as a subject and an object.
Almost every noun has its own gender:
General ( unapproachable, quiet)
Average
Male
Nouns in plural there is no gender, including plurale atantum (finance, trousers).
Some nouns denoting animals or the name of a person do not have a gender distinction. They are not related to indicating gender.
Gender-sex relationship of personal nouns.
Almost always, if the person is feminine, then the noun is feminine ( milkmaid). mediocrity - always feminine, as well as bastard. There are not many cases where a masculine noun can also refer to a feminine gender, for example: barbel, some kinship terms - Do you have grandchildren? Grandchildren are both women and men.
It may also depend on the number, context, and meaning. Although there are equivalent words of the feminine gender, the words of the masculine gender are mostly used. This is often found in professional vocabulary.
Some words resist: names by national residence ( Muscovite, American). Even in the environment of professional vocabulary - violinist, artist. In the plural, this phenomenon has progressed further ( Muscovites).
What Muscovite doesn't love the Kremlin?(depending on the context). Formal situations require the use of the masculine gender.
In animals, sometimes the opposite is true - the main name is feminine ( goat, cat)
General gender words.
The vast majority are colloquial words or emotionally colored ( slut, glutton, crybaby, dirty). This also applies orphan, not emotionally colored. Morphologically similar to feminine nouns. Despite the fact that the feminine gender can also denote, the defining words agree with them in different ways ( This dirty girl got her shirt dirty again). Petya is a terrible mess. In the position of the predicate, it can agree on the feminine gender. In proverbs and trends. words of the general gender begin to include words previously used only in the masculine gender: headman, head, judge, colleague.
About type matching:the doctor came, our doctor.
Two questions: 1) Are such combinations legal?
2) Is it possible to say that these are words of a general gender?
In the 19th century there were no such agreements. They appeared in the 20th century, in the 20s. Ten years later they began to say " young composer". A little earlier - Our friend received a letter". There may be mixed agreements. In the 20th century, women became more active and this led to the emergence of many feminine words. Gender indication is syntactic, or female doctor.
For a long time, this was viewed negatively. Agreement in the predicate is the norm. In indirect cases, you can not use f. R. Therefore, these are not common words.
Determination of generic affiliation.Grandfather grandmother- the same declension, but the gender is different. Words with a soft consonant can be both feminine and masculine. Declension depends on the gender, and not vice versa. Tulle, only - both are masculine.
In the 19th century words duel, cello were of both genders, as they were only just adapting to the language.
Special rules apply to indeclinable nouns:
Names of persons ( cure) - depends on the situation, meaning
If a common noun, inanimate, mostly neuter ( stew, cinema, bra).
There are exceptions: coffee - masculine gender (used in the 19th century. coffee), Hindi - masculine gender (since language.).
Animal names ( chimpanzee, kangaroo, pony) - they must be masculine, but depending on the context, they can be used in the feminine gender.
Names of cities, rivers ( Po, Juanhe, Oslo), the city is masculine, and the river is feminine.
There are difficult cases when, for example, a noun can be understood as a state or country: Somalia - the norm has not yet been established.
Abbreviations. In most cases, it depends on the gender of the stem noun ( UN - feminine, Moscow State University - masculine gender). If the word is not spelled, then it is perceived depending on the last letter, since the word lives an independent life, for example: NEP, registry office.
Dual gender - stack - stack, periphrase - periphrase, shutter - shutter.
Most of the nouns denote items that can be counted, and can be combined with quantitative nouns, that is, indicate the number of items.
Plurale attantum - them. n. pl. number;
Singulare attantum - them. p. units number;
Some lexical-semantic categories of nouns are associated with these two categories ( clay, milk, velvet- real; kids, leaves- collective; rudeness, kindness- abstracted).
When " snow, ice» in the plural, it does not mean the substance, but the space covered by this substance. This is also true for some abstract nouns (" beauty" - Beautiful places).
The plural (Plurale attantum) is very heterogeneous: debate, finance, oil products nouns that cannot be counted trousers, tongs, scissors can be counted as pairs. Here they denote specific objects that can be more than one in number and are used in the singular and plural, but they have the same form. Noun coat does not apply here, as it has matching words ( my/my coats).
Singular - when talking about one subject. The usual meaning of the singular form is the meaning of singularity. In some contexts, a generalized collective meaning (when it comes to a whole class, for example: Dolphins live in the same range as tuna). The book is the best gift(typical for proverbs); The sacrament is used…(scientific definition). Very often, for example, this usage: The audience liked the performance.
Distributive value - These umbrellas have a broken handle.
For the plural - the designation of dismemberment ( Cats surrounded me). The plural can denote the class of a single noun ( Cats are good animals). It can mean a set ( For the second we have mushrooms today). Name of nationalities ( Georgians live in the Caucasus). Designate paired items ( boots).
Expresses the exact relation of the designated object to other objects, to actions, states and signs.
There are 6 cases in Russian. All cases, except for the nominative, are used with prepositions - this is an integral unit of meaning ( harmful to the patient).
Case forms can have different meanings. There are no fixed values. Subject value ( the forest is noisy, no misfortune happened, mom can’t sleep, we are invited by the dean).
Basic meanings of cases:
Nominative case - the original form of the word. In this form, the noun is used for the name, name of a person, object, phenomenon. In this case it is always worth subject. In the same case, the nominal part of the predicate can stand. In the nominative case, there is also the main member of a one-part sentence.
Genitive - It is used both after verbs and after names. The verbal genitive case indicates an object if the transitive verb has a negation with it, if the action passes not to the whole object, but to part of it; this case also has the meaning of absence, deprivation.
The genitive case also indicates a number of attributive relations: belonging, the relationship of the whole to the part, qualitative assessment, etc.
Nouns in gender. cases used in the comparative form of adjectives denote the object being compared.
Dative - more often after verbs, sometimes after a noun. It is used mainly to refer to the person or object to which the action is directed. In impersonal sentences, the dative case can name a person or object that experiences the state expressed by the predicate.
Accusative - mainly used with verbs. The main meaning is to express with transitive verbs an object to which the action passes completely ( catch perches). Can be used to express quantity, space, distance, time ( all summer, every day).
Creative case - It is used with both verbs and nouns. The instrumental case has the main meaning of the instrument or means of action ( drive with a twig). It can have the meaning of place, time, space, image and mode of action, can represent the producer of the action ( written by me).
The instrumental predictive case is used to express the nominal part of the compound predicate ( was a doctor).
The nominative instrumental case is used with nouns with the meaning of an instrument of action, rarely a mode of action ( sing tenor); with adjectives to indicate the area of manifestation of a feature with the meaning of restriction ( famous for discoveries).
Prepositional - it is used both with verbs and with nouns, but only with prepositions about, about, about - the subject of thought, speech;
in, in - an indication of the place, space, object, within or within which the action is performed;
on - surface, limit of action, state;
at - being close, in the presence of someone.
Prepositional adjective: o - thought, speech, report;
at - place;
in - place, space, object.
Declension of nouns.
Declension classification.
Substantive declension - typical for nouns in units. including etc. tv. monophonic cases. ending
Adjective declension is typical for adjectives, but there are also substantives ( patty).
The mixed declension is similar to both the substantive and the adjective. There are no one-phoneme endings in the adjective. The mixed declension includes typically Russian surnames. Them. case - Pushkin, in oblique cases - Pushkin. In the masculine gender, too, a mixture. The words "draw" ( draw), "maiden" ( girlish).
In scientific grammar, the 2nd declension is -a-, and the 1st is “field, table”.
Differing - "way" and -me-.
There are options: changes in the basis, a change in stress in the formation of case forms.
1st declension -u- for masculine: a piece of cheese is a piece of cheese. Semantic factor: -y-
characteristic of real nouns. This does not happen with any case meaning, but only 1) with a partitive meaning; 2) in combination with some prepositions;
3) in such cases as people, rabble; 4) specific nouns: forest, house, floor, hour, nose; 5) in certain combinations with prepositions + adverbial meanings. Here the ending -у- is almost always optional. In the 20th century, this phenomenon is on the wane.
The ending -у- is obligatory in cases of diminutive use ( cognac - cognac), as well as in specific nouns, if the stress falls on the preposition - in other cases, -у- is optional.
The ending -у- can be in phraseological combinations: Our regiment has arrived; in your lifetime.
Maybe also, in examples like: on oak - on oak. Necessarily - on the forehead, at the post. Some cases have options: on the bridge on the bridge.
Our Sweaters Our Sweaters. Basic ending -a-. Since the middle of the 19th century, the number of such words has increased, this is especially true for professorial speech.
There is no old form in -y- ( meadows, masters, evenings). Some words have variants of use: years - years, conductors - conductors, poodles - poodles.
Sometimes the ending shows the difference in the meanings of the word : in a circle / in a circle, images / images, flowers / colors.
Genitive plural : five kilograms / five kilograms;
Name of persons by nationality ( many Buryats - many Buryats);
Name of persons by belonging to military units ( hussar - hussar);
Names of some items no stockings no stockings);
Some vegetables: tomatoes, oranges, tangerines ... ( kilogram of tomato/tomatoes).
There are indeclinable nouns ( bra, kangaroo, attache, taxi, blinds…).
Lost declension cases ( Shevchenko, Monyushko).
Some geographical names: Borodino, Pargolovo, Levashevo, Ogaryovo…
Ticket number 33. Adjective. Lexico - grammatical categories. Declension of adjectives.
Adjective - part of speech that combines words that indicate a sign of an object and answer questions which? whose?
Morphological features of adjectives are their variability by gender, number and case. Unlike nouns, the forms of gender, number and case in adjectives are not independent, since they completely depend on the gender, number and case of those nouns with which these adjectives are agreed.
In a sentence, adjectives can be a definition or a nominal part of a compound predicate, for example: The weather has been fine. The weather is fine.
Qualitative adjectives are distinguished (indicating the attribute of an object directly: big, good quality, light), relative (indicating a sign through the relation of an object to other objects: gas stove, brick house), and possessive (indicating ownership: mother's sister, bear's lair).
As a rule, quality adjectives have two forms: full ( beautiful view) and short ( the view is beautiful).
Short adjectives sometimes acquire a new lexical meaning, different from the meanings of full adjectives. Adjectives such as happy, much and so on are used only in short form.
Declension of adjectives.
Full adjectives in the singular change according to gender, number and case, i.e. bow down. In the plural, they do not change by gender, and the case endings of all three genders are the same: gold rings, bracelets, earrings.
There are three types of adjective declension:
1) declension of qualitative and relative adjectives;
2) declension of possessive adjectives with a basis on -й: fox, bear;
3) declension of possessive adjectives with suffixes -in (-yn), -ov, (ev): mother, lisitsin, fathers, bakers.
Adjectives of the first type of declension, according to the nature of the last consonant of the stem, are divided into groups: adjectives that have a hard consonant before the end (hard declension), adjectives that have a soft consonant before the ending (soft declension), adjectives whose stem ends in g, k, x, or hissing (mixed variety of declension): alive, new; winter; elastic; small, dry, hot, large.
Singular.
Solid variety.
M. r. Wed R. J. r.
AND. new new new
R. new new new
D. new new new
B. new new new
or new new
T. new new new (ooh)
P. about new about new about new
Soft variety.
M. r. Wed R. J. r.
AND. blue blue blue
R. blue blue blue
D. blue blue blue
V. blue blue blue
T. blue blue blue (by her)
P. about blue about blue about blue
Adjectives of the masculine and neuter gender in all cases have the same endings, except for the nominative and accusative. The form of the accusative case coincides with the genitive or nominative, depending on the animateness - inanimateness of the noun with which it agrees: to see a beautiful girl, to see a beautiful landscape.
Plural lo.
And . new gold blue
R. new gold blue
D. new golden blue
B. new gold blue
new gold blue
T. new gold blue
P. about the new gold blues
The forms of the accusative case in the plural, as well as in the singular, depend on animation - inanimateness: to see beautiful children is to see beautiful landscapes.
Adjectives in g, k, x mixed varieties of declension have hard and soft bases: elastic and elastic.
The peculiarities of the declension of adjectives with a basis in sibilant are due to modern spelling (after sibilant, only u, a, and and not written yu, i s) and appear only in writing.
Adjectives with stem ending in -й ( fox, bear, wolf) vary by gender, number and case. In the masculine nominative case, they have a zero ending, in the neuter -e, in the feminine -i, in the plural -i: fox, fox, fox. In other cases, the endings of such adjectives coincide with the endings of the soft declension type of qualitative and relative adjectives.
Possessive adjectives with the suffixes -in (yn), -ov (ev) have endings characteristic of nouns and adjectives. Adjectives of the masculine and neuter gender singular in all cases, except for instrumental and prepositional, have endings characteristic of nouns ( father's word, father's word, father's word). In the instrumental and prepositional cases, their endings are similar to those of adjectives ( -th, -th). Feminine adjectives in the nominative and accusative cases have endings similar to those of nouns ( -a), in other cases - with adjectives (- oh). In the nominative and accusative cases of plural possessive adjectives, the endings are the same as for nouns ( -s), in other cases - as in adjectives ( -th, -th, -th, -th). For adjectives with a suffix -in genitive and dative masculine and neuter forms (-a, -y) are replaced by forms with endings of adjectives (wow, wow): sister (cf. big table) - sister; sister (cf. big table) - sister.
Male Russian surnames for -ov (ev), -in (un) in the instrumental singular and plural have endings, respectively -th, -th, i.e. inflections of adjectives: Nekrasov - Nekrasov, Pushkin - Pushkin. This does not apply to the names of settlements formed from proper names.
Ticket number 34. Short and full adjectives. Degrees of comparison of adjectives.
Short forms can only be formed from adjectives with a qualitative meaning, but there are exceptions: adjectives in - sky (friendly, comradely etc.), as well as adjectives like retarded, retarded, tired.
In the singular, the generic ending for the masculine gender will be the zero ending, for example: strong - strong, affectionate - affectionate, for feminine - ending -a- ( strong, gentle), for the middle gender - the ending -о- ( strong, beautiful). There are no gender differences in the plural, there will be an ending -ы-, -и- ( beautiful, close). If the stem of a full adjective has 2 consonants at the end, then when short masculine adjectives are formed, a fluent sound o / e sometimes appears between them ( rare, eternal).
There is a group of adjectives in which variance is observed when forming the masculine form. These are adjectives in -tive ( natural, natural); they can end in -en, or -enen: characteristic - characteristic, natural - natural. However, the variance does not always appear: countless - countless, meaningless - meaningless.
Short forms have control: they are rich in vitamins(but not rich) he is deaf to requests(but not deaf). This river is shallow/shallow for a shipping company.
Short forms denote a sign of an object (at a certain time): it is healthy - it is healthy. But this does not always happen: Vasya is polite - Vasya is polite.
Short adjectives also indicate the excessiveness of the feature ( wide trousers - wide trousers). They may have stylistic differences: short forms are more characteristic of book speech. Short forms are more categorical, cutting.
Degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives.
There are two degrees of comparison of adjectives in Russian: comparative and superlative. The positive degree is the initial form for the formation of the main degrees of comparison. The name is an adjective in a comparative degree, a quality characteristic of a given object to a greater or lesser extent in comparison with the same qualities in other objects, as well as in comparison with the qualities that this object possessed or will possess in the future. The superlative adjective indicates the highest degree of quality in an item compared to the same qualities in other similar items. The superlative form can be used as a means of comparing some quality only in homogeneous, similar objects, while the comparative degree is a means of comparing some quality or the same object at different times of its existence.
The formation of superlatives.
Superlative forms of qualitative adjectives are also syntactic and analytical. The syntactic form of the superlative degree is formed using the suffixes -eysh, -aysh. The forms for these suffixes have 3 meanings: 1) the ultimate, absolute degree of quality, attribute. This value is called elative. Similar forms are used in different styles of book speech. In colloquial speech, they are used only in separate phraseological combinations ( the kindest soul, the greatest artist); 2) the value of the highest degree of quality compared to others. This meaning is similar to that of the descriptive superlative form ( most). Otherwise, this value is called superlative; 3) the value of the comparative degree. This meaning is not typical for the modern Russian language; it has been preserved in turns of the type upon closer inspection.
Compound superlatives are formed in two ways: firstly, with the help of additional words most, greatest, least added to the original form of adjectives; second, by adding words everyone, everything to the comparative form.
Complex shapes with words most, least are used mainly in official business, journalistic styles of speech; forms with the word most- neutral, used in different styles of speech.
Compound superlatives can be formed from all qualitative adjectives; Not all adjectives have simple forms. Many adjectives with the suffix -ast, -ist ( heady, fibrous)-to ( brittle), -esk ( friendly),-l ( skillful), -ov, -ev ( honey, combat). Complex forms of superlatives can be formed from them.
Ways of forming a comparative degree.
There are two main ways to form a comparative degree: 1) suffixes -ee (s) and -e ( friendlier, more expensive) is a syntactic, or simple way.
2) Words more, less- analytical method, or complex (descriptive).
Synthetic forms are equally used in all styles of speech, while analytical forms are used most often in official, business, scientific styles.
Forms of the comparative degree are sometimes complicated by the prefix -po to soften the degree of predominance of quality over the form of the comparative degree in the usual way (large expression - colloquial speech). From adjectives with stem to g, k, x, d, t, st, c forms of the comparative degree are formed with the help of the now unproductive suffix -e. In this case, an alternation of consonants is observed: expensive - more expensive.
Adjectives used in the synthetic form of comparison do not change in gender, number and case, they do not agree, they do not agree with nouns.
In a sentence, the synthetic form of the comparative degree most often serves as a predicate and less often as a definition. The analytical form, which includes a full adjective, usually acts as a definition in a sentence, although it can also be a predicate.
If a short adjective is included in the complex form of the degree of comparison, then it is a predicate and, as a rule, the union “what” is used when not.
Separate adjectives ( cumbersome, businesslike, prickly etc.) do not have a synthetic form of the degree of comparison. The form of the degree of comparison can be formed from them only analytically.
Individual adjectives form forms suppletive, that is, from other roots: good is better, bad is worse and so on.
Ticket number 35. Numeral. Discharges. Features of declension and combinations with nouns.
The class of words that are the name of the number of objects expressed in numbers, as well as their order in terms of number, is called the numeral name. These include only words in which quantitative concepts are expressed using numbers, that is, generally accepted units of account. The content of their quantitative attribute is specified and concretized only after the addition of subject words to them ( eight books, fifteen days etc.).
Discharges and features of declension and combination with nouns:
1) Definitely - quantitative - denote the amount presented in the form of a certain number of items ( six pencils), or a countable concept abstracted from specific objects ( six more than five)*
Examples (cl. + combinations with noun);
numeral one varies by gender, number, and case, and agrees with noun. like an adjective.
Numbers. two three four(and composite numerals that have at the end two three four): in them. case govern R. p. units. h. nouns ( two tables, three handles), and in other cases, agreement with the noun, which is always used in the form of plural. numbers ( two tables, two tables);
But: in wine. case inanimate = I. p. animate = R.p ( photographed two houses, photographed two athletes) - this rule is not distributed. on comp. numbers that end with two three four.
Numerals from five before twenty and thirty have noun endings 3 cl. In complex numbers from fifty before eighty and from two hundred before nine hundred both sides are inclined fifty)
* By structure: 1) simple - single-root words ( one, eight, ten); 2) complex - the addition of two or three words ( twelve, twenty, two hundred); 3) compound, formed by a combination of several individual words ( twenty one, one hundred forty five).
The combination of cardinal numbers with nouns person, year, years:
I. 1) In combination with a noun human appears in all case forms plural. numbers. Not the basis people, and the basis human(five persons);
2) With numerals. one in all cases the word is used year. It also combines with noun. year all compound numerals that have numerals. one (one hundred and one years);
3) With num. two three four, one and a half in R. p. word form years; in other cases - the word year acc. pad. forms ( one and a half years).
II. Uncertain - quantitative - number - in expressed as indefinite. numbers ( many days, several minutes): a little, how much, so much.
Semantic and structural originality counts. a little, a lot of determined by their correlation with adverbs ( write little, know a lot). In the proposal neop. - quantities. numerals form together with nouns. syntactically indecomposable unit. (according to Vinogradov).
3) Collective - denote the number of objects as a whole, in their totality ( four students, three soldiers) and, like substantivized words, have a certain degree of objectivity ( three in gray overcoats, seven do not wait for one). Collect. counts. use only with masculine names two students). In I. p. they require a noun in the form of R. p. pl. numbers. They are used with nouns that have only a plural form. numbers ( five days) + with nouns that are considered pairs ( two gloves). Collective nouns are words both(for male and medium gender),
both(for female gender) ( both windows, both daughters), in them. case governs R. p. units. numbers ( both brothers, both sisters).
4) Fractional - a kind of quantitative, but they do not denote integers, but such fractional quantities that are either more or less than a counting unit - tsy ( an hour and a half, half an hour, three-fifths and so on). When declining fractional numbers, both parts change. The noun with fractional numbers in all cases always stands in R. p. units. numbers ( two fifths of a meter, one fifth of a gram). In declination from fractional. num. the word stands out one and a half, cat. for m. and cf. genus has the form one and a half(in im. and v. case), and in other cases - one and a half. With the words kind of used form one and a half(penny) (named and wine. Pad.) and one and a half(kopecks) - in other cases.
5) Ordinal - denote the sequence occupied by objects when they are counted ( fifth car, sixth place);
a) actually - ordinal, denoting the ordinal number ( second story);
b) qualitatively - ordinal, close in meaning to adjectives. Ex - ie First experience more indicates a qualitative sign (uncertain, maybe not quite successful, etc.).
Ordinal numbers change by gender, number and case. When declining composite ordinal numbers. only the last numeral changes, which agrees with the noun. in gender, number and case. Rest parts of comp. order counts. used in the form I. case ( I'm reading page three hundred and forty nine).
Ticket number 36. Pronouns. Classes of pronouns. Features of the declension of pronouns.
1.* A class of demonstrative words, characterized by a generalized - objective meaning (he, someone), generalized - qualitative and generalized - quantitative value ( such, that, mine, so much) is called a pronoun. Denoting objects and signs, pronouns only point to them ( he, that, so much). The syntactic function of pronouns depends on their meaning. pronouns (with the exception of I, you) are used in speech as substitutes for words - names (the term itself indicates this: “instead of a name”). In their lexical meaning and grammatical structure, pronouns are correlated with nouns, adjectives and numerals. Acting as their morphological synonyms, pronouns are divided into a trace. groups:
1) generalized - subject pronouns - in their meaning correspond to nouns, but do not name objects, but only point to them ( I, you, we, you, they, yourself, who, what, nobody, nothing, someone, something, someone, something, something).
2) Generalized - qualitative pronouns - are identical in morphological structure with adjectives + correspond to them in meaning. These pronouns indicate the qualities and properties of objects ( mine, yours, yours, this, which, which, some, etc.).
3) Generalized - quantitative pronouns - correspond in meaning and functions to quantitative numerals ( how many, how many, several). Example: I bought five books, he bought the same number.
Pronoun ranks + declension features:
1) Personal ( I, you, we, you) + personally - demonstrative ( he, she, it, they).
Them. P. I you we you V. p. me you us you
R. p. me you us you T. p. me you us you
D. p. me to you to us to you P. p. about me about you about us about you
a) All Russian personal pronouns in indirect cases have different roots and a peculiar declension.
b) Before the forms of the dative and instrumental case of pronouns, prepositions to, from, before, over have a final vowel about (to me).
c) Before a pronoun I in the prepositional case, the preposition is used both (about me).
d) The form of V. p. of the 3rd person is always equal to R. p.
e) 3rd person pronoun after prepositions (except: outside, thanks to, due to, in spite of, according to, towards) has a sound at the beginning n.
Personal pronouns numbers express gender forms with the help of generic forms of the predicate (in past tense or subjunctive inflect): I/you came, I/you came.
2) Reflexive pronoun: myself. It refers only to the subject of the action; doesn't have them. case (because not independently, but only indicates the relationship of each of the three persons to itself); has neither the category of gender nor the category of number. R. p. - myself, D. p. - yourself, V. p. - myself, etc. - yourself, P. p. - About Me.
3) According to Shelyakin's classification: mutually - reflexive pronoun: each other. It has no gender, number, Im. case. Only the second part declines (as an animated noun 2 declination). Prepositions are always placed before the inflected part: R. p. each other, D. p. each other etc.
4) Possessive - indicate that an object belongs to a person ( my, our- first, yours, yours- second, mine- belonging to any acting person) and answer questions whose? whose? whose? whose? Possessive pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person agree with the name of the subject in gender, number, case. Possessive pronouns also include genitive forms: him, her, them- do not change in cases ( his apartment).
5) Indicative - indicate objects or their qualities ( that, this, such, such, this, this). In the sentence they act as definitions and agree with nouns in gender, number and case + in phraseological combination such - such obsolete demonstrative pronoun retained any. Have a special declension:
Them. P. this / that this / that these / those
R. p. this / that this / that these / those
D. p. this / that this / that this / that
V. p. = Im. p. R. p. Im. p. / R. p.
T. p. this / that this / those these / those
P. p. about this / about this / about these / about those
6) Determinative ( all, himself, the most, every, different, each) are generalized qualitative definitions. They agree with the nouns they refer to in gender, number, and case. Features in declension has a pronoun whole:
Them. P. all all all all
R. p. Total all of all
D. p. to all to all to all
V. p. Im. p. p. p. all Them. etc. P.
T. p. all all all all
P. p. about everything!about all about all
7) Interrogative - relative - who, what, which, what, which, which whose, how much, + which, which, to whom(outdated). They designate: 1 - a question about an object, about the quality of an object, about belonging, about the number of objects, about the place that an object occupies;
2) that a subordinate clause associated with or with the main clause refers to the noun or demonstrative pronoun of the main clause - can be called relative. Pronoun who? and what? Do not change in numbers and genders; words associated with a pronoun in a sentence who? masculine singular is used. numbers, but with a pronoun what?- cf. kind of unit numbers. Pronouns which? which the? whose? change in gender, number and case. Pronoun How many? It does not change in numbers and genders. In the nominative case, it has the ending -o and requires R. p. pl. the number of the noun (how many books?), and in other cases it agrees with the cases of plural nouns. h.
8) Indefinite - indicate existing, but unknown, indefinite persons and objects, their qualities, properties ( someone, something, some, some, someone - something, something, some - that, someone's, something - something, something - someone's). Pronouns someone and something do not bow, the rest (except some) are declined in the same way as the corresponding indefinite ones ( someone, someone, someone) or defined ( some, some). This group includes phrases: none other than etc. They differ from other topics and are specified in the proposal.
9) Negative - indicate the complete absence of an object, as a subject or object of action, quality or attribute of an object ( no one, nothing, no one, nothing, none). They are declined as their corresponding interrogatives.
Negative pronouns with not - (no one, nothing) do not have the form of Him. case.
Ticket number 37. The verb is a part of speech. Conjugation of verbs. Bases of verbs and forms formed from them. verb classes.
1) The verb is a part of speech, i.e. a class of words expressing an action or state as a process and characterized by certain morphologically (i.e., in the very structure of a single word) expressed categories. Verbs are characteristic of the category grammatical categories of voice, aspect, tense, mood, person, number and gender (in past tense and subjunctive) + non-conjugated forms - infinitive, participle and gerund ( Ticket number 43 ).
The verb changes in person and number only present and future tenses, the indicative mood, and the imperative mood. The verb has three moods (imperative, subjunctive and indicative) and three forms of tense (present, past and bud.), which are characteristic only of the indicative mood. All verbs have aspect category. Personal endings of verbs, starting from the 2nd person singular. numbers differ in two conjugations - 1 - mu and 2 - mu.
2) Personal endings of verbs.
1 conjugation 2 conjugation
1 - e l. - u (u) - em (u) - u (u) - im
2 - e l. - eat (eat) - eat (eat) - ish - ite
3 - e l. - em (et) - ut (yut) - it - at (yat)
Conjugated verbs: run away and to want (partly according to the first conjugation, partly according to the second)
Unit plural number. number Unit. plural number. number
1 - e l. running run want want
2 - e l. running run if you want
3 - e l. running run want want
3) Verbal forms are usually formed from two stems:
1) Basics of the infinitive: do, carry, meet.
2) Basics of the 3rd person pl. numbers: see, lie, do(the basis of present tense). The stem of the infinitive usually ends in a vowel, while the stem of the present tense ends in a consonant.
The infinitive stem is the part of the word without the infinitive suffix (- t, - ty, - whose)
From the stem of the infinitive are formed:
Past temp. ( draw - draw-l);
Subjunctive mood ( draw - would draw);
Communion past. time ( draw - draw);
The participle of owls. kind ( draw - draw-in).
Present tense basis or the future simple tense is a part of a word without the ending of the 3rd person plural. numbers. From the basis of present. time are formed:
All personal forms of the indicative mood (with and without alternation of consonants in the stem);
All personal forms of the imperative mood ( chitaj- ut, read, readj- let them read);
Present participles ( read - reading);
Imperfect participle ( reading - reading).
4) Verb classes.
The classes differ in what indicators are both in the infinitive and in the present tense before these endings. A distinction must be made between productive and unproductive classes.
Productive:
1st class: infinitive stem on -a, present stem in -аj ( read - read, read);
2nd class: stem of the infinitive in - e, present stem in -еj ( hurt - sick, sick);
3rd grade: stem of the infinitive in - ova(after soft consonants and hissing -eva), present tense stem in -уj ( draw - draw, draw);
4th grade: the stem of the infinitive contains a suffix -well-, stem present tense -n-( push - push, push);
5th grade: at the end of the stem of the infinitive, the indicator -i- (before - be), based on the present tense in the 2nd and 3rd person singular. numbers, in 1st and 2nd person pl. numbers - also -and-, and in the 3rd person plural. numbers -a- after soft consonants, in 1 person unit. numbers -u- after soft consonants or sibilants ( cook - cook, cook, cook).
The first four classes belong to the first conjugation, the fifth - to the second.
Unproductive:
1st: in the stem of the infinitive, the indicator -а- (does not belong to /\), which is absent in the stem of the present tense ( take - take, plow - plow, bark - bark, wait - wait);
2nd: a combination of -ere- (at the root) before suf. infinitive -т and solid -р- (in / \) at the end of the stem of the present tense ( rub - rub, die - die);
3rd: in the infinitive -olo-, -oro- (at the root) and soft -l- at the end of the stem of the present tense ( prick - prick, fight - fight);
4th: -a- belongs to /\, at the root of the infinitive stem, after a soft consonant or sibilant and tv. nasal consonant (belongs to the root) in the root of the stem present. time ( reap - reap, reap - reap, start - start);
5th grade: the vowel in the root before the infinitive ending -т and the indicator -н- (does not belong to the root) in the root of the stem of the present tense ( become - I will become, child - day);
6th grade: -well- at the root of the stem of the infinitive, -n- at the root of the stem of the present tense. But -well- is absent in the past tense ( freeze - freeze - freeze).
7th grade: -i- (after soft), -s- (after hard), -e- (applied to the root) at the root of the main. inf. -th- (prin. to the root) at the root of the base of the crust. time ( drink - drink, beat - beat, wash - my)
8th grade: -i- or -y- (principal root) before suf. infinitive and -й- (after the vowel) and -й- in the root of the stem of the present tense (after the same vowels of the root) ( rot - rot, blow - blow);
9th grade: suf. -va- after a vowel in the root at the base of the infinitive and -y- (after the vowel at the root) at the base of the present. time ( give - give, get up - get up).
10th grade: and (s) (belongs to the root) in the root of the stem of the infinitive and in after the same vowel in the present tense stem ( live - live, swim - swim);
11th grade: suf. inf. -ti (rarely -t), which is preceded by acc. With , the stem of the infinitive ends in a solid consonant (belongs to the root) ( carry - carry, carry - carry);
12th grade: the ending of the infinitive -ch, the basis of present. time, ending on posterior palate acc. (belongs to root) ( oven - bake, protect - shore). All these unproductive classes are part of the 1st conjugation. And the 2nd conjugation includes the 13th and 14th classes:
13th: the stem of the infinitive contains the indicator -e- (does not belong to the root) ( burn - burn - burn, creak - creak - creak);
14th: the stem of the infinitive contains the indicator -а- (does not belong to the root) ( be silent - silent - silent - silent, afraid - afraid - afraid).
view category- this is a grammatical category of a verb, consisting of the opposition of verbs with common meanings expressing "a holistic action limited by reaching the limit" and "non-integral action unlimited by reaching the limit or the absence of the limit", as well as "action without a specific aspect characteristic".
Every Russian verb in any verbal form has a species form (perfect or imperfect). There are: 1) paroform verbs - have perfect and imperfect forms ( decide - perfect look and decide - imperfect), express the same lexical meaning. 2) monotonous - either owls. view, or carry. view ( sit, lie down nesov. view, lie down - owls. species), they express such lexical meanings that do not allow the formation of a species pair. 3) two-species - their appearance differs in the context ( He was recommended by the chairman of the collective farm - owls. view. At the meeting, he was recommended as a good specialist - nesov. view.). These include: a) non-prefixed verbs in - irritate, - izirovat, - fit (telegraph, electrify);
b) a number of non-prefixed verbs in - ovate (start, pass, give);
c) a number of prefixed verbs in - ovate (influence, explore, agree);
d) some non-prefixed verbs of the second conjugation ( marry (marry), injure (injure), execute, command (command)).
I. Perfective verbs ( read) have only two forms of tense: past ( read) and the future is simple ( I will read). These verbs indicate that their action has reached its limit * (completed within the limits of this limit), and thus I represent the action in its entirety, as a single indivisible act.
* The limit of action can be (i.e. used to denote):
a) foreseen / unpredicted k. - either the result, respectively. the nature of the action itself paint - paint (walls));
b) the time limit of a certain duration of action ( sleep, shout);
c) time limits of the initial or final phase of the action ( start - start, cry, make noise);
d) extreme limit or excessive degree of development of intensity, duration, duration or repetition of action ( cry out, dream, walk up).
Private values:
e) d / designation of the denial of the achievement of the result, or the denial of the expected action ( he did not solve the problem - although the action itself was);
e) in stories to indicate the sequence of action ( He returned, slowly undressed and went to bed.).
Only with perfective verbs are usually combined adverbs with the meaning of performing an action in one go, in its entirety ( immediately, suddenly, instantly), prepositional - case forms with the value of the amount of time within which a fully effective action is carried out ( do the job in two hours).
The perfective verbs include the following: 1) groups of non-prefixed verbs: a) all verbs with the suffix -nu- in the sense of an instantaneous single action ( move, shout);
b) the following 13 verbs in -it: throw, bless, end, buy, shell-shock, deprive, captivate, let go, forgive, decide, set foot, grab, appear;
c) 6 root verbs -a -t, and -e -t: give, child, lie down, sit down, become, fall.
2) Prefixed verbs: (formed using prefixes from non-prefixed verbs) read, read, shout.
II. Imperfect verbs ( read) have three forms of tense: present ( I read), past ( was reading) and future complex ( I will read). These verbs indicate that their action has not reached its limit, or does not have a limit at all in its implementation, and thus represent the action in its incompleteness, as conjugated with its carrier. Imperfect verbs are used for:
a) designation of an action in the process of its direct implementation (at the moment of speech (d / forms of the present tense), at the moment of the past, at the moment of the future: What are you doing tomorrow?);
b) to denote unlimited recurrence, commonness ( I go to school every day);
constant duration of action ( I used to live in another city; Volga flows south);
c) to denote a permanent ability, skill, sv - va to carry out an action ( birds fly, I can play the guitar);
d) to designate an action in its presence or absence as a fact in the past or future (without indicating a specific specific nature and time of occurrence):
Actions in general have you read this novel?);
When clarifying the details of the implementation of an action as a fact that has already been or is expected ( what medicine did you take today?);
e) in stories to indicate the simultaneity of an action (she was sitting and reading), or an action in one of the moments of which an action of a perfect type takes place ( I was sitting at the table when someone knocked on the door.).
Imperfect verbs include:
1) non-prefixed verbs in their majority ( write, read);
2) prefixed: verbs with the prefix -so, in the sense of jointly perform an action ( compassionate) + verbs consist, contain;
Verbs with the prefix -pred, meaning "ahead, in advance" ( foresee, foresee);
Verbs with - without ( sit back)
Verbs with historically distinguished prefixes ( manage, depend pursue, manage and etc.)
In which the suffix -iva- / -yva-, -va-, -a- form an imperfect form from prefixed verbs of the perfect form ( to sow - to sow).
transitive verbs- verbs that can carry a direct object expressed in the accusative case ( pilot driving a car).
intransitive- verbs that cannot carry a direct object expressed in the accusative case ( boy sleeping).
Accordingly, valid and passive pledge. Constructions with active verbs are called active, and with verbs of the passive voice - passive.
Passive forms are formed only from transitive verbs. Passive forms are divided into simple and complex. Simple passive forms are formed from transitive imperfective verbs by adding a postfix (reflexive particle) -sya (s):
a) to the infinitive ( build - build);
b) to the basis of the present tense of the 3rd person, singular. and many others. numbers ( build - build; build - build);
c) to all forms (generic and numerical) past. temp. ( built - built, built - built);
d) when forming the future complex tense - to the infinitive ( will build - will be built).
Complex passive forms are formed from transitive perfective verbs and consist of an auxiliary verb to be (was, will be, would be) and a short passive participle of the perfect form (with suf. - en, -n, -t), which vary only in numbers and genders.
Particle -sya, joining the verb form, gives it an intransitive meaning. But there are other meanings too:
1) returnable; the action is directed at the actor himself, who is both the subject and the object ( wash, dress);
2) the action comes from the subject, but does not cover him (or only partially touches him), and at the same time, the object either does not exist at all, or it is only partially covered by the action ( look around, keep);
3) the action (or state) is closed in the subject himself (we can talk about both physical actions and mental states) ( to hurry, to rejoice, to be surprised).
4) an action characteristic of a given subject, presented as its permanent property ( dog bites, nettles burn).
In the morphological structure of the Russian language, temporal relations are expressed in the tense forms of the verb. There are three tenses in Russian - present, past and future. Imperfective verbs have all three tenses, while perfective verbs have only the future and the past.
Present tense:
1) expresses an action that coincides with the moment of speech
2) an action that is constantly taking place, at any time (coinciding with the moment of speech) ( Do you have anyone?)
3) e / expression of actions (states) that took place in the past ( I remember when my mother was still healthy, she works on the chestnut, and I ... lie on my back and look high ...)
4) d / expressions of forthcoming, expected actions (i.e. related to the future) ( Let's go to sea tomorrow)
Dop - but! In additional appendage. suggestion present time has a relative meaning (expresses the relation of the process to the time of the implementation of another process, expressed by another verb), defining time in relation to the time expressed by the predicate of the main sentence, i.e. here the present tense expresses an action simultaneous with the action of the main sentence ( Bidenko pulled himself up to him in his arms and saw that the boy was sleeping.).
The present tense is expressed by personal forms of the verb: do, do, do.
Future tense of the verb:
The future tense is expressed in the simple form of perfective verbs ( read, write) and a complex (analytical) form, which is a combination of an auxiliary verb that changes according to persons will and infinitive d / verbs nes. kind ( I will read, I will write) + other verbs are also used in the role of auxiliary, combined with inf. species ( I will start), but the value can already be not only for the expression of the beginning in the future, but also for the expression of the beginning in the past ( began to write).
Use:
The future tense of the species is to express the action of the upcoming, subsequent in relation to the moment of speech (unlimited) ( And I will not be silent).
The future of owls of the form - e / expression of the action of the upcoming, but at the same time limited, having a limit ( By then I'll be up; I'll go in the summer)
2) in segments where the narration is conducted in a tense tense, expressing the past, but at the same time specifically for the transmission of an action that is repeated, but each time instantly completed by it.
3) in the form of 2 persons unit. numbers used. in a generalized sense (in the sense of an action that is constantly taking place, referred to any actor in certain conditions or to any actor belonging to a known category ( On a hike, for example, you come to a town: what do you want to do? ... Involuntarily you go to a tavern and start playing billiards)
Past tense:
It is formed from the stem of the infinitive by adding the suffix -l to the last one and the endings of gender and number ( write - wrote - wrote - wrote).
Forms past. tense from verbs with the stem of the present tense in acc. and is formed with the help of suf. -l, which is attached to the root vowel ( lead - lead - led - led - led - led)
Masculine forms of the past tense from verbs ending in the infinitive in -sti (-зти), or –ч, having any consonants at the end of the stem of the present tense (except t, d), do not have the suffix -l- ( carry - carry - carried - carried; protect - protect - protect - protect).
From verbs in -nut:
a) in the meaning of instantaneous, one-act arr - Xia, as a general rule, from the stem of the infinitive with the help of the suffix -l- ( shout - shouted)
b) the meaning of “gradually acquire a sign” or do not have the meaning of instantaneity, arr-Xia without -well-, but masculine forms singular. numbers - without -l- after the consonant in the root ( go out - go out - go out - go out).
The past tense expresses an action in the past.
In parallel with the designs from the present. tense can be used past tense owls. in.; in the meaning of a state referred to the present time, which is the result of an action completed in the past ( ... I am alone, sitting by the window; gray clouds covered the sky, the sun seems like a yellow spot through the fog)
The past perfect tense is used in the sense of the future tense when it comes to a categorical statement of an action that should occur immediately after the way it is expressed verbally ( Well, I'm going = I'm going now).
Dop - but! with a particle used to, with particle It was(an action that could have happened, but did not happen, as well as an action that began and was interrupted).
Mood- a grammatical category that expresses the relation of an action (or state) to reality (or rather, not the action itself, but the connection that is established in the sentence between the action and the subject producing this action, or between the state and the subject experiencing this state.
In modern Russian, three moods are morphologically distinguished: indicative, imperative and subjunctive. Sometimes the indicative mood is called direct, and the other two are called indirect.
indicative the inclination expresses what is actually happening, has happened, or will happen.
imperative the inclination expresses a command or request. It is formed from the basis of the present (or simple future) tense and is characterized by a special personal ending of the 2nd person singular. numbers or alternation in the basis (go, take, disappear). Second person sg. numbers are characterized by the ending -i, adjacent directly to the base, or by the zero ending.
Zero ending 2nd person unit. numbers in the imperative mood in verbs such as: I read - read, heat - heat, cut - cut, cook - cook, sing - sing, beat - beat - beat, bake - bake, lie down - lie down, pour - pour.
The form of the 2nd person plural imperative is formed from the form of the 2nd person singular. numbers by joining to the last ending -te: carry - carry, get up - get up, lie down - lie down.
There is no form of the 3rd person, the form of the present (or simple future) tense is used in combination with a particle let(Let him read. Let him read).
In the meaning of the 1st person plural of the imperative mood, the form of the 1st person plural of the present or future tense can be used + a special form is used, formed by agglutination from the form of the 1st person plural, or the simple future tense and the ending 2- th person plural: let's go.
Use of the imperative:
- Most often used without a personal pronoun. The presence of a personal pronoun of the 2nd person expresses an intensified, insistent request ( My dear!... Give me that money! Give, for Christ's sake!).
When the imperative mood is combined with the particle -ka (which is adjacent to the form of the latter), it expresses a weakened command or impulse (But what, Ostrodumov, show me - a letter).
To express motivation, a combination of the imperative mood from the verb is used give, playing the role of an auxiliary form, as it were, and the 1st person pl. number of the simple future tense of a verb that has an independent meaning ( Well, let's start subscribing then.).
To express an obligation (this can be applied to any person) ( And Gulyavin's service is ... hard labor. Sit in a stuffy steel hold ... and don't move).
Used in conditional and concessive sentences ( No matter how good the girl is, but her soul is narrow and shallow, and even though you hang a pound of gold around her neck, it’s all the same, it’s better than what she is, not to be).
To express an unexpected action, as opposed to another, expected action ( He would have to rush to the side, but he take it straight and run).
Conditional mood (subjunctive):
First of all, it expresses an action that is not actually performed, but could be performed under certain conditions (both possible and impossible in reality). The conditional mood is expressed by the analytical form, which is formed by combining the past tense of the verb and the invariable particle would(after a word ending in a vowel, it can appear in a reduced form b). If this particle is after the verb form, then it usually follows it immediately, if before the verb form, then it can be separated from it by other words.
The conditional mood is used in a conditional meaning in a complex sentence, and it stands both in the subordinate conditional sentence and in the main sentence expressing the consequence ( He would have been very useful tonight if he hadn't broken his leg.).
The conditional mood can express the possibility even in the absence of a formally expressed condition under which this possibility is realized: Shot who? - No, they would have been imprisoned for this.
The conditional mood can express a desired meaning, that is, a wish ( Would you ride with us) + frequent and inf. ( To make all people happy).
Used in addition subordinate clauses or in adj. sentence expressing purpose ( I am barefoot, so Semenych is watching, so as not to cut my leg).
The forms of the subjunctive mood change only by gender (in the singular) and numbers.
II. Category of person - expresses the relationship of the action and its subject to the speaker's face. There are 3 persons: 1 person - the form of the verb, indicating that the speaker himself is the subject of the action or state; 2 person - a form indicating that the subject of the action is the interlocutor of the speaker; 3 person - a form indicating that the subject of the action is a person or object that is not involved in speech. These differences are expressed by the endings of the verb form: I read, read, read, etc. But the verb also has 2 numbers. According to Vinogradov, it would be more correct to consider each verb form as a special person and consider that we have not three persons, but six (1, 2, 3 person singular and 1, 2, 3 person plural ( read, let's go).
The past tense has no personal endings (they change by gender and number). A person in the past tense is expressed by a personal pronoun (if the subject is not expressed by another part of speech, which definitely indicates the 3rd person).
Special conditions of use:
1 person pl. numbers in the meaning of 2 persons (singular or plural) when treated with a touch of good-natured irony (doctor's address to the patient: How do we feel today?)
Form of the 2nd person unit. numbers - in a generalized sense (i.e., the action is related to any subject (You can’t say anything about her, this Radda, in words).
In the same meaning, the 2nd person plural is used. numbers (usually in the author's speech addressed to any reader, or oral speech: If, let's say, you are going home from hunting and want to dine with an appetite ...).
3rd person pl. numbers, and in the past tense the plural form. numbers without designating a person, and always without a pronoun, are used in an indefinite meaning (a person, or persons without a more precise definition of them: In the gazebo they are waiting for me; They hired you to row, and row).
Impersonal verbs:
There are verbs that do not have the category of person. They usually express natural phenomena, the physical and mental state of a person ( it's getting dark; sparkles; I would like to; I'm sick). In its form in present. and bud. time, they can be correlated with the form of the 3rd person singular of personal verbs, since they are characterized by the same personal endings. The form of the past tense can be correlated with the form of units. numbers cf. kind of personal verbs ( dark, bright etc.). Impersonal verbs in many cases are derived from personal ones. It is very widespread to form impersonal verbs using the reflexive particle - Xia.
Ticket number 42. Communion and participle
Participle- this is a non-conjugated form of the verb, expressing the action, as a present attributive feature of the object, manifesting itself in time:
a student reading, a book read by a student.
The participle does not have face and mood forms, but has tense forms, only present and past aspect and voice, as well as adjective forms - number, gender and case, consistent with nouns that denote the carriers of actions or the object of actions: the departed aircraft - the departed aircraft.
The participle does not differ lexically and syntactically from the verb from which it is formed:
Student-written report - the student wrote a report.
Participles are synonymous with personal forms of the verb in relative attributive clauses with a relative pronoun which the.
The participle is not used in sentences without a predicate and refers to a noun in any of its syntactic functions. Used without nouns, the participle becomes nouns:
The dancers crowded and pushed each other.
Participles with dependent words are called participle turnovers
Participles: - real
Passive
Participles: - present tense
past tense
Valid participles have only a full form, which changes according to the forms of gender, number and case.
Passive participles have a full and short form. The short form changes only in gender and number forms. Participles can have a postfix -sya-: swim - bathing.
The future participle is not formed from verbs (words future, coming are adjectives in which the future tense is expressed lexically, not grammatically)
The formation of the sacraments.
1) The formation of real participles of the present and past tense.
(formed from both transitive and intransitive verbs: see - seeing, sit - sitting)
Present participle:
A number of verbs form variant forms of participles depending on the class of verbs:
Verbs 1 conjugation: splash - splashing, splashing, move - moving and moving. + verb of the 2nd conjugation: torment - tormenting and tormenting.
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Present tense basis |
Conjugation |
Suffixes |
Adjective endings |
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writing, -th, -her, -ie struggling, -th, -aya, -ee, -yesha |
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trembling, -th, -her, -th dependent, -th, -her, -th |
Past participle
Verbs with an infinitive on -sti-, based on present tense -d-, -t-, form past participles with a suffix -sh- from the basis of the present tense: bring-bring-leading.
Verbs with an infinitive on -st- have a participle with the suffix - vsh-: steal-stole, hang-hung / hung-hung (hung.)
2) Formation of passive participles of the present and past tense (formed from transitive verbs: require - required)
Present participle:
The practical formation of passive present participles in modern Russian is very limited.
Past participles:
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The basis of the modern look |
Suffixes |
Adjective endings |
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1) the basis of the infinitive a) on -a (-z) write b) on -i, -e (non-root, with their loss and alternation of consonants) plant c) on -well-, -o-: spread d) on root vowels (except for prefixed formations from verbs: know, drive, give, call, take) |
written -th, -th, -th planted, -th, -th, -th offended, -th, -th, -th touched, -th, -th, -th ripped, -th, -th, -th shod, -th, -th, -th undressed, -th, -th, -th |
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2) present tense basis a) on -t-, -d-: steal - steal eat - will eat b) to other consonants (with alternating consonants k / h, h / w bake - bake burn - burn |
stolen, -th, -th, -th eaten, -th, -th, -th baked, th, th, th burned, -th, -th, -th |
Verbs do not form past participles : see, fly around, run, wait, outshine, finish off, catch, pass, lick.
Passive past participles have a full and short form:
written(full) - written(short)
received(full) - received(short)
Short passive participles are not declined.
gerund- this is a non-conjugated form of the verb, denoting an additional action (state). The state of the subject, connected in time with the main action, either simultaneously with the main action (state), or preceding it, or following it.
Entering the room, he looked around.
He spoke slowly, afraid of being misunderstood.
The action (state) of the participle always refers to the subject of the main action (state) and can be complicated by the meanings of the cause, condition, mode of action.
He spoke excitedly.
The participles differ only in the forms of the aspect and do not have the forms of tense, person, number, mood and voice.
Can have postfix -ss: swimming
Participles with dependent words are called participle turns, which are separated by commas in the letter.
Formation of imperfect participles
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Basis of the Imperfect View |
gerund |
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1) the basis of the present tense: play-ut, carry-ut, drag-ut, hear-at, view-yat, drive-yat |
playing, carrying, dragging, hearing, seeing, driving |
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2) the basis of inf-va on -va-: give, recognize, create |
giving, acknowledging, creating |
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From the basis of the inf-va of the imperfect form, and not from the basis of the present tense, participles of the imperfect form are formed, the following verbs: give, recognize, know, create, get up, stop, pester, get tired, recognize. Their present tense stem ending in -j-: yes-j-ut, vsta-j-ut 3) From the verb to be the gerund participle is formed with the suffix -uchi-: being. |
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Formation of perfect adverbs:
Verbs on -well-: chill - chill - chill - chill + die - died - died - died
The use of imperfect participles
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Temporal relations of the action (state) of the gerund with the action of the predicate |
Forms of types of gerund and predicate | |
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1) simultaneity a) complete b) partial |
He sat at the table smoking his pipe. As he parted, he shook hands with him. |
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2) the repetition of simultaneous, preceding and subsequent actions of the participle and the predicate |
When reading books, he wrote down unfamiliar words. Getting up at dawn, she ran to the river. |
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The use of perfective adverbs: |
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1) Preceding the main action |
After finishing work, he went to rest. |
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2) Simultaneity of the state with the action |
He walked with his head down. You cheated me by not replying to my letter. |
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3) Following the main action |
The mother put her son to bed, covering him with a blanket. |
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4) Single complex action |
Slapping his neck, he killed a mosquito. |
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Transition of participles into other parts of speech.
A number of gerunds, having lost the meaning of the verb, moved to other parts of speech. For example, the word form standing can be used as a gerund and as an adverb:
The artist painted while standing on the stage(germs).
The artist painted while standing(adverb).
Ticket number 43. Adverb. Classes of adverbs. Word-building features of adverbs.
An adverb, as an independent part of speech, is distinguished on the basis of its syntactic function, morphological features and meanings.
An adverb expresses a sign of an action (expressed by a verb), a sign of a sign (expressed by an adjective). It defines the quality or degree of action.
Morphologically, an adverb is an indeclinable, non-conjugated part of speech adjacent to the verb, category of state, adjectives, nouns and adverbs.
Adverbs are divided into two main groups:
1) Determinative (denoting the quality of action, the image and method of action, or quantitative shades of action, state and quality. By value, they are divided into adverbs of quality, quantity and measure, image and manner of action, method and compatibility of action).
2) circumstantial (denoting temporal and spatial circumstances and adverbs expressing the cause and purpose of the action. They are divided into adverbs of time, place, purpose and reason).
Adverbs are divided into pronominal and significant. Pronouns are formed from pronominal roots, significant from significant parts of speech.
Pronominal adverbs of the Russian language.
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Detailed |
values |
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course of action | |||||||
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finding |
directions |
departures | |||||
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interrogative | |||||||
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index |
here (here, there) |
back and forth |
from there from here |
then now |
therefore therefore | ||
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generalizing |
in every possible way |
everywhere (everywhere everywhere) |
from everywhere | ||||
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uncertain a) uncertainty b) unwillingness to clarify c) indifference |
somehow |
somewhere |
somewhere |
from somewhere somewhere |
someday |
for some reason for some reason |
for some reason |
|
negative |
nowhere |
nowhere to go |
from nowhere |
never ever | |||
Formation of significant adverbs
1) Formation of adverbs from adjectives
|
Types of adjectives |
Methods of education | |
|
1) quality |
a) suffix -o b) suffix -e |
fast - fast sincere - sincerely |
|
2) from participles into -sch |
suffix -e |
brilliant - brilliant |
|
3) quality in -sky |
suffix -i |
friendly - friendly |
|
4) relative and some qualitative in -sky |
prefix in- and suffix and |
English - in English |
|
5) relative and possessive pronouns and some qualitative |
prefix in - and suffix -th / -him |
spring - in spring |
|
6) adjectives |
prefixes in-, for- and suffixes -th |
manual - manually twisted - twisted |
|
7) old case forms of short adjectives |
prefixes (from prepositions): a) from-, from-, to- + p. P. b) on-, behind-, + c. P. c) by - + d.p. d) in-, on- + p.p. |
on the left, from afar, cleanly soon, again little by little, in vain far away, completely, equally |
2) Formation of adverbs from nouns
especially: a combination of different prepositional forms of the same noun: day by day, step by step, year by year, year by year.
3) Formation of adverbs from numerals
Adverbs formed: a) from gerunds - reluctantly, silently, jokingly
b) from combinations of pronouns with nouns - immediately, now, today
Non-derivative adverbs: now, very, here, sometimes.
Degree of comparison of adverbs
Adverbs for -o/-e formed from qualitative adjectives,
have degrees of comparison:
The superlative degree of adverbs consists of a comparative degree and a pronoun all(r.p. pronouns all).
The comparative and superlative forms of adverbs differ from the comparative forms of adjectives in that they always refer to the verb and answer the question how?
1) This story is more interesting than that one(on what?)
He talks better than me(how?)
2) this story is the most interesting of all(which?)
He tells more interesting than all of us(how?)
Ticket number 44. Service parts of speech.
I. Prepositions.
Prepositions are a service part of speech that expresses various relations between the case forms of a name and other words.
V.V. Vinoradov:"Prepositions denote syntactic relations between the forms of indirect cases of nouns, pronouns or substantiated adjectives and numerals, on the one hand, and verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, less often adverbs, on the other hand."
The service nature of prepositions lies in the fact that they are not members of sentences, but serve to clarify the syntactic functions of other members of the sentence, as well as to differentiate the meanings of case forms, together with which they express spatial, temporal, conditional, causal, restrictive and other relationships : house on the mountain, snow fell at night, suffers from drought.
According to the degree of word-formation complexity:
1) Non-derivative (primary) prepositions: in, before, for, on, from, to, at, with.
2) Derivatives (secondary): around, thanks to, during, towards, opposite, beside, behind, across ...
Morphological composition of prepositions:
1) simple (+ spliced) without, in, before, for, for, from, on, to, from, with, at, through ... ( 2 simple) from under.
2) adverbs:
a) near, along, outside, inside, near, in front of, around, past(used with the Genitive case of the name and clarify its syntactic functions).
b) following, towards, against, like, according to(adjoin the dative case of the name and clarify its syntactic functions).
3) Nominal: in part, in the sense, at the time, in moderation, for purposes, in the name, at the head, in the role, in order to avoid, on occasion, by, due to (adjacent to the genitive case of the controlled member of the sentence and serves to clarify it syntax function).
4) Verbal: thanks to(with dat. case), including after(with wine case), not to mention(with genus case), ending(with creative case), beginning(with parent or creative case) (formed from gerunds).
5) compound-compound (combinations of nouns, adverbs and participles with subsequent prepositions): depending on, in response to, in contrast to, in relation to, in connection with, up to, along with, regardless of, looking p. on the basis of, not speaking of, in spite of, judging by...
II Unions - service words expressing semantic relationships between homogeneous words of a sentence (except for unions how, than to) or between parts of a complex sentence (main and subordinate clauses).
Of Education
1) non-derivatives: a, and, but, yes, for, or, however, if, neither... nor.
2) simple derivatives: what, as, as if, also, so that, but.
3) compound derivatives (consist of simple derivatives in combination with prepositions, adverbs, pronouns): because, since, due to the fact that, despite the fact that, so.
4) derivative pairs (consist of components that are used for each connected element): not only... but; like .., and; if.., then; insofar...because; although.., but; than .., that; as regards....
By syntactic function:
1) Coordinative ones indicate the relatively semantic independence of the connected units (members of the sentence and sentences that are part of compound sentences).
a) connecting: and yes(meaning -and-), neither ... nor, how ... so, not only ... but also, too, also.
b) opposing: but, but, however, but(adversative-compensatory union).
c) separating: or; or or; not that .., not that; then... then.
d) explanatory: that is, namely, or.
2) Subordinating: indicate the subordinating semantic connection of subordinate clauses with main clauses in complex sentences.
a) explanatory (explanatory), which answer the questions: what to how.
b) temporary: when, as soon as, while, since, after, since, while.
c) causal: because, because, since, since.
d) target: so that, in order to.
e) conditional: if, times (if), provided .. that.
e) concessions: although, despite the fact that, no matter how.
g) conjunctions of consequence: so before that.
h) comparative: as, as if, as if, as if, precisely than.
III Particles are service words that serve in speech to express the relationship of all or part of what is said to reality, as well as the speaker to what is being reported.
Particles that serve to express all or part of the statement to reality:
|
Particle discharges by value | ||
|
1) Affirmative (confirming) 2) Negative 3) Interrogative 4) Incentives 5) Subjunctive mood 6) Excretory - restrictive 7) Excretory - index 8) Excretory - amplifying 9) Definitive - characterizing 10) Comparative 11) Particles of certainty |
yes, yes, okay, okay, that's it no, no, no, not at all whether (l), really, really let, let, come on, come on, come on, come on only, just, exactly here (here), over there (there) after all, even, and, same, already, and just, almost, almost, not at all as if, as if, as if supposedly, allegedly |
Don't go! He didn't say a word. How long has he been gone? Let me take a look. Forms of the subjunctive mood Only he can help. Here is your book. After all, I have already spoken about this. We were just talking about you The waves on the river are like in the sea. I didn't mean to offend him. |
Particles that express the attitude of the speaker to the reported.
IV Interjections - service words that convey, although not specifically naming, various feelings, such as surprise, fear, anger, joy (expressive saturation)
Bah, familiar faces.
Yep, got it!
Immutability is an extremely essential property of interjections.
(He couldn't get used to it. oham (n.) and aham(n.).
Interjections are:
1) complex formations: god damn it(one lexeme, but 2 word forms).
2) non-affix verb formations: jump, push.
type of Oh are sentence words, and the type jump- is a predicate.
3) onomatopoeic words: meow-meow, kitty-kitty(these are words outside parts of speech).
Ticket number 45. The question of the category of state and modal words as independent parts of speech.
The names of prominent Russian linguists A.A. Barsov, A.Kh. Vostokov, V.V. Vinogradov, A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. -necessary- as an independent group of words. At the same time, Peshkovsky does not include these words in the composition of parts of speech in general, and Shcherba and Vinogradov believed that these words constitute a special part of speech, the category of state. This question begins its history from Shcherba's article "On Parts of Speech in the Russian Language", where the scientist first spoke about the possibility of highlighting words, which he called the "state category". This theory was supported and developed by V. V. Vinogradov in the book "Russian Language", where he singled out the category of state as part of speech.
- This activity is boring(short adjective)
- He talked boring(adverb)
Vinogradov categorizes the state: glad, much, must(changed words)
Shcherba: glad, much, should, without feelings, should.
At the same time, no attention is paid to whether these words are changeable, whether they perform only a syntactic function => this interpretation of the category of state is difficult to accept.
It seems that the principle of "syntactic function" should be used only in the classification of immutable words. Therefore, only immutable words can be assigned to the category of state. All modified words - noun, adj., even used in the function of the predicate, remain respectively nouns and adjectives. (For example: glad, must are always adjectives).
There are arguments for singling out a similar part of speech: if cat. comp. do not highlight, then words like maybe ashamed refer to adverbs, but they are very different from adverbs and violate the partial affiliation of adverbs.
Arguments against: there are not enough signs to highlight, these words do not have tense and voice, as was believed in the 50s, and we are talking about tense and voice of the whole sentence, not the word.
The meaning and use of the category of state.
1) the physical or mental state of the person (in combination and without the combination of the infinitive). I'm cold. It's hard for her to talk about it. He's too lazy to do.
2) the state of possibility / impossibility, necessity (in combination with the infinitive). May I enter? I need to send a letter. Time to go home.
3) assessment of the action of the subject (the action is expressed by the infinitive). Smoking is harmful. Get up early. Walk late.
4) the state of nature or the environment: It was cold outside. The room is stuffy.
II Used with bundles -to be- and -become- to designate forms of the future and past tense.
III Not used with the nominative case as the subject of a sentence:
a) if the state of a person is expressed, then the person is indicated by the dative case. He was ashamed. I need to tell you something.
b) if the state of nature, the environment is expressed, then it is not designated specifically: It was light and quiet. Tomorrow will be very hot.
Composition: 1) words on - o-: it hurts, fun, boring, close, perhaps, deep, low, necessary, necessary + impossible, seen, heard.
2) some nouns in the former form of the nominative case: laziness, time, time, hunting, reluctance, pity.
modal words.
Modal shades in speech were noticed by Vostokov, Potebnya, Shakhmatov, Peshkovsky, but modal words as a special lexico-grammatical group of words were first identified and described by Vinogradov.
Modal words express the subject - the objective attitude of the speakers to the reliability of phenomena and relationships in nature and society in terms of their probability, possibility, necessity, obligation.
Modal words, like modal particles, perform in a sentence the function of expressing attitudes towards the thought being expressed, but are not members of the sentence.
Modal words do not adjoin the members of a sentence and do not serve as a distribution of words of any grammatical class. Some modal words act as introductory words ( gingerbread, however, would be sweeter). Others act as words - sentences. ( Will you buy it? Undoubtedly.)
The third group of modal words introduces additional meaning: Definitely, I will buy this book. Probably good weather tomorrow.
Academician Vinogradov notes the following features of modal words:
1) Close connection with adverbs - the situation and quality. - determinants.
2) Presence of modal particles.
3) Homogeneity of the functions of modal words and particles.
4) The wide distribution of modal meanings in the circle of other types of particles, excluding prepositions.
5) Functional proximity of modal words and particles to introductory sentences.
Examples of modal words:
1) these words denote a rational, logical assessment of the probability reported by the connotation: of course, certainly, undoubtedly, really, definitely, obviously, really, therefore, it goes without saying, in fact.
2) expressing the meaning of the possibility, the alleged reliability and unreliability. certainty or uncertainty: perhaps, probably, perhaps, perhaps, probably, apparently, perhaps, perhaps, perhaps, perhaps, perhaps, probably
Ticket number 46. The question of the syntactic units of the science of Russian syntax.
In the language - a means of human communication - the vocabulary and grammatical structure are distinguished. Words, being the lexical material of the language, are used in it according to the laws and rules of grammar - morphology and syntax. Morphology studies the meanings and forms of words as elements of intra-verbal opposition; the meanings of verbal forms that arise in combination with other verbal forms, the meanings determined by the laws of combination of words and the construction of sentences, are the subject syntax.
Therefore, syntax (Greek Syntaxis - compilation) is a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech.
Syntax studies, on the one hand, the rules for linking words and forms of words, and on the other hand, those unities in which these rules are implemented - syntactic unities.
A long tradition of Russian science is the allocation of two main syntactic units - a phrase and a simple sentence. (V.V. Vinogradov named and defined the most important grammatical property of a simple sentence. He drew attention to the fact that the content of the sentence is always updated, correlated with reality, with the act of communication: the sentence necessarily contains one or another modal and temporal characteristic of the reported.)
VV Vinogradov gives the following definition: "A sentence is an integral unit of speech grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, which is the main means of forming the expression and message of thought."
The definition of a sentence as a minimal, grammatically organized unit that serves to express thoughts, as well as feelings and will, is currently the most common.
The main features of a sentence as a syntactic unit are: 1) predicativity, which includes the meaning of objective modality and syntactic tense.
2) intonation formality.
The concept of predicativity as a grammatical category includes such grammatical properties of a sentence that allow it to represent what is reported either as real, carried out in the present, past or future tense, or as unreal (i.e. desired, possible, assumed, etc.) Such grammatical the meanings of the sentence can be united by the general meaning of the relation of the reported to reality (modality).
BUT the general meaning of reality or unreality is necessarily tied to a specific time - present, past, future. That. the concept of modality is inextricably linked with the meaning of time.
This complex of grammatical categories - modality and syntactic tense - is predicativity.
Modality and syntactic tense, and hence predicativity, have special linguistic means for their expression. Such means are forms of inclination and time, special particles.
For example: a) The boy is studying.
studied.
will study.
The boy would study.
Let the boy study.
If there are verbs and verb connectives in the sentence, these meanings are conveyed using the forms of these words in combination with particles or without them.
Producing and derived word
Recall that the word from which the given derivative is directly formed is called the generating word. Representing the material backbone of the derivative, the generating word usually appears in its structure not completely, but to some extent truncated (without endings, and often without final suffixes). For example: employee —works(at); trailer — trailer(it); heiress — on the trail(ovate); gourmet — varnish(itya); madman — crazy(ny); Ukrainianism — ukrainian(sky); burly man — crepe(cue) etc. That part of the generating word that materially appears in the structure of the derivative is called the generating base ( work-, trailer-, on the trail- etc.). It does not coincide with the usual stem of the word (that part of it that remains after subtracting inflection): employee-, trailer-, heirs-, gourmet-.
If, after separation from the word of inflection, a stem that is non-derivative from a synchronous point of view remains, further word-formation analysis is impossible, for example: road-a, lake.
If the word has a derivative stem, the subsequent analysis should go along the line of comparison (in order to identify the generating stem) with the word from which the first is formed.
In this series, it is also desirable to include, if possible, other derivatives with the same generating base. It can be passed like this: Ba - B, bb, Bv, bg etc., where B- generating word (or base), and lowercase letters denote any word-building elements.
It is impossible to compare the analyzed derivative simply with related words (similar in sound and meaning), as is often done. This term is too broad, it covers a whole word-formation nest, which includes derivatives not only with the producing basis of interest to us, but also other related formations that are not directly related to it. For example, for the adjective talkative related words such as talk-it-sya (talking), colloquial, conversation. However, only the first can be recognized as producing, from which the adjective was directly formed talkative. The last two are not such, they seem superfluous, not conducive to the chosen direction of analysis: adjective colloquial formed not from a verbal, but from a substantive generating stem talk, the form of the past tense is from the infinitive, which includes additional elements - suffixes -and-, -ss.
No less often the word under consideration is compared with single-root derivatives. To a certain extent, such an approach can be justified only when we are dealing with formations that are simple in structure, in which the root is also the producing basis. For example, to prove that nouns vase, wall, bun, martin do not belong to the same derivational type, we will select words with the same root. In nouns vase and bun this technique helps to reveal the roots ( vase, bulk-a), suffixes (- points-, -to-) and ending (- a), because here the roots are also generating bases.
In the noun wall with this approach (root walls) could have been incorrectly allocated suffix - points(a), because in this case the root does not coincide with the generating base. To avoid an error, here it becomes necessary to compare the derivative wall not just with single-root formations, but with a generating noun wall.
Focusing on the selection of single-root derivatives can push a person inexperienced in the intricacies of word formation to compare a noun martin with words like flipper, eraser, flirt, not to mention the fact that people who are to some extent familiar with folk speech can point to really single-root formations eraser,swallow etc. They won't take a noun martin as a non-derivative in the national Russian language.
A special case is represented by derivatives whose generating words are not used in a free state, for example: roach, dam, raft; calve, calf, calves, heifer, heifer, calves, upskirt, heifer and others. Naturally, when analyzing such derivatives, the comparison can go not with generating words, but only with words directly formed from them, i.e. Ba, bb, Bv, Bg.
If only the generating stem is defined correctly, the residual element in the derivative must be the word- or form-forming affix by means of which the analyzed derived stem is created. However, the correctness of the isolation of the generating base can and must be supported by the data of one more series.
For word formation, it is important to find out from which word the given word is directly formed. It is often important to decide which of the two fundamentals producing, and which word is secondary. Therefore, it is necessary to establish the direction of production.
In the scientific and educational literature, there are several terms that denote generating and derivative basis:
base and derived word;
motivating and motivated words;
generating and derivative basis.
Derivative basis- this is the basis from which this basis is directly formed. There are certain rules that help establish the direction of derivation. Derivative and generating bases are the closest relatives, this is manifested in the fact that:
derivative base more difficult producing by semantics: red - blush(turn red)
derivative base more difficult producing formally: earth-I - earth-yan-oh;
with the same formal complexity, the derivative is a word that is more complex in semantics: methodology - methodologist; student - student(it is traditionally accepted that feminine nouns are formed from masculine nouns);
Regardless of the formal complexity in word formation, the motivating word is the one whose meaning corresponds to the categorical meaning of the part of speech. This rule is especially relevant in relation to words formed with the help of zero affixes: dry - dry(the categorical meaning of a noun is an object or phenomenon, and the word dryness denotes a sign);
words marked stylistically are derivatives, they cannot be derivatives: intimate - intimate, neutral - neutral;
in words with associated root it is impossible to determine the direction of production unambiguously: to put on - to put on;
there are words in Russian that are characterized by multiple production(have not one, but several motivating words): cute - very nice, nice - very nice; acquaint - acquaint, acquaint - acquaint.
40. Ways of word formation in Russian
In the languages of the world, there are several ways of word formation. Among them are the following:
1) morphological(the most productive way of word formation in all Slavic languages): it consists in creating new words by combining morphemes according to the rules existing in the language. This method includes prefix, suffix, prefix - suffix, non-suffix, addition;
2) lexico-semantic, which consists in creating a new word by splitting the old one into two or more homonym:"boxer" - the breed of the dog and "boxer" - a boxing athlete;
3) morphological-syntactic: the formation of a new word by moving it from one part of speech to another: canteen, ice cream. At the same time, the word acquires new grammatical features;
4) lexico-syntactic, which consists in creating a new word by merging into one lexical unit of a combination of words: evergreen, now evergreen, now.
Prefix method
When forming words in this way, a prefix is added to the original word. The new word refers to the same part of speech as the original ones. In this way, nouns are formed: move - exit, light - dawn; adjectives: big - small, tasty - tasteless, sound - supersonic; pronouns: someone, someone, no one; verbs: walk - enter, exit, approach, leave; adverbs: always - forever, through the day before yesterday, through and through, yesterday - the day before yesterday.
Suffix way
With the suffix method, a suffix is added to the base of the original word.
Words formed in this way can be either the same part of speech (forest - forester) or another (forest - forest).
The suffix is attached not to the whole word, but to its base, while sometimes the base is modified: part of the base can be cut off, the sound composition changes, sounds alternate: cast - casting, weaver - weaving.
prefix-suffix
With this method, a prefix and a suffix are simultaneously attached to the original word: household, plantain, Moscow region, rider.
Most often, nouns are formed in this way: premise, window sill; verbs: sign, get carried away; adverbs: in spring, in Russian.
Suffixless
This method consists in the fact that the ending is discarded from the word (black - black) or the ending can be simultaneously discarded and the suffix cut off: rest - rest, scold - abuse.
Addition
Addition is the formation of a new word by combining two words or two or more bases into one verbal whole. Words formed as a result of addition are called compound words.
Compound words are formed:
1) adding whole words: pay phone, boarding school;
2) adding up the basics: salary, head teacher;
3) addition with the help of connecting vowels O and E: pathfinder, steelmaker, agriculture;
4) by adding the initial letters: RSU, ATS;
5) by adding the initial sounds: tyuz, Moscow Art Theater.
41 . Historical changes in the morphemic structure of words
The morpheme composition of a word is not constant. In the course of the development of the language, changes could occur in it.
For example, the word sheet was formed from an adjective simple, it once had a suffix -yn'-(a). Thus, once this word consisted of three morphemes - a root, a suffix and an ending. Now only two morphemes are distinguished in it - the root and the ending: sheet. Consequently, the morphemic structure of the word has become simpler. And this phenomenon - the merging of two morphemes into one, that is, the reduction in the number of morphemes in a word - is called simplification. Another example of simplification is the word sour cream.
But in the language you can find examples of the opposite phenomenon. It's called complication morphemic structure of the word. As a result of complication, one morpheme begins to divide into two. An example would be the words umbrella and flask. Both of these words are loanwords, one from the Dutch language (zonnedek), another from Polish (flaszka), therefore, neither originally had a suffix. Later, these borrowings were perceived as diminutives and words were formed for them. umbrella and flask.
Finally, the third type of change in the morphemic structure of a word is re-decomposition . The number of morphemes remains the same, but the boundary between morphemes changes: one or more sounds go from one of the morphemes to another morpheme. For example: in the Old Russian language there were prefixes vn-, sii- and the corresponding prepositions vn, kn, son. If the root of the word began with a consonant sound, the prefixes v- and s- were used, for example: v-brother, s-brother, but if the root began with a vowel, then a variant of the prefix ending in -n- , for example: vn-imati, son-imati (cf. the colloquial verb imat ‘grab; take’). In the same way, the use of prepositions in front of pronouns was distributed: to that, to that, to tem, but to him, to em, to remove them. Later consonant n gone to the root. So, now we are isolating morphemes take off; in-him-ah-be. Root him- by analogy with these words, it also appeared in those single-root verbs where it was not in this form in the Old Russian language: accept(other Russian pri-im-a-ti); behind him(other Russian for-im-a-ti). Similar origin and combination of prepositions with pronoun forms in it, to it, with it, compare: hello to him, but happy with it.
42. Grammar as a science, there is a section of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, the patterns of constructing correct meaningful speech segments in this language (word forms, syntagms, sentences, texts). Grammar formulates these regularities in the form of general grammatical rules.
Morphology(Greek "morphe" - form, "logos" - science) is a section of grammar in which words are studied as parts of speech.
Morphology is closely related to spelling, so the study of morphology is associated with the study of spelling rules.
Spelling(Greek “orfo” - correct, “grapho” - I write) or spelling - a section of the science of language, which sets out a system of rules for writing words and their significant parts, for continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings, for the use of capital letters and hyphenation words.
spelling(Greek "ortho" - correct, "gram" - letter sign) - spelling in a word that corresponds to the spelling rule
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of a language. It includes all the sound means of the language, that is, not only sounds and their combinations, but also stress and intonation.
Orthoepy is a field of phonetics that deals with the study of pronunciation norms.
Graphics - a set of signs used in a given writing system, along with rules that establish a correspondence between signs (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes)
Morphemics- a branch of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms.
word formation- a section of linguistics that studies the formal semantic derivative of the words of a language, means and methods of word formation.
Syntax is a branch of the science of language that studies the phrase and sentence. Its main sections are the syntax of the phrase and the syntax of the sentence.
Sentences are formed from words and phrases.
phrase is a unit of syntax. A phrase is a combination of two or more independent words related to each other in meaning and grammatically. The phrase consists of the main and dependent words.
Sentence- one of the basic units of the language and the basic unit of syntax. A sentence is one or more words that contain message, question or prompt(order, advice, request). The sentence is characterized by intonational and semantic completeness, i.e. is a separate statement.
The sentence has a grammatical basis, consisting of the main members (subject and predicate) or one of them.
43 . grammatical meaning- the meaning expressed by the inflectional morpheme (grammatical indicator).
The difference between lexical and grammatical meanings (each of these rules is not absolute and has counterexamples):
1. grammatical meanings are not universal, less numerous, form a closed, more clearly structured class.
2. grammatical meanings, unlike lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “compulsory” manner. For example, a Russian speaker cannot “evade” the expression of the category of the number of a verb, an English speaker cannot avoid the category of the definiteness of a noun, etc. At the same time, for example, in Japanese, the category of number is not grammatical, since it is expressed optional at the request of the speaker. The idea of the obligatory nature of grammatical meanings goes back to the works of F. Boas and R. O. Jacobson. According to the informal definition given by A. A. Zaliznyak, grammatical meanings are such meanings, “the expression of which is mandatory for all word forms of a given class of lexemes” (“Russian Nominal Inflection”, 1967)
3. Lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of ways and means of their formal expression.
4. grammatical meanings may not have full correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (for example, the categories of number, time usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while the feminine gender of a noun stool and masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).
44-45. ways of expressing grammatical meanings. Ways of forming word forms.
Synthetic way. Expression of meanings in the word itself. This includes;
a) affixation (the formation of word forms with the help of endings, prefixes, formative suffixes). Table, table, table etc. Do - do, write - write etc. Justify - justify, exchange - exchange etc.;
b) internal flexion (alternation of sounds). Lock up - lock up, die - die, dial - dial etc.;
c) accent. Pour - pour, cut - cut etc.;
d) suppletivism. Talk - say, catch - catch etc. Person people. Good - better, a lot - more;
e) repetitions. Blue-blue, walked-walked, barely (see. repeat).
analytical way. Expression of values outside the word. I write - I will write. Beautiful - more beautiful.
Mixed (hybrid) method. In the book(preposition and case ending). I I read(personal pronoun and verb ending to express the meaning of the 1st person).
46. Grammatical meanings - abstract, generalized intralinguistic meanings, which are formed on the basis of generalization of linguistic facts proper, abstraction from them.
Grammatical form(GF) is a language character in which the CG finds its regular (standard) expression. Within the GF, the means of expressing the GP can be various linguistic means (affixation, reduplication, supletivism, etc.).
On the one hand - opposition, on the other - homogeneity.
Members of the same GC united by a common GC(numbers) and differ in private values(values of singularity - plurality). GC is a certain system of relations.
An integral feature of the Civil Code is opposition (opposition). No opposition - no category.
47. Part of speech(tracing paper from lat. pars orationis, other Greek μέρος τοῦ λόγου) is a category of language words determined by morphological and syntactic features. In the languages of the world, first of all, the name is opposed (which can be further divided into a noun, adjective, etc., but this is not universal) and verb, in most languages it is also generally accepted to divide parts of speech into independent and auxiliary.
Principles of classifying words by parts of speech
independent parts of speech
official parts of speech
interjections and
onomatopoeic words.
Independent parts of speech are a group of words with a common grammatical meaning (of an object, a sign of an object, an action, a sign of an action, a number of objects). Service parts of speech are a group of words that do not have their own meaning, since they do not name objects, signs, actions, and it is impossible to put a question to them.
48. The origin of language is an integral part of the problem of the origin of man and human society. There are many theories about the origin of language, which can be divided into two main groups: 1) biological, 2) social.
Biological theories explain the origin of language by the evolution of the human body - the sense organs, the speech apparatus and the brain. Biological theories primarily include the theory of onomatopoeia and interjection.
Proponents of the onomatopoeia hypothesis believe that words arose from a person’s unconscious or conscious desire to imitate the sounds of the world around him - the roar of animals, the cry of birds, the sound of the wind, etc.
The basis for such views was that in all languages there really are onomatopoeic words, such as woof-woof, cuckoo, meow, shadow, ding, bam. But firstly, there are relatively few such words. Secondly, the words most needed by people and the most commonly used do not reveal even a hint of imitating any sounds: water, earth, sky, sun, grass, man, smart, walk, think, etc.
Thirdly, in order to imitate the sounds of nature surrounding a person with combinations of sounds, one must have a very flexible speech, which implies its long previous development. It is hardly possible in our time to take seriously the hypothesis of onomatopoeia.
The second influential hypothesis at the time - interjection (reflex), which was followed by such scientists as Humboldt, Jacob Grimm, and others, is that the word is considered as an exponent of a person's mental states. The first words, according to this theory, are involuntary cries, interjections, reflexes. They emotionally expressed pain or joy, fear or despair.
Some supporters of the hypothesis under consideration admitted that words arose by interjection only in the distant past, and later they developed according to the laws of word formation and independently of involuntary emotional cries.
the fact that man and human society arise, essentially different from the animal and its herd.
This is how social theories of the origin of the language appeared, which explain its appearance by social needs. Arising in labor and as a result of the development of consciousness.
Even in antiquity, the Greek philosopher Diodorus Siculus put forward the theory of the social contract, as a result of which language is seen as a conscious invention and creation of people. In the XVIII century. it was supported by Adam Smith and Rousseau, in whom Rousseau's theory of the social contract is connected with the division of human life into two periods - natural and civilized.
At the end of the 70s of the 19th century. German philosopher Noiret put forward a working theory of the origin of language, or the theory of labor cries. Noiret noted that when working together, cries and exclamations facilitate and organize labor activity. These cries, at first involuntary, gradually turned into symbols of labor processes. The theory of labor cries, in fact, turns out to be a variant of the interjection theory.
49 .Language- a sign system that correlates the conceptual content and typical sound (writing).
One of the main concepts of the theory of language contacts is the concept of bilingualism, as a result of which the study of bilingualism is often recognized even as the main task of studying contacts (the concept of polylingualism or multilingualism, which in principle is reduced to the totality of bilingualism, is not affected here). Bilingual persons are usually understood as speakers of some language A, switching to language B when communicating with speakers of the latter (moreover, most often one of these languages turns out to be native to them, and the other is acquired).
Bilingualism(bilingualism) - the ability of certain groups of the population to communicate in two languages. People who speak two languages are called bilinguals, more than two - polylinguals, more than six - polyglots. Since language is a function of social groupings, being bilingual means belonging to two different social groups at the same time.
Language differentiation(in linguistics) - the process of structural divergence of languages as a result of the gradual loss of common elements and the acquisition of specific features. Within a language family, it is modeled by a genealogical tree scheme, the "root" of which is the parent language, and the "branches" are related languages.
Language Integration, process, reverse language differentiation. At Language integration language communities that previously used different languages (dialects) begin to use the same language, i.e., merge into one language community. Two ways are possible Language integration: 1) the complete loss of one language and the transition to another, as happened with the Torks, Berendeys and other non-Slavic peoples who lived on the territory of Ancient Russia; 2) the merging of languages into a new language that has features that distinguish it from any of the original languages. So, modern English is the result of the integration of ancient Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) dialects and the French language of the Norman conquerors. Process Language integration usually associated with the political, economic and cultural integration of the respective peoples and involves ethnic mixing. Especially often Language integration occurs between closely related languages and dialects.
50. The evolution of a language is a quantitative and qualitative renewal of its structure. It happens continuously.
The reasons for language evolution are traditionally divided into external and internal.
EXTERNAL:
- · This includes changes in the inventory and properties of objects of the objective world;
- Development of science and technology
- · Culture and art
- Change in the composition of the language team
- In a word, everything that happens in reality and is reflected in the language.
INTERNAL:
- · These include impulses “arising in connection with the improvement trend that exists in the language system” (B.A. Serebryannikov).
1. New words are constantly formed in the language on the basis of existing ones. All words of the language can be divided into derivatives and non-derivatives.
non-derivative words- these are those that are not formed from any other single-root word that exists in the language. The basis of such words is non-derivative.
For example, table □ is a non-derivative word, that is, in modern Russian there is no word from which this noun would be formed. The stem of the word stol- is also non-derivative (it includes only the root stol-).
2. Non-derivative basis usually includes only the root, although sometimes a non-derivative stem may include, in addition to the root, a suffix, less often a prefix.
Brother□, night□, wall-a, window-o.
Note! 1) When it comes to non-derivative or derived bases, only the bases of words are considered, that is, the bases of the initial form of the word. Formative suffixes and prefixes are not taken into account.
For example, the form read includes the formative past tense suffix -l, but in word formation we do not take this suffix into account. We determine the basis of the word by the infinitive read-th.
2) Most non-prefixed non-derivative verbs have stems that include, in addition to the root, special verbal suffixes (-a-, -e-, -i-, etc.). It is by these suffixes that we determine the conjugation of the verb.
Wed: write-a-t, run-a-t, led-e-t, resh-t.
There are very few unprefixed verbs without special verbal suffixes (when the root is directly connected with the infinitive ending -ть) in Russian.
Be-be, pi-be, we-be, be-be.
In order to determine whether the final vowel of the stem of the verb is part of the root or is it a suffix, you can put the word in the present tense form. Part of the root is preserved (although alternations may be observed).
Compare: pi-t - pj-th (alternations at the root pi- / pj-), we-t - moj-th (alternations at the root we- / moj-).
The verbal suffix of non-derivative verbs in the present tense is often (but not always!) Lost.
Wed: write-a-t - write-at, run-a-t - run-at.
3) Do not forget that the postfix -sya ( study, wash) is not formative, therefore it is necessarily included in the word-formation basis of the word (teach and learn are different words, not different forms of one word!).3. Derived words- these are words that are formed from other words with the same root (or combinations of words).
For example: the adjective night is formed from the noun night; the noun reader is derived from the verb read; the adjective broad-shouldered is formed from the adjective wide and the noun shoulder.
4. The word from which the derived word is derived is called producing(or motivating).
For example, the noun night is the generating (motivating) word for the adjective night, the verb read is the generating word for the noun reader.
The group of a derived word and a generating word (s) forms derivational pair.For example: night → night; read → reader.5. The stem of a derived word is called derivative basis, the basis of the generating (motivating) word is called producing (motivating) basis.
For example: night □ (generating stem noch-) → noch-oh (derived stem noch-); read (derived stem chita-) → reader□ (derived stem reader-).
Compound words have two or more generating stems. For example: seven years → seven-and-years-n-th; nose□, horn□ → nose-o-horn