Municipal educational institution

Secondary school №44

Examination essay on the history of Russia

“Culture of Ancient Russia in the 10th-13th centuries. Significance of the adoption of Christianity "

Completed by a student of grade 11

Stepanenko Olesya

Checked by Buzina E.V.

Volgograd 2005.

Plan.

1. Introduction.

2) Slavic paganism.

3) Folklore.

4) Religion

The Rise of Christianity

ü Orthodoxy

ü Features of the doctrine of the Orthodox.

o Adoption of Christianity

5) Writing

6) Literature

ü Chronicle

o "Word"

o "Life"

ü "Teaching" and "Walking"

u "Prayer"

7)Architecture

8) Painting

9) Significance of the adoption of Christianity.

10) Conclusion.

Introduction.

First, we need to define what culture is. Culture (from lat. cultura) - erection, education, veneration. The word "culture" is probably one of the most common. It exists in almost all languages ​​and is used in a variety of situations. Disputes among scientists around the concept culture have been going on for over a century. However, no single definition of this phenomenon has yet been developed. Although there are hints of some rapprochement: many researchers have come to understand culture as a complex multicomponent phenomenon associated with all the diversity of human life and activity. Essentially, in concept culture include everything created by human labor and creative energy: means of labor, technical inventions and scientific discoveries; language, morality and political systems; works of art and ways of communicating with people, etc.

However culture- it's not only system of values, but also a dynamic process of disclosure and development of personality abilities in its conscious activity in a specific historical context. It is the development of a person, as well as his attitude to himself and other people, to nature and to the whole world around him, that can be considered a general measure of the level of culture of a particular historical era. An important criterion for historical and cultural progress is the goals, possibilities and methods for the dissemination and use of cultural values ​​among various social strata.

Thus, culture is a historically developing, multi-layered, multi-faceted, polyphonic system of material and spiritual values ​​created by man, socio-cultural norms and ways of their distribution and consumption, as well as the process of self-realization and self-disclosure of the creative potential of the individual and society in various spheres of life. The cultural being of man is inseparable from his natural and social being.

The culture of our past organically enters the life of modern man. Thus, culture acts both as an external expression of the collective memory of the people, and as a way of human existence in the world, and as a world created by man.

The origins of the Russian national artistic style are lost in the mists of time. Its prerequisites were formed long before the adoption of Christianity by Russia in the 10th century. And although artistic forms were often borrowed, first in Byzantium, then in the West, Russians, however, these forms always filled with their content, which led to the emergence of a peculiar artistic style. Such, for example, is the architecture of Kyiv, Vladimir-Suzdal, Moscow Rus, Novgorod and Pskov, the art of icon painting, mosaics and frescoes. These were the "Naryshkin" and "Golitsin Baroque", the architecture of the "Petrine Baroque", Russian classicism, Russian Empire, Art Nouveau. The formation and development of ancient Russian culture was inextricably linked with the same factors and conditions that influenced the formation of statehood, the development of the economy of Russia, the political and spiritual life of society. It’s not even that Russia borrowed art forms, it most likely skillfully synthesized the richest cultural heritage of the Eastern Slavs, their experience and beliefs, traditions and customs with elements of the culture of neighboring countries, tribes, peoples.

This openness and synthetic character of Russian culture largely determined its originality and originality.

Slavic paganism.

The adoption of Christianity was of great importance in the cultural life of Ancient Russia. However, for a long time the new religion could not supplant pagan rites and beliefs among the Eastern Slavs in "preliterate" period, in the era of paganism. Term "paganism"- conditional, it is used to refer to the diverse range of phenomena (animism *, magic, totemism, etc.) that are included in the concept of "early forms of religion." The specificity of paganism is the nature of its evolution, in which the new does not displace the old, but is layered on it. Unknown Russian author "Words about idols"(12th century) singled out three main stages in the development of Slavic paganism.

FIRST STAGE : they "put requirements (sacrifices) to ghouls and coasts ", that is, they worshiped the evil and good spirits that controlled the elements (water sources, forests, the sun, temperature, etc.). This is the dualistic** animism of ancient times, when people believed that a deity in the form of a spirit lives in various objects and phenomena, and animals, plants and even rocks have their own immortal soul.

SECOND PHASE: Slavs worshiped Family and women in childbirth. According to B.A. Rybakov, Rod is an ancient agricultural deity of the Universe, and women in labor are deities of well-being and fertility. According to the ancients, Rod, being in heaven, controlled rain and thunderstorms, water sources on earth, as well as underground fire are associated with it . The harvest depended on the Family, not without reason in the East Slavic languages ​​the word "freak" was used in the meaning of the harvest.

And the holiday of the Family and women in childbirth is a harvest festival. According to the ideas of the Slavs, Rod gave life to all living things, hence a number of concepts: people, nature, relatives, etc.

It is obvious that the Genus personifies the actual Slavic trend of transition to monotheism***. With the foundation in Kyiv of a single pantheon of pagan gods, as well as during the time of dual faith, the significance of the Family decreased - he became the patron of the family, at home.

THIRD STAGE: the Slavs prayed to Perun, that is, a state cult of the princely retinue god of war, which was originally revered as the god of thunder, developed. In addition to those mentioned at different stages of paganism, the Slavs had many other deities. The most important in pre-Perunian times were Svarog(god of heaven and heavenly fire), his sons - Svarozhich(god of earthly fire) and Dazhdbog(the god of the sun and light, the giver of all blessings), as well as other solar gods who had other names among different tribes: Yarilo, Khors. The names of some gods are associated with the worship of the sun at different times of the year ( Kolyada, Kupalo, Yarilo). Stribog was considered the god of the air elements (wind, storms, etc.). Veles (Volos) was the patron of cattle and the god of wealth, probably because in those days cattle was the main wealth.

Realizing the importance of religion for strengthening princely power and statehood, Vladimir Svtoslavich **** in 980 tried to reform paganism, giving it the features of a monotheistic religion. The pantheon most revered by different tribes was included in the pantheon that was the most revered by different tribes. The primacy in the hierarchy of the gods was given, of course, to the princely retinue god of war Perun, to increase the authority of which Vladimir even ordered the resumption of human sacrifice. The composition of the Kyiv pantheon reveals the goals of the reform: strengthening the central government, consolidating the ruling class, uniting tribes, establishing new relations of social inequality. But the attempt to create a unified religious system, preserving the old pagan beliefs, was not successful. The reformed paganism retained the remnants of primitive equality, did not eliminate the possibility of the traditional generation only for its tribal deity, did not contribute to the formation of new norms of morality and law that corresponded to the changes taking place in the socio-political sphere.

* animism (from lat.anima, animus - soul, spirit) - faith in souls, spirits. Animation of nature.

** dualism (from lat. dualis - duality) - duality.

***monotheism (from the Greek. Monos - one, only and teos - god) - monotheism.

****Vladimir 1 Svyatoslavich (?-1015) - from 969 Prince of Novgorod, from 980 - Grand Duke of Kyiv.

Folklore.

Written monuments testify to the richness and diversity of oral folk art. – folklore of ancient Russia . From time immemorial, oral folk poetry of the ancient Slavs developed. Conspiracies and spells(hunting, pastoral, agricultural); Proverbs and sayings reflecting ancient life; puzzles, often keeping traces of ancient magical representations; ritual songs associated with the pagan agricultural calendar ; wedding songs and funeral laments, songs at feasts and feasts. The origin is also connected with the pagan past fairy tales. And old folk tales, and proverbs, and sayings, and riddles have come down to our time ... Oral traditions have a completely different life than written ones. As academician Boris Dmitrievich Grekov (1882-1953) noted, "there may be grains of true truth in legends." Therefore, an indispensable condition for the analytical and semantic study of historical legends is the separation of "grains from the chaff". Legends about the origin of any nation have always been kept as the greatest spiritual value and carefully passed from mouth to mouth for centuries and millennia. Sooner or later, some ascetic would appear who wrote down the "traditions of ancient times" or included them in an edited form in the annals.
Prose legends, legends and epic tales were kept and passed down from generation to generation. "oral record" of the past. Folklore material formed the basis of the chronicle. A special place in the oral folk art was occupied by the "old" - epic epic. Its origin dates back to the 9th-10th centuries. It reflected the idea of ​​Russia as a single powerful state, and the main theme was the defense of the country from external enemies. Epics of the Kyiv cycle, associated with Kyiv, with the Dnieper Slavutich, with Prince Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko, heroes. They expressed in their own way the public consciousness of an entire historical era, reflected the moral ideals of the people, preserved the features of ancient life, the events of everyday life.

But the end of the 10th century, the reign of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich the Holy, turned out to be especially fruitful for the formation of the heroic epic epic. His reign became "epic time" of Russian epics, and Vladimir the Red Sun himself - a generalized image of a wise ruler. Heroes Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Mikula Selyanovich, Volga became favorite epic heroes.

Oral folk art continued to develop after the appearance of written literature. The Russian epic of the 11th - early 12th centuries is enriched with stories dedicated to the fight against the Polovtsians. The image of Vladimir Monomakh, the initiator of the struggle against the nomads, merged with the image of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. By the middle of the 12th - early 13th century, the appearance of Novgorod epics about the "guest" Sadko, a rich merchant, descended from an ancient boyar family, as well as a cycle of legends about Prince Roman, the prototype of which was the famous Roman Mstislavich Galitsky, dates back.

Oral folk art has been an inexhaustible source of images and plots that have nourished Russian literature, fine arts, and music for centuries.

Religion.

It is impossible to give an exact and unambiguous definition of religion. There are many such definitions in science (as well as the definition of "culture"). They depend on the worldview of those scientists-philosophers who formulate them. If you ask any person what religion is, then in most cases he will answer: "Faith in God". This is true, but only partly... If you start with the term "religion"...

Word "religion" (re-ligio is a Latin verb) literally means binding, re-addressing (to something). Initially, this expression meant the attachment of a person, a person to something sacred, permanent and unchanging.

The word "religion" came into use in the first centuries of Christianity and emphasized that the new faith is not a wild superstition, but a deep philosophical and moral system. In pre-Christian times, among different peoples, the concept of faith in gods and piety was denoted by other words: “baga”, “bhaga”, in the Slavic languages ​​​​the word “God” came from this root (hence the rich - having God, the poor - who lost him or is near God).

Apparently, the real reasons for the change of religion can be understood only if we consider religion not just as a belief in the supernatural, but as, and this is the main thing, a form of worldview. Each religion tries in its own way to explain the world to man. If the world around a person changes, then there is a need to change the way it is explained.

Religion is a relationship between God and man.

ü The emergence of Christianity.

Christianity is the great world religion. In the course of its historical development, it broke up into three large branches: Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism, each of which, in turn, has directions, currents and churches. Despite the significant differences between the believers of these movements and churches, they are all united by faith in Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who came to Earth, accepted suffering in the name of atonement for human sin and ascended to heaven. There are more than a billion followers of Christianity on Earth. And more than a thousand years have passed since Christianity in its Orthodox form was established in Russia. In the social, state and cultural life of our country, Christianity has played and still plays an exceptional role.

Christianity originated in lands of ancient Palestine. The states of the ancient Jews, Judea and Israel, were in a state of protracted crisis and were attacked by the Babylonians, Persians, and the troops of Alexander the Great. From within, their former power was undermined by strife, the arbitrariness of the rulers, and the indefatigable desire of the inhabitants to enrich themselves. In the middle of the 1st century BC. new cruel conquerors came here - the Romans, and the land of the ancient Jews became a province of the Roman Empire. The Jewish people found themselves in their significant part scattered around the world, and the only temple of the Jews in Jerusalem was eventually destroyed to the ground.

ü Orthodoxy.

When Prince Vladimir decided to establish a new religion in Russia, he sent special embassies to different countries with the aim of "trials of faith". Such an embassy was sent to Constantinople. Why did the choice fall on Eastern Christianity of the Greek model? Many serious scientists generally now reject the story of Vladimir's "choice of faith" as frivolous and legendary. They are probably partly right: the choice fell on Eastern Christianity by no means by chance, moreover, there were many serious historical prerequisites, and the decision was predetermined in advance. But in every legend there is some truth. The Chronicle says that decisive argument for Vladimir became ... the beauty! His ambassadors were amazed by the beauty of the temples, their paintings, icons, divine singing, the amazing vestments of the clergy, the solemnity of worship.

The temple of any religion is the concentration of all the most beautiful, spiritualized, sublime. Every temple is beautiful in its own way. But an Orthodox church, Orthodox worship is a special case. The temple in Orthodoxy is a miniature model of the world. Not only priests and laity participate in the liturgy, but also the artist who created the murals and icons, and the composer who wrote the music, and the singers who perform it, the architect who designed the temple, and even the stones from which this temple is composed ... All together they sing a hymn to the beauty of the created world!

ü Features of the doctrine of the Orthodox.

Orthodoxy is a religion strictly following traditions, antiquity . When you are present at a divine service, you can be sure that today it is basically the same as it was a hundred, two hundred, five hundred and more years ago. The word "Orthodoxy" emphasizes the correctness and immutability of this branch of Christianity in relation to Catholicism, Protestantism and other separated parts of the church united in antiquity. In Greek, this term is orthodoxy. Word "orthodoxy" (orthodox) can be used in a different sense, emphasizing that a given branch of a particular religion faithfully and unfailingly follows tradition (for example, Orthodox Lutheranism or Orthodox Jews). The name Orthodox was attached to the Eastern Church after the split of the 11th century (at the same time, the name Catholic - ecumenical) was assigned to the Western Church. But the use of these designations is to a certain extent conditional, since the Orthodox Church also sometimes calls itself Catholic (emphasizing its universality), and the Catholic claims that it is also Orthodox (orthodox)

Dogmas Orthodoxy was formulated even before the separation of the churches: trinity of God, incarnation, redemption, resurrection and ascension of Jesus Christ. Dogmas not only not reviewed , but also remain unchanged in the form of their expression , for every word and every letter, from the point of view of the Orthodox, is full of deep meaning.

Orthodoxy is based on Holy Bible(constituting bible) and sacred tradition which play a particularly significant role.

Of great importance in Orthodoxy is the huge hagiographic literature , telling about life and death, about the posthumous miracles of saints. The compilers of the lives are called hagiographers, and life - hagiographic(from gr. Hagios - saint and grapho - I write) literature. Some (earliest) lives describe only the martyrdom of the saint, they are called martyrologists, others - all his life. Saints are common Christian (mostly martyrs for the faith of Christ in the era of early Christianity), national (Russian, Bulgarian, etc.) and local (Kaluga, Ryazan, etc.)

The cult of saints is the most important element of Orthodoxy. The canonization of a person as a saint is called canonization. The issue of canonization is decided by the Local Council* of the church as a result of a long discussion, as a rule, many years after the death of the canonized. In recent years, in the Russian Orthodox Church, for example, Prince Dmitry Donskoy, the artist Andrei Rublev, Patriarch Tikhon, Elder John of Kronstadt and many other people of various eras and social status have been canonized. Orthodox churches, their aisles** are consecrated in honor of holidays or saints - general or local.

* The Local Council is the congress of the priesthood of an independent Orthodox Church, the supreme governing body of it.

**Aisles - additional altars.

ü Acceptance of Christianity.

Pre-Christian Russia in the field of material culture, in the sphere of religious (pagan) ideas, in the many-sided elements of folk art, undoubtedly reached a high stage of development and turned out to be basically ready for the perception of new ideas and figurative and artistic thinking inherent in Byzantine culture. Therefore, the second step of Vladimir Svyatoslavich in the field of religious reforms looks quite natural. According to the chronicle of 988-989. Kyiv prince, seeing "delusion of paganism", faced a difficult choice, which of the monotheistic religions available in other countries to choose. Vladimir received and listened to the preachers of Islam from Volga Bulgaria, Judaism from the Khazar Khaganate, Catholicism “from the Germans” and Orthodoxy from Byzantium, and sent his ambassadors to these countries on a loan, so that they would be convinced on the spot of the advantages of one or another religion. Interestingly, the Russian ambassadors considered beauty to be the decisive proof of the truth of faith. “We do not know whether we were in heaven or on earth, for there is no such kind and such beauty on earth, and we do not know how to tell about it; we only know that God dwells with people there, and their worship is better than in other countries. We cannot forget the beauty of that , - the envoys told Vladimir about their visit to St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople. Thus, the historical fate of Russia was allegedly decided: she was baptized from Byzantium, and this determined her entry into the system of connections and interactions that had developed in the Orthodox East.

But, as I already wrote, scientists are still arguing whether it really happened or not ...

So this legendary story from the Chronicle, of course, needs commentary. It is quite obvious that the Christianization of Russia could not be a one-time event. This complex process continued for centuries, and it began much earlier than the reform of Vladimir. There is a fairly widespread opinion in the literature (largely based on the Nikon chronicle) that for the first time Christianity was adopted as a state religion in Kyiv, at least in the 60s. 9th century, and that the first Russian Christian princes were Dir and Askold. Invasion pagan Varangians led by Oleg temporarily led to the victory of paganism, while Christianity was pushed into the background, but did not disappear from the Russian land. Vivid evidence of this, for example, is the baptism of Princess Olga. In addition, at least a century earlier than the second, Vladimirov, the baptism of Russia had connections with Christian Bulgaria during the time of Simeon (864-928) and, possibly, with the Great Moravian state, where Byzantine enlighteners and missionaries Cyril and Methodius in 869 (870?) organized the Slavic Church. There is reason to believe that an earlier, and at the same time quite significant, could be Bulgarian, and not Byzantine influence. On the eve of the second baptism, Russia had already received a significant share of what Simeon's Bulgaria owned - the texts of Holy Scripture in Church Slavonic, theological writings "solun brothers"(Cyril and Methodius), etc. There is a mention of this in the Russian chronicle. The direct perception of Byzantine Christian culture as a result of Vladimir's reform was secondary. In addition, it must be borne in mind that after 988. The establishment of Christianity, especially in the remote lands of Kievan Rus, took place over a long period of time and was not at all easy - sometimes by force, and often by adapting to a pagan worldview. Paradoxically, an important factor in strengthening the positions of Christianity was the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars. In the face of terrible danger, the Russian people realized their unity as Christians in contrast to pagan conquerors. With the introduction of a new religion, Russia finally determined its entry into the pan-European historical and cultural landscape. Christianity with its monotheism, the hierarchy of saints, the developed doctrine of domination and submission, the preaching of non-resistance to evil and violence most fully corresponded to the feudal system and contributed to the strengthening of the monarchical statehood. Religion, which has a cosmopolitan character, and therefore suitable for any ethnic group that was part of the state, had a cementing effect on the process of formation of the ancient Russian nationality in the conditions of multi-ethnic Kievan Rus.

Writing.

Writing among the Eastern Slavs arose from the needs of social development in the era of the formation of feudal relations and the formation of statehood.

The presence of writing among the Eastern Slavs of the pre-Christian period is confidently reported by Arabic and German sources of the 10th century. For example, they mention an inscription on a monument to a Rus warrior, a prophecy on a stone in a Slavic pagan temple, and “Russian writings” received by one of the Caucasian kings. As well as the contract between Prince Oleg and Byzantium, and archaeological finds.

Archaeological evidence testifies to the use of writing for domestic purposes: in the Gnezdov barrows, near the village of Gnezdovo, south of Smolensk, a clay vessel was found with an inscription dated at least to the middle of the 10th century.

Chernorizet Khrabr in the legend “On Writings” (the turn of the 9th-10th centuries) noted that while the Slavs were pagans, they used “features” and “cuts” (not preserved pictographic * letter), with the help of which “chtahu and reptile” ** . Since the scope of such a letter is very limited (calendar signs, property signs, etc.)), the Slavs used the so-called "proto-cyrillic"***.

It is believed that when creating the Slavic alphabet, the Byzantine monks - missionaries Cyril and Methodius could use ancient Russian scripts. Initially (in the second half of the 9th century) they created Glagolitic, and at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries appeared Cyrillic, resulting from the simplification of the Glagolitic alphabet. Cyrillic was the most widely used in Russia. f. The adoption of Orthodoxy, which allowed worship in national languages, contributed to the spread of writing. Literacy existed not only among the feudal lords and clergy, but also among ordinary citizens. Numerous people talk about it birch bark letters discovered in Novgorod, Pskov. Smolensk, as well as graffiti inscriptions **** on the walls preserved in the churches of Kyiv, Novgorod and other cities. Under Vladimir Svyatoslavich and Yaroslav the Wise, "book learning" children "people's child", "headmen and priestly children", the first schools for girls were created.

The baptism of Russia at the end of the 10th century contributed to the rapid development of writing and the spread of literacy. The Slavic language, understandable to the entire population, was used as the language of church services, and as a result of this, its formation as a literary language also took place.

The first handwritten books that have come down to us date back to the 11th century. The oldest of them are the Ostromir Gospel, written by deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1057, and two Izborniks by Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich in 1073 and 1076. The highest level of craftsmanship with which these books were executed testifies to the existence of traditions for the manufacture of handwritten books already by this time.

The Christianization of Russia gave a powerful impetus to the spread of literacy. "Book men" were princes Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, Yaroslav Osmomysl.

* Pictographic - pictorial.

** "chtahu and reptile" - they read and guessed.

*** "Proto-Cyrillic" - a record of Slavic words using the Greek alphabet.

**** graffiti (from lat. graffity - scratched) - ancient inscriptions, mainly of a domestic nature, drawings scratched on the walls of buildings, etc.

Literature.

On the basis of the rich traditions of oral folk art, Old Russian literature arose.

ü chronicle

One of its main genres was annals - a weather account of events. Chronicles are the most valuable monuments of the entire spiritual culture of medieval society. The compilation of annals pursued quite definite political goals, it was a matter of state. The chronicler not only described historical events, he had to give them an assessment that met the interests of the prince-customer.

According to a number of scholars, the beginning of chronicle writing dates back to the end of the 10th century. But the oldest chronicle that has come down to us, based on earlier chronicle records, dates back to 1113. She went down in history as "The Tale of Bygone Years" and, as is commonly believed, was created by a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nester. Answering the questions posed at the very beginning of the narrative (“Where did the Russian land come from, who in Kyiv began first before the princes and how the Russian land began to exist”), the author unfolds a wide canvas of Russian history, which is understood as an integral part of world history (under the world in that times, biblical and Roman-Byzantine history was implied), “The Tale” is distinguished by the complexity of the composition and the variety of materials included, it absorbed later "The Tale of Bygone Years" in turn, became part of other annalistic codes.

From the 12th century, a new period begins in the history of Russian chronicle writing. If earlier the centers of chronicle writing were Kyiv and Novgorod, now, after the fragmentation of the Russian land into many different-sized principalities, chronicles are created in Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Vladimir, Rostov, Galich, Ryazan and other cities, acquiring a more local character.

ü « Word"

In the middle of the 11th century, the most famous of the poetic works of ancient Russian literature was created, belonging to the genre of "word" (speech), - "The Word of Law and Grace" written by the future metropolitan Hilarion between 1037 and 1050 The content of the "Word" was the substantiation of the state-ideological concept of Ancient Russia, the definition of the place of Russia among other peoples and states, its contribution to the spread of Christianity. The ideas of Illarion's work found their development in the literary and journalistic monument of the second half of the 11th century. "To the memory and praise of Vladimir", written by the monk Jacob, as well as in "The Tale of Boris and Gleb", the first Russian patron saints of Russia.

And at the end of the 12th century, the most famous of the poetic works of ancient Russian literature was created - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The main plot of this work was the description of the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsy of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich (1185). The main idea of ​​the Lay was the need for the unity of the Russian princes in the face of external danger..

ü « Life"

Hagiographic literature, the lives of the saints, has long been a favorite reading of our ancestors. The life told about the life of people who have achieved holiness, presented examples of a righteous life.

Princes Boris and Gleb, the younger sons of Grand Duke Vladimir Svyatoslavich, were the first Russian saints who were honored with popular veneration and were canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church after their tragic death in 1015. Three hagiographic monuments dedicated to Boris and Gleb have come down to us: 1) chronicle story under 1015; 2) “Reading about the life and destruction of the blessed martyrs Boris and Gleb” by Nestor the Chronicler (end of the 11th century.); 3) “The legend, passion and praise of St. martyrs Boris and Gleb" by an unknown author of the same era.

Of course, in the lives of the saints there is moral and political idea - the assertion of the right of tribal seniority , - and a practical role model is given. However, upon closer acquaintance with the works, the idea of ​​voluntary suffering, sacrifice in the form of non-resistance, which is different from the heroic martyrdom so characteristic of the ancient Byzantine saints, comes to the fore with particular force.

One of the oldest authentic Russian hagiographic works was "The Life of St. Theodosius of the Caves", written by Nester. Theodosius (d. 1074) is the third saint canonized by the Russian Church. "The Life of Theodosius" is one of the best works of the chronicler.

ü « Teachings" and "walking"

At the beginning of the 12th century, new literary genres were formed in ancient Russian culture. These are teaching and walking.* The most striking examples are "Teachings to Children" compiled in his declining years by the Kyiv Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh, as well as created by one of his associates, hegumen Daniel, the famous "Walking" describing his journey to the holy places through Constantinople and Fr. Crete to Jerusalem.

* Walking - travel notes

ü "Prayer"

Much more common in Russia was another remarkable work - "Prayer" by Daniil Zatochnik(12th - 13th centuries). It is written in the form of an appeal to the prince on behalf of the author, an impoverished prince's servant who fell into disgrace. Daniel draws the ideal image of a prince - a protector of his subjects, able to protect them from the arbitrariness of "strong people", overcome internal strife and ensure security from external enemies. The brightness of the language, the masterful rhyming play on words, the abundance of proverbs, aphorism, sharp-satirical attacks against the boyars and the clergy provided this talented work with great popularity for a long time.

Old Russian literature did not know rhymed poetry, but it is permeated with figurative thinking - poetic comparisons and hyperbole, contains many examples of rhythmic speech. The originality and high professionalism of ancient Russian literature were nourished by two inexhaustible sources: oral folk art and translated literature of various genres and styles...

Architecture.

ü Tithe Church.

When Vladimir was baptized, having received the name Vasily in baptism, the prince built on the spot where Perun stood - a pagan idol, a wooden church of St. Basil and called on skilled architects from Constantinople to build a stone church in the name of the Mother of God (989 - 996). The church was nicknamed tithe, since a tithe was allocated for its construction, i.e. tenth of the princely income. This temple can only be judged by the remains of the foundation, decorative elements, and written sources.

As the first large temple in Kyiv, the Church of the Tithes had a spacious room for those preparing for baptism (catechumens), a narthex, or, as it began to be called in Russia, a vestibule. Divine services began in the vestibules, and there was also a baptismal font. The elongated vestibule made the temple elongated. On three sides it was surrounded by galleries-amusements - a tribute to the former pagan tradition. As the first monument of Kyiv monumental architecture The tithe church was an image-symbol of the new world in which the Russian people were to live. It was destroyed by the Mongol-Tatars during the capture of Kyiv in 1240.

ü Saint Sophia Cathedral

After the death of Vladimir the Great, Yaroslav the Wise began to reign in Kyiv, expanding the territory of the city several times.

The compositional center of the city of Yaroslav was a grandiose Sophia Cathedral (1037), dedicated to Divine Wisdom, with an ensemble of buildings, which included the metropolitan chambers and the princely palace. Sophia Cathedral, crowned with 25 domes, the most outstanding monument of ancient Russian architecture and the only cathedral that does not have a prototype in Byzantium or any other Christian country. Such a multi-dome completion is a phenomenon purely Russian, originating in the grandiose pagan temples.

Sophia of Kyiv did not rise above the ground, it harmoniously grew in breadth, and up, and in length.

Inside the temple was decorated with mosaics - "shimmering painting" much of which has been preserved. In addition to mosaics, the temple is decorated and frescoes* glorifying royal power.

With the death of Prince Yaroslav in 1054. construction activity in Kyiv did not stop, but the successors of the prince refused to build such many-domed colossal cathedrals as the Church of the Tithes and St. Sophia of Kyiv. With great zeal, they set about building monasteries, where they renounced worldly affairs and were to be buried.

Along with monasteries, temples were built in Russia - the so-called land cathedrals and cathedrals of the court-prince.

Land Cathedral was the main temple of a particular principality. During the construction of cathedrals, a departure from the Byzantine architectural canon was indicated.

Court-princely cathedrals were built in the prince's courtyard and connected with the prince's mansions by a covered passage.

ü Church of Boris and Gleb.

Under Vladimir Monomakh, rapid construction began in the north-east of Russia, in Zalesye. As a result, one of the most beautiful artistic ensembles in all of medieval Europe was created here.

Under Yuri Dolgoruky (son of Vladimir Monomakh), the so-called Suzdal style was formed - white stone architecture. The first church, the ancestor of the style, built of white stone, the blocks of which were perfectly fitted to one another, was Church of Boris and Gleb in the village of Kidekshe, 4 km. from Suzdal, at the very place where the holy princes Boris and Gleb supposedly stopped when they went from Rostov and Suzdal to Kyiv. It was a temple-fortress. It was a powerful cube with three massive asps, slit-like windows resembling loopholes, wide shoulder blades, and a helmet-shaped dome.

ü Cover on the Nerl.

The white-stone facades of the cathedrals of the city of Vladimir were decorated with stone carvings. The presence of stone decor is an echo of the Romanesque style and is due to the fact that Andrei Bogolyubsky convened masters not only from Byzantium, but also from all lands. Already famous Church of the Intercession on the Nerl bears the imprint of this style. The church is dedicated to the feast of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos, established by Andrey Bogolyubsky in commemoration of the unification of Russia under the leadership of Vladimir.

Andrei Bogolyubsky built this court-princely temple not far from his chambers in memory of his beloved son Izyaslav, who died in a victorious campaign against the Bulgarians in 1164. The graceful one-domed church seems to soar above the wide expanse of water meadows.

The walls of the temple are decorated with stone ornaments, made up of thin columns connected at the top with semicircular arches, thin columns on “blades”, giving lightness and airiness to the dense mass of the wall, zigzag on the drum. On all three facades, the same composition of reliefs is repeated.

ü Dmitrievsky Cathedral.

In the time of Vsevolod, whose glory and power so impressed his contemporaries, the Suzdal land became a principality, dominating the rest of Russia. During this period, Vladimir was erected Demetrius Cathedral, the third masterpiece of iconic architecture.

Demetrius Cathedral is a relatively small single-domed temple with a choir**, which were built in feudal courtyards. But despite its size, it looks majestic and solemnly magnificent. This is one of the most beautiful and most original cathedrals of Ancient Russia. . In plan, it is a Greek cross, without any deviation from the Byzantine canon.

Although stone construction in Russia in the 10-11th century was carried out mainly by Byzantine architects, these buildings differed significantly from Byzantine ones, as visiting craftsmen solved new problems in Russia. Thus, there was Russian stone architecture , which even at the earliest stage already had its own peculiar character, and in the second half of the 11th century developed its own traditions. And in the first half of feudal fragmentation (30s of the 12th century - 30s of the 13th century) there was a noticeable transformation "monumental historicism" "heroic era". General laws of development and mutual cultural communication led to the construction of structures similar in architectural forms in different areas. Movement in this direction Roman style) was interrupted by the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars.

* fresco - painting with water-based paints on freshly applied plaster.

** choirs - a balcony in the church, intended for privileged persons.

Painting.

The art of Kievan Rus is connected with religion in terms of themes, form and content, it, like any medieval art, is characterized by following the canon (the use of a stable set of plots, types of images and compositional schemes consecrated by centuries of tradition and approved by the church). And with the decline of the Kievan state, the art of “shimmering painting” - mosaics - also became a thing of the past - it would have been too expensive for specific princes. The future belonged to the art of fresco and icon painting.

ü Mosaic and fresco.

Among the visual arts of Kievan Rus, the first place belonged to monumental painting - mosaics and frescoes. The Russian masters adopted the system of painting temples from the Byzantines, and folk art influenced ancient Russian painting. The murals of the temple were supposed to convey the main provisions of the Christian dogma, serve as a kind gospel for the illiterate.

ü Icons.

In the 11th century, no doubt, many works were created easel painting - icons.

According to legend, the oldest Christian icons appeared either miraculously ("The Savior Not Made by Hands"), or were painted from nature (the image of the Mother of God by the Evangelist Luke)

The earliest known Vladimir icon is “ Bogolyubskaya Mother of God»(mid-12th century) - stylistically close to the famous Byzantine icon - "Our Lady of Vladimir". The icon became one of the most famous in Russia and was revered as miraculous, later two copies were made from it.

Painting of the times Vsevolod the Big Nest It is represented by frescoes of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral, created by outstanding Byzantine and Russian masters, and a few, but first-class icons. "Our Lady of Oranta - Great Panagea"- one of the best Russian icons, the new properties of which are to enlarge not only the image as a whole, but also the details, emphasized decorativeness.

The Novgorod school of easel painting is represented by original works written in a different artistic manner.

In icons of the 12th-early 13th century. preserved Byzantine-Kyiv traditions. Such is, for example, the icon "Savior Not Made by Hands"(12th century), depicting the solemnly elevated, stern face of Christ with huge eyes. It was the image of Christ the triumphant that was depicted on Russian banners. Two remarkable Novgorod icons are stylistically close to it: the monumental "Ustyug Annunciation" from the Yuriev Monastery (beginning of the 12th century) and the main image of the Archangel, usually called "Angel of golden hair"(12th-13th centuries). The contact of two artistic trends - traditional and freer, with a predominance of local features - is demonstrated by the icon "Nicholas the Wonderworker"(13th century) from the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow and "Assumption"(13th century). Although in general, these works belong to the Byzantine trend, local features have already been determined in them: generalization of lines and enlarged forms, sharpness of the characteristics of images (severity and impressiveness), sonority of color (a combination of contrasting colors - white, red, blue, green, etc. ), which is so characteristic of later Novgorod monuments.

ü book miniature

Along with iconography, book miniatures developed very intensively. Novgorod miniatures from the Simonov Gospel consonant with icons . Four miniatures represent a strictly symmetrical composition, in the center of which, under a horseshoe-shaped arch, there is a full-length figure of the evangelist with an open book in his hands. The Pskov miniature is identical to the Novgorod one. It also contains images of the evangelists framed by a complex ornament, which is a three-headed temple without crosses, which is formed by a bizarre interweaving of stripes, plants and outlandish animals. The faces of the evangelists are rendered voluminously with the help of white “animations”. On the clothes, the illuminated places are also marked in white.

Having absorbed and creatively processed various artistic influences, Kievan Rus created a system of all-Russian values ​​that predetermined the development of the art of individual lands during the period of feudal fragmentation. The period of "monumental historicism" has ended.

Significance of the adoption of Christianity.

The Baptism of Russia by Prince Vladimir in 988 is the largest event in the history of the Russian state, both in terms of its immediate results, and in terms of immediate and distant consequences. The Christian ideal, brought into the pagan environment, stimulated spiritual development, humanized this environment, although, of course, there is always a huge gap between reality and ideal.

Paganism did not separate man from nature. From his eternal circulation, he was inseparable from the world. With the adoption of Christianity, culture becomes aware of itself and its place in the world.

The introduction of Christianity in its influence on the consciousness of a person of that time was a genuine revolution, bringing with it completely new values, new forms of life, destroying firmly rooted ancient stereotypes. Baptism, radically changing the entire sphere of mental activity, came into conflict with the previous religious worldview. Paganism resisted and continued to live in the lower classes. Thus, the chronicles describe "demonic" pagan games, popular uprisings led by the Magi. The Christian Church achieved great success when it began to use the old holidays and rituals, filling them with new content. Typical pagan holidays are the New Year, Maslenitsa, Ivan Kupala Day. The remnants of memories of pagan holidays are preserved in almost all Christian holidays in Russia. Christianity in Russia never won a complete victory over paganism. Gradually there was a so-called dual faith - a compromise balance of pagan and Christian elements.

An important feature of the adoption of Christianity in Russia is associated with the presence of its own written language, i.e. was a word addressed to the people in their language and their alphabet. The alphabet, which came from the southern Slavs, was adapted to phonetics, assimilated by the people, many of whose representatives, mainly in growing cities, were literate.

The architecture and painting of numerous churches being built throughout the country strictly obeyed the rules that even dictated the location of scenes from the Holy Scriptures.

A short time after the adoption of Christianity, the culture of Ancient Russia reached its peak, especially under Yaroslavl the Wise: stone churches were built, cathedrals of St. Sophia in Kyiv and Novgorod, iconography, literature successfully developed, and books were copied, which were decorated with miniatures, like the Ostromirov Gospel. With the adoption of Christianity, the appearance in Russia of translated works of ancient Greek, Byzantine authors, liturgical Christian books, the formation of an education system at monasteries, the emergence of cultural centers.

Like all world religions, Christianity on a national basis acquired new features directly related to the peculiarities of the national character, with the previous cultural tradition, becoming more or less syncretic. Russian Orthodoxy contributed to the formation of a new type of person. This man did not seek to transform the external world, but to spiritualize it. The ancient concept of truth, rethought from the standpoint of Orthodoxy, received the status of the divine ideal of spiritual perfection from social justice. Everyday life, very far from the ideal and opposed to it, was of little interest to the Orthodox Church.

Great importance was attached to conscience, Christian morality. In the most outstanding literary and philosophical work of Ancient Russia, Metropolitan Hilarion's Sermon on Law and Grace, grace addressed to the soul of a person is placed above the law, addressed only to the outer side of a person's life, i.e. legal consciousness did not stand out from moral consciousness.

In ancient Russia, a peculiar type of saint developed, which does not resemble either a Byzantine or a Western European saint. The first Russian national holy princes Boris and Gleb meekly accepted death in the name of truth.

Orthodoxy became the spiritual basis of Russia. There was a unity of language, power and faith, without which the formation of a single state would subsequently be impossible, as well as its preservation in the course of the lands.

Conclusion.

Pre-Christian Russia, which had a rich cultural potential, representing a natural contact zone between East and West, creatively assimilated influences from outside. This gave rise to "universality" as a characteristic feature of Russian culture. For many millennia, Slavic paganism represented a high level of figurative and poetic irrational perception of reality. Found its artistic expression in folklore.

When Vladimir Svyatoslavich in 988 - 989. baptized Russia, it basically turned out to be ready for the perception of new ideas. Perhaps one of the reasons for this was that Vladimir's baptism was not the first in Russia. It is no less likely that the Slavs in antiquity, who believed in Rod, who personified the “national” trend of transition to monotheism, easily accepted the new interpretation of monotheism.

With the introduction of Christianity, Russia finally determined its entry into the pan-European socio-cultural landscape.

The general patterns of development and mutual cultural communication led to the creation in different regions of structures similar in architectural forms, although, as in painting, regional features became more noticeable here. Thus, there was a transformation of the "monumental historicism" of the era of the "empire" of the Rurikovich.

The Russian culture of the pre-Mongolian period rightfully stood on a par with Western European culture and actively interacted with it. The intensive cultural upsurge of the Russian lands, the rapid development of original regional cultural centers were interrupted by the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar conquerors.

But without knowing the foundations of Christianity, it is impossible to understand the roots of modern Russian civilization, the peculiarity of the history of our country, the culture of different eras and peoples. You can study Christianity all your life, as it is a huge rich world, a treasury of wisdom, beauty, a source of deep feelings and experiences.

Literature.

1) World artistic culture of Russia in the 9th-beginning of the 20th century., T.I. Balakina, Moscow, 2000.

2) World art culture, L.G. Yemakhonova, 1999.

3) Culturology in questions and answers, edited by G.V. Drach, 2002.

4) The best essays on cultural studies, 2002

5) History of Russia, M.N. Zuev, 2003.

6) Stories of the initial Russian chronicle, "Russian Word", 2000

7) History of Russia in the 8th-15th centuries, Katsva L.A., Yurganov A.L., "Argus", 1996.

Literature of Kievan Rus (XI - the first third of the XIII century)

The “Book Teaching”, begun by St. Vladimir, quickly achieved significant success. Numerous finds of birch bark letters and epigraphic monuments in Novgorod and other ancient Russian cities show a high level of literacy already in the 11th century. The oldest surviving book of Russia is the Novgorod Code (no later than the 1st quarter of the 11th century) - a triptych of three waxed tablets, found in 2000 during the work of the Novgorod archaeological expedition. In addition to the main text - two psalms, the codex contains "hidden" texts, scratched on wood or preserved in the form of faint imprints on waxed tablets. Among the “hidden” texts read by A. A. Zaliznyak, a previously unknown work of four separate articles about the gradual movement of people from the darkness of paganism through the limited good of the law of Moses to the light of the teachings of Christ (tetralogy “From paganism to Christ”) is especially interesting.

According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the son of Vladimir, the Grand Duke of Kyiv, Yaroslav the Wise, organized translation and book-writing work in Kyiv. In the XI-XII centuries. In ancient Russia, there were various schools and centers engaged in translations mainly from the Greek language. From this time survived: "The Miracles of Nicholas of Myra" (1090s) - the most revered saint in Russia, "The Life of Basil the New" (XI century), depicting vivid pictures of hellish torment, paradise and the Last Judgment, like those Western European legends (like the “Vision of Tnugdal”, middle of the XII century), which nourished the “Divine Comedy” by Dante, the northern Russian translation of the “Life of Andrei the Holy Fool” (XI century or not later than the beginning of the XII century), under whose influence in Russia was established feast of the Intercession of the Mother of God in the 1160s, an outstanding work of world medieval literature "The Tale of Barlaam and Joasaph" (not later than the middle of the 12th century), possibly in Kyiv. Obviously, in the south-west of Russia, in the Principality of Galicia, a monument of ancient historiography was translated - "The History of the Jewish War" by Josephus Flavius ​​(not later than the 12th century).

To the East Slavic translations of the XI-XII centuries. usually refer to the Byzantine heroic epic "Deed of Devgen" and the ancient Assyrian legend "The Tale of Akira the Wise" (from the Syrian or Armenian original). Not later than XII-XIII centuries. was translated from the Greek "Bee" - a popular collection of aphorisms by ancient, biblical and Christian authors, containing ethical instructions and expanding the reader's historical and cultural horizons.

Translation work was carried out, obviously, at the metropolitan department, founded in 1037 in Kyiv. Translations of dogmatic, ecclesiastical teaching, epistolary and anti-Latin writings by the Metropolitans of Kyiv John II (1077-1089) and Nicephorus (1104-1121), Greeks by origin, who wrote in their native language, have been preserved. Nikifor's letter to Vladimir Monomakh "on fasting and abstinence of feelings" is marked by high literary merit and professional translation technique. In the first half of the XII century. Theodosius the Greek was a notable scribe, who translated for the monk-prince Nicholas (Holy One) the message of Pope Leo I the Great about the Chalcedon Cathedral.

Under Yaroslav the Wise, the “Russian Truth” (Short edition of the 1st half of the 11th century) began to take shape - the main written code of laws of Kievan Rus, the most ancient chronicle was compiled at the metropolitan department (1037 - early 1040s), appeared one of the deepest works of the Slavic Middle Ages is Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace" (between 1037-1050). Using the letter of the Apostle Paul to the Galatians (4:21-31), Hilarion proves with dogmatic impeccability the spiritual superiority of the New Testament (Grace) over the Old Testament (Law). In a rhetorically sophisticated form, he writes about the global significance of the baptism of Russia, glorifies the Russian land, a full-fledged power in the family of Christian states, and its princes - Vladimir and Yaroslav. The work of Hilarion, who in 1051, with the support of Yaroslav the Wise, became the first Eastern Slavic metropolitan of Kyiv, fully corresponds to the level of medieval Greek and Latin church eloquence. Even in ancient times, it became known outside of Russia and influenced the work of the Serbian hagiographer Domentian (XIII century).

The rhetorically embellished work of Jacob "Memory and Praise to Prince Vladimir of Russia" (XI century) is also dedicated to the solemn glorification of the baptist of Russia. Jacob had access to the annals that preceded the Primary Compendium and used its unique information.

The most important literary center was the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, which brought up a bright galaxy of ancient Russian writers, preachers and educators. Quite early, in the second half of the 11th century, the monastery established book links with Constantinople and, apparently, with the Sazava Monastery, the last center of Slavic Glagolitic writing in the Czech Republic in the 11th century.

The life of one of the founders of the Kiev Caves Monastery Anthony (d. 1072-1073) is one of the earliest monuments of ancient Russian hagiography. Not come down to us, it was used in the Primary Chronicle Code. Anthony's disciple Theodosius of the Caves (d. 1074), "the father of ancient Russian monasticism", was the author of ecclesiastical teaching and anti-Latin writings, and the initiator of translations of ecclesiastical and liturgical literature in the 1060s. in connection with the introduction in the Kiev-Pechersk monastery (and after it throughout Russia) of the Constantinople Studite typikon: the statute itself, the catechumens of Theodore the Studite, his life, etc.

Annals were kept in the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery, the code of Nikon the Great (c. 1073) and the Primary Code (c. 1095) were compiled. Both of them were included in the "Tale of Bygone Years" (1110s) - the most valuable monument of ancient Russian culture and historical thought. The creator of its first edition (1110-1112 or 1113) is the Kiev-Pechersk monk Nestor. "The Tale of Bygone Years" is a collection of complex composition and sources. It includes retinue-epic legends (about the death of Prince Oleg the Prophet from the bite of a snake crawling out of the skull of his beloved horse, under 912, about the revenge of Princess Olga on the Drevlyans under 945-946), folk tales (about the old man who saved Belgorod from the Pechenegs, under 997), toponymic legends (about a young kozhemyak who defeated the Pecheneg hero, under 992), stories of contemporaries (governor Vyshata and his son, governor Yan), treaties with Byzantium in 911, 944 and 971. , church teachings (the speech of the Greek philosopher under 986), hagiographic texts (about princes Boris and Gleb under 1015), military stories, etc. In terms of its structure, presentation of material and events by year, "The Tale of Bygone Years" similar to the Latin annals and different from the Byzantine chronicles, which did not know the weather records. The Tale of Bygone Years became a role model in the chronicle genre for centuries and was preserved as part of the later collections of the 14th-16th centuries.

The chronicle includes the Tale of the Blinding of Prince Vasilko Terebovlsky (1110s), which arose as an independent work, written with great literary skill by Vasily, an eyewitness to dramatic events. By genre, this is a historical story about princely crimes during the internecine wars of 1097-1100.

The “Tale of Bygone Years” includes the “Instruction” of Prince Vladimir Monomakh (d. 1125), created in several stages and consisting of an instruction to children, an autobiography - an annals of the life and military campaigns of Monomakh and a letter to his rival Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich of Chernigov. The ideal of the "Instruction" is a wise and just sovereign, sacredly faithful to treaties, a brave prince-warrior and a pious Christian. Monomakh's combination of elements of teaching and autobiography finds a vivid parallel in the apocryphal Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, known in medieval Byzantine, Latin and Slavic literature. Included in the apocrypha "The Testament of Judas on Courage" had a direct impact on Monomakh.

Typologically, his work is close to medieval Western European teachings to children - heirs to the throne. It is included in the circle of such works as "Testament", attributed to the Byzantine emperor Basil I the Macedonian, monuments of Anglo-Saxon literature: "Instruction" of King Alfred the Great and used for the education of royal children "Father's Teachings" (VIII century), etc. Some of them Monomakh could know in oral retelling. His mother came from the family of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh, and his wife was the daughter of the Anglo-Saxon king Harald Gita.

A prominent writer of the late XI - early XII century. was a Kiev-Pechersk monk Nestor. His "Reading about the life of Boris and Gleb" along with other monuments of hagiography of the XI-XII centuries. (anonymous "The Tale of Boris and Gleb", "The Tale of the Miracles of Roman and David") form a widespread cycle about the bloody internecine war of the sons of Prince Vladimir the Holy for the throne of Kyiv. Boris and Gleb (baptized Roman and David), who were killed in 1015 on the orders of their older brother, the usurper Svyatopolk, are portrayed as martyrs not so much of a religious as of a political idea. By their death they affirm the triumph of brotherly love and the necessity of subordinating the younger princes to the eldest in the family in order to preserve the unity of the Russian land. The passion-bearing princes Boris and Gleb, the first canonized saints in Russia, became her heavenly patrons and defenders. “After the “Reading”, Nestor created “The Life of Theodosius of the Caves”, which became a model in the genre of the venerable life and later included in the “Kiev-Pechersk Patericon”.

This last major work of pre-Mongolian Russia is a collection of short stories about the history of the Kiev Caves Monastery, its monks, their ascetic life and spiritual exploits. The formation of the monument began in the 20-30s. 13th century It was based on the correspondence and writings of two Kiev-Pechersk monks Simon, who by that time had become the bishop of Vladimir-Suzdal, and Polycarp. The source of their stories about the events of the XI - the first half of the XII century. monastic and tribal traditions, folk tales, the Kiev-Pechersk chronicle, the lives of Anthony and Theodosius of the Caves appeared. At the intersection of oral and written traditions (folklore, hagiography, annals, oratorical prose), the patericon genre was formed in Ancient Russia. The Old Slavic translated patericons served as a model for its creators. In terms of artistic merits, the "Kiev-Pechersk Patericon" is not inferior to the patericons of Skit, Sinai, Egyptian and Roman translated from Greek, which entered the golden fund of medieval Western European literatures. Despite the constant reader success, the Kiev-Pechersk Paterikon did not create a special literary trend for 300 years, until the appearance of the Volokolamsk Paterikon in the 30s-40s. 16th century (see § 6.4), remained the only original monument of this genre in ancient Russian literature.

Apparently, on Athos (or in Constantinople), pan-Orthodox cultural centers, the Prologue was translated from Greek and supplemented with new articles by the joint works of ancient Russian and South Slavic scribes. This hagiographic and ecclesiastical collection, dating back to the Byzantine Synaxar (the generic name is `collection'), contains brief editions of hagiographic texts arranged in the order of the church calendar (since September 1). The translation was carried out no later than the 12th century, so as the oldest surviving list (Sofia Prologue) dates back to the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century In Ancient Russia, the Prologue was repeatedly edited, supplemented by Russian and Slavic articles and generally belonged to the favorite circle of reading, as evidenced by a large number of lists and editions of the monument that began in the 17th century .

In the north of Russia, Novgorod was the literary and book center. Already in the middle of the XI century. there, at the Sophia Cathedral, chronicles were kept. At the end of the 1160s. priest Herman Voyata, having revised the previous chronicle, compiled the archiepiscopal code. The Novgorod lords not only supervised chronicle works, but also engaged in creativity. A monument to simple and unadorned ecclesiastical eloquence is the brief “Instruction to the Brethren” (30-50s of the 11th century) by Bishop Luka Zhidyata on the foundations of the Christian faith. (Luke's nickname is an abbreviation of the ancient Russian name Zhidoslav or George: Gyurgiy-Gyurata-Zhidyata.) Archbishop Anthony (in the world Dobrynya Yadreikovich) in the Book of the Pilgrim described a journey to Constantinople before it was captured by the crusaders in 1204. This event is dedicated to the testimony of an unknown eyewitness, included in the Novgorod First Chronicle - "The Tale of the Capture of Tsargrad by the Friags." Written with external impartiality and objectivity, the story significantly complements the picture of the defeat of Constantinople by the Crusaders of the Fourth Campaign, drawn by Latin and Byzantine historians and memoirists. By this time, the theme of the crusades and the genre of "walking" had a hundred-year history in ancient Russian literature.

At the beginning of the XII century. Abbot of one of the Chernigov monasteries Daniel visited the Holy Land, where he was warmly received by the Jerusalem King Baldwin (Baudouin) I (1100-1118), one of the leaders of the First Crusade. In The Journey, Daniel portrayed himself as the envoy of the entire Russian land as a kind of political entity. His work is a sample of pilgrimage notes, a valuable source of historical information about Palestine and Jerusalem. In form and content, it resembles numerous itineraries `travel books' of Western European pilgrims.

Daniel described in detail the route, the sights and shrines he saw, along the way retelling the church canonical traditions and apocrypha associated with them.

At the court of each significant ruler, his own chronicle was kept. This was done by true masters of their craft: talented writers, temperamental and courageous publicists.

Galician-Volyn Chronicle

Interesting is the Galicia-Volyn chronicle, similar to a fascinating chivalric novel, glorifying the exploits of Prince Daniel of Galicia and his brother Vasilko. It has come down to us as part of the Ipatiev Chronicle (first quarter of the 15th century).

Radzivilov Chronicle

There was a princely chronicle of Andrei Bogolyubsky, included in the Vladimir vaults of the times of Vsevolod the Big Nest. Loving to surround himself with works of art, Vsevolod ordered to create a chronicle, decorated with many miniature pictures. At the end of the XV century. a copy was made from it, which has survived to this day (Radzivilov Chronicle). Each of the 618 miniatures of the Radzivilov Chronicle is a unique one. One historian figuratively called them "windows to a vanished world."

Novgorod Chronicles

The Novgorod chronicles of the 12th - early 13th centuries are also unique in their color. In accordance with the general way of life of a trading city, they are distinguished by brevity and efficiency.

This wonderful work was created by an unknown author in the 80s. 12th century Some scientists date it to 1185-1187, others give a more accurate date - August 1185. The reason for writing "The Word ..." was the prince's campaign against the Polovtsy Igor Svyatoslavich- a modest representative of the Chernigov princely house. He then ruled in Novgorod-Seversky - an ancient city in the upper reaches of the Desna. Together with his sons and younger brother Vsevolod Igor in the spring of 1185 undertook a campaign in the steppe, against the Polovtsians. Igor's campaign ended tragically. After the first successful skirmish with a small detachment of the Polovtsy, Igor's army was surrounded by the main forces of the nomads. In a bloody two-day battle, thousands of Russian knights were killed, and the princes were captured.

The victory over Igor gave the Polovtsy great hopes. Khan detachments Konchak rushed to Pereyaslavl and Kyiv. Another Polovtsian khan, Gzak, chose to attack Putivl and other remaining defenseless possessions of Igor and his brother Vsevolod.

Apparently, it was in these troubled days of the summer of 1185 that the "Lay of Igor's Campaign" was first heard - a passionate call for unity in the name of defending the Fatherland.

Is it possible today to imagine a life in which there are no books, newspapers, magazines, notepads? Modern man is so accustomed to the fact that everything important and requiring ordering should be written down, that without this knowledge would not be systematized, fragmentary. But this was preceded by a very difficult period, stretching for millennia. Literature consisted of chronicles, chronicles and lives of saints. Works of art began to be written much later.

When did ancient Russian literature originate?

The prerequisite for the emergence of ancient Russian literature was various forms of oral folklore, pagan traditions. Slavic writing originated only in the 9th century AD. Until that time, knowledge, epics were passed from mouth to mouth. But the baptism of Russia, the creation of the alphabet by the Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius in 863 opened the way for books from Byzantium, Greece, and Bulgaria. Christian teaching was transmitted through the first books. Since there were few written sources in antiquity, it became necessary to rewrite books.

The alphabet contributed to the cultural development of the Eastern Slavs. Since the Old Russian language is similar to the Old Bulgarian, the Slavic alphabet, which was used in Bulgaria and Serbia, could also be used in Russia. The Eastern Slavs gradually mastered the new script. In ancient Bulgaria, culture reached its peak of development by the 10th century. The works of the writers of John the Exarch of Bulgaria, Clement, Tsar Simeon began to appear. Their work also influenced ancient Russian culture.

The Christianization of the ancient Russian state made writing a necessity, because without it state life, public and international relations are impossible. The Christian religion is not able to exist without teachings, solemn words, lives, and the life of the prince and his court, relations with neighbors and enemies were reflected in the annals. There were translators and scribes. All of them were church people: priests, deacons, monks. It took a long time to rewrite, but there were still few books.

Old Russian books were written mainly on parchment, which was obtained after special processing of pig, calf, and sheep skin. Manuscript books in the ancient Russian state were called "charate", "harati" or "veal". Durable, but expensive material made books expensive, which is why it was so important to find a replacement for the skin of pets. Foreign paper, called "overseas" appeared only in the XIV century. But until the 17th century, parchment was used to write valuable government documents.

Ink was obtained by combining old iron (nails) and tannin (growths on oak leaves, which were called "ink nuts"). In order for the ink to be thick and shiny, glue from cherries and molasses was poured into them. Iron ink, which has a brown tint, was distinguished by increased durability. To give originality and decorativeness, colored ink, sheet gold or silver were used. For writing, goose feathers were used, the tip of which was cut off, and a cut was made in the middle of the point.

What century does Old Russian literature belong to?

The first ancient Russian written sources date back to the 9th century. The ancient Russian state of Kievan Rus occupied an honorable place among other European states. Written sources contributed to the strengthening of the state and its development. The Old Russian period ends in the 17th century.

Periodization of ancient Russian literature.

1. Written sources of Kievan Rus: the period covers the XI century and the beginning of the XIII century. At this time, the chronicle was the main written source.
2. Literature of the second third of the XIII century and the end of the XIV century. The Old Russian state is going through a period of fragmentation. Dependence on the Golden Horde set back the development of culture for many centuries.
3. The end of the XIV century, which is characterized by the unification of the principalities of the northeast into one Moscow principality, the emergence of specific principalities, and the beginning of the XV century.
4. XV - XVI centuries: this is the period of centralization of the Russian state and the emergence of journalistic literature.
5. The 16th - the end of the 17th centuries is the New Time, which accounts for the appearance of poetry. Now the works are released with the indication of the author.

The oldest known work of Russian literature is the Ostromir Gospel. It got its name from the name of the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir, who ordered the scribe Deacon Gregory to translate it. During 1056 - 1057. translation has been completed. It was the posadnik's contribution to the St. Sophia Cathedral, erected in Novgorod.

The second gospel is the Arkhangelsk, which was written in 1092. From the literature of this period, a lot of hidden and philosophical meaning is hidden in the Izbornik of the Grand Duke Svyatoslav in 1073. The Izbornik reveals the meaning and idea of ​​mercy, the principles of morality. The gospels and apostolic epistles formed the basis of the philosophical thought of Kievan Rus. They described the earthly life of Jesus, and also described his miraculous resurrection.

Books have always been a source of philosophical thought. Translations from Syriac, Greek, Georgian penetrated into Russia. There were also transfers from European countries: England, France, Norway, Denmark, Sweden. Their works were revised and copied by ancient Russian scribes. Ancient Russian philosophical culture is a reflection of mythology and has Christian roots. Among the monuments of ancient Russian literature, the “Messages of Vladimir Monomakh”, “The Prayers of Daniil the Sharpener” stand out.

The first ancient Russian literature is characterized by high expressiveness and richness of language. To enrich the Old Slavonic language, they used the language of folklore, speeches of orators. Two literary styles arose, one of which is “High” solemn, the other is “Low”, which was used in everyday life.

Genres of literature

1. lives of saints, include biographies of bishops, patriarchs, founders of monasteries, saints (they were created in compliance with special rules and required a special style of presentation) - patericons (life of the first saints Boris and Gleb, abbess Theodosia),
2. the lives of the saints, which are presented from a different point of view - apocrypha,
3. historical works or chronicles (chronographs) - brief records of the history of ancient Russia, Russian chronograph of the second half of the 15th century,
4. works about fictional travels and adventures - walking.

Genres of Old Russian literature table

Central among the genres of ancient Russian literature is chronicle writing, which has developed over the centuries. These are weather records of the history and events of Ancient Russia. The chronicle is a surviving written annalistic (from the word - summer, records begin "in the summer") monument from one or more lists. The names of chronicles are random. This may be the name of the scribe or the name of the area where the chronicle was written. For example, Lavrentievskaya - on behalf of the scribe Lavrenty, Ipatievskaya - on the name of the monastery where the chronicle was found. Chronicles are often vaults that combine several chronicles at once. Protographs were the source for such vaults.

The chronicle, which served as the basis for the vast majority of ancient Russian written sources, is the Tale of Bygone Years of 1068. A common feature of the annals of the XII-XV centuries is that chroniclers no longer consider political events in their annals, but focus on the needs and interests of “their principality” (Annals of Veliky Novgorod, Pskov annals, annals of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, Moscow annals), and not the events of the Russian land as a whole, as it was before

What work do we call a monument of ancient Russian literature?

The Tale of Igor's Campaign of 1185-1188 is considered the main monument of ancient Russian literature, describing not so much an episode from the Russian-Polovtsian wars as reflecting events of an all-Russian scale. The author connects Igor's failed campaign in 1185 with strife and calls for unity in order to save his people.

Sources of personal origin are heterogeneous verbal sources that are united by a common origin: private correspondence, autobiographies, travel descriptions. They reflect the author's direct perception of historical events. Such sources first appear in the princely period. These are the memoirs of Nestor the chronicler, for example.

In the 15th century, the heyday of chronicle writing begins, when voluminous chronicles and short chroniclers coexist, telling about the activities of one princely family. Two parallel trends emerge: the official point of view and the opposition point of view (the church and princely descriptions).

Here it should be said about the problem of falsifying historical sources or creating documents that never existed before, amending original documents. To do this, developed a whole system of methods. In the 18th century, interest in historical science was universal. This led to the emergence of a large number of fakes, presented in epic form and passed off as the original. A whole industry of falsifying ancient sources is emerging in Russia. Burnt or lost annals, such as the "Word", we study from the surviving copies. So copies were made by Musin-Pushkin, A. Bardin, A. Surakadzev. Among the most mysterious sources is the Book of Veles, found in the Zadonsky estate in the form of wooden boards with text scrawled on them.

Old Russian literature of the 11th-14th centuries is not only teachings, but also rewriting from Bulgarian originals or translation from Greek of a huge amount of literature. The large-scale work done allowed the ancient Russian scribes to get acquainted with the main genres and literary monuments of Byzantium over two centuries.

4. Literature of Ancient Russia ( IX- XIIIcenturies)

Along with secular literature, ecclesiastical literature was widely developed. Medieval literature in Russia existed only within the framework of the manuscript tradition. The writing material was parchment - calfskin of a special manufacture. They wrote in ink and cinnabar, using goose quills. The text was submitted in one line without a syllable section, frequently encountered words were abbreviated under the so-called titles. Handwriting XI-XIII centuries. in science it is called the charter because of its clear, solemn nature. A type of ancient Russian book is a voluminous manuscript composed of notebooks sewn into a wooden cover covered with embossed leather. Already in the 11th century, luxurious books with cinnabar letters and artistic miniatures appeared in Russia. Their binding was bound with gold or silver, decorated with pearls, precious stones, enamel. Such are the Ostromir Gospel (XI century) and the Mstislav Gospel (XII century). The literary language was based on the Old Slavonic, or Church Slavonic, language. He possessed a large set of abstract concepts that settled in the Russian language so firmly that they became its inalienable property: space, eternity, reason, truth.

All ancient Russian literature is divided into two parts: translated and original. As a rule, they translated the church classics - the Holy Scriptures and the works of the early Christian fathers of the Church of the 4th-6th centuries: John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Cyril of Jerusalem, as well as works of popular literature - "Christian topography" by Cosmas Indikoplova, apocrypha (works of the Jewish and early Christian literature, not included in the biblical canon), patericons (collections of biographies of the Church Fathers, monks recognized as sacred). The most popular was the Psalter, liturgical and explanatory. The first original compositions belong to the end of the 11th - the beginning of the 12th century. Among them are such outstanding monuments as The Tale of Bygone Years, The Tale of Boris and Gleb, The Life of Theodosius of Pechorsky, The Word of Law and Grace. Genre diversity of ancient Russian literature of the XI-XII centuries. small: chronicle, life and word.

Among the genres of ancient Russian literature, the central place is occupied by the chronicle, which developed over many centuries. Not a single European tradition possessed so many annals as the Russian one. Mostly, though not always, chronicle writing in Russia was done by monks who had undergone special training. Chronicles were compiled on behalf of the prince, abbot or bishop, sometimes on personal initiative. The oldest Russian chronicle is called The Tale of Bygone Years (1068), which, according to D.S. Likhachev, is not just a collection of facts of Russian history, but a whole literary history of Russia. Another common genre of ancient Russian literature is the life, representing the biographies of famous bishops, patriarchs, monks - the founders of monasteries, less often the biographies of secular persons, but only those who were considered saints by the Church. The compilation of lives required the observance of certain rules and style of presentation. These include a leisurely narration in the third person, the compositional observance of three parts: the introduction, the life itself and the conclusion. The first lives are dedicated to the Christian martyrs - the princes brothers Boris and Gleb and the abbess Theodosius. Heroes are devoid of individuality and serve as a generalized image of goodness and heroism. Chronicles of the XII-XIII centuries that have come down to us. include not only the chronology of the most important historical events, but also artistic narratives. Russian chronicle writing originated in the Caves Monastery: the first chronicler, according to legend, was Nestor, who lived in the second half of the 11th century, and the compiler of the first chronicle was the hegumen of the Kyiv monastery, Sylvester, (beginning of the 12th century). It was the chronicles that preserved the outstanding works of Russian literature for posterity.

The genre of eloquence, which flourished in the 12th century, includes speeches that in the old days were called teachings and words. The term “word” was used by the writers for both the solemn speech of Metropolitan Hilarion and the military tale. The teachings pursued the practical goals of edification, information, and controversy. A vivid example of this genre is the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh (1096), where the author gives his sons a number of moral instructions, writing out quotations from Holy Scripture for their edification. However, very soon this moralizing theme, set by the church tradition, develops into a political testament, into a lesson for sons on how to reign and govern the state. The "Instruction" ends with the prince's autobiography.

Solemn eloquence is an area of ​​creativity that required not only the depth of the ideological concept, but also great literary skill. The oldest monument of this genre that has come down to us is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion of Kyiv (1051). The main idea of ​​the work is the equality of all Christian peoples, regardless of the time of their baptism.

An outstanding monument of ancient Russian literature is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" (1185-1188). The unknown author based the plot on a seemingly private episode of the Russian-Polovtsian wars - the unsuccessful campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich in 1185. But by means of artistic language it was turned into an event of an all-Russian scale, which gave a monumental sound to the main idea - an appeal to the princes to stop strife and unite before the face of an external enemy. This unique lyrical epic work influenced Russian literature (translations by V.A. Zhukovsky, A.N. Maikov, N.A. Zabolotsky), art (V.M. Vasnetsov, V.G. Perov, V.A. Favorsky), music (opera "Prince Igor" by A.P. Borodin).

In total, more than 150 handwritten books XI-XII have come down to us I centuries.

1. Samoilenko P.M. Old Russian literature. – M.: Thought, 1983.

2. History of Russian literature X-XVII centuries. – M.: Enlightenment, 1980.