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5. Culture and spiritual sphere.
I. Culture (from lat. - "culture" - "cultivation, education")
Culture Traits : functionality, quality, value, normativity, creativity (creativity).
Broadly speaking, culture- all types of transformative activity of a person and society, as well as its results.
In a general sense, culture- a set of achievements of people in the material and spiritual spheres.
material culture- is created in the process of material production (buildings, equipment, tools).
Spiritual culture -includes the process of spiritual creativity and created spiritual values in the form of works of art, scientific discoveries, religion.
Structure of culture:
the form - the embodiment of cultural achievements content - Significance for the individual and society.
Culture Functions:cognitive, informative, communicative, normative, humanistic.
Types of crops: dominant (dominant) elite (for the elite), mass (for the majority, commercial, through the media), folk (on traditions, folklore, anonymous), donor (from which elements are borrowed), recipient (which borrows elements from another culture), dead (outdated content).
Subculture - the culture of social groups.
Counterculture - a subculture that is hostile to the dominant one.
Terms:
Accumulation of culture – replenishment of culture with new elements, knowledge.
cultural transmission- transmission of culture through education.
cultural diffusion- Interpenetration of cultures.
Culture acculturation- the process of mutual influence of two or more cultures.
Assimilation of culture- the absorption of a small culture by a larger one.
Culture adaptationadaptation of cultures to each other.
II. Spiritual realm.
The structure of the spiritual realm:
1. Spiritual needs- the need of society and man in the creation and development of spiritual values. Spiritual needs are not set biologically, from birth. Formed in the process of socialization.
2. Spiritual activity (production)- the activity of people to create spiritual values.
Types of spiritual activity:
1. Cognitive - scientific, religious, artistic
2. Value-oriented - attitude to the phenomena of reality
3. Prognostic - foreseeing and planning changes in reality
3. Spiritual values (goods) -what is created in the process of spiritual production:works of art, teachings, scientific discoveries, etc.
Types of spiritual production: religion, morality, art, science.
Religion.
Religion - a form of social consciousness and worldview based on the belief in the existence of a supernatural principle.
Elements: faith, doctrine, religious activity, religious institutions.
Functions : worldview, compensatory, communicative, regulatory, educational.
Religions:
World: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam (large following, outside the nation)
National: Confucianism (China), Taoism (China), Judaism (Israel), Shintoism (Japan), Zoroastrianism (Iran).
Atheism - denial of the existence of God
Confessional- church, denomination - religion
Morality.
Moral - a form of social consciousness, which reflects the ideas of good and evil, justice and injustice and the type of social relations, a set of norms of people's behavior towards each other.
Moral functions: regulatory, educational, communicative, cognitive, worldview.
The fulfillment of moral norms is sanctioned by the norms of spiritual influence (evaluation, approval, condemnation).
Art.
Art - a form of social consciousness and a type of human activity, which is a reflection of the surrounding realityin artistic images.
Art is the core of aesthetic culture.
Theories about the origin of art: game (G. Spencer), labor (G. Plekhanov), biological(Ch. Darwin), magical.
Art Functions:aesthetic, cognitive, creative, cleansing, communicative, educational, compensatory, hedonistic (pleasure function).
Kinds of art : literature, architecture, music, cinema, theater, painting, graphics, arts and crafts, dance, sculpture, photography.
Art features:is figurative, visual; the presence of specific ways of reproduction, the huge role of imagination, fantasy.
The science.
The science - the sphere of people's cognitive activity, the system of objectively true knowledge about natural and social reality, about man.
Elements of science Keywords: scientific knowledge, scientific activity, scientific self-consciousness.
Models for the development of science:
1. Gradual development
2. Through scientific revolutions.Scientific revolution -the process of a radical, qualitative change in the dominant system of ideas and theories (paradigm), which serves as a standard of thinking in a particular historical period.
Functions of Science : cognitive, ideological, prognostic.
Functions of modern science: productive, social, cultural and ideological.
Science classification:
natural technical public (humanitarian)
Education.
Education - purposeful cognitive activity to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities and improve them.
self-educationis the process of acquiring knowledge on one's own.
Functions of education: economic, social, cultural, conservation and transfer of cultural heritage.
Education in the Russian Federation:
preschool general professional additional
Features of modern education:integration of areas of knowledge, development of lifelong education, informatization (computerization), development of distance education (via the Internet), humanization (attention to the individual), humanitarization (increased attention to social sciences, internationalization (creation of a single system for different countries).
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1. Society.
Social SciencesKeywords: economics, philosophy, sociology, political science, ethics (about morality), aesthetics (about beauty).
Society:
In a narrow sense: A group of people connected by common interests and goals.
In a broad sense: Separated from nature, but closely connected with it, part of the material world, including all ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification.
Society and nature interact and influence each other. economic interaction - consumption of natural resources, ecological - protection of natural resources.
Noosphere (V. Vernadsky ) is the habitat (biosphere) controlled by the human mind.
Society - dynamic system.
Systemic qualities of society:integrity, dynamism, historicity, openness, hierarchy.
There are 4 spheres (subsystems) in the structure of society:
1. Economic - material production and industrial relations.
2. Political - politics, state, law, their relations and functioning, mass media, army.
3. Social - relations between classes, groups, nations, etc.
4. Spiritual - forms of social consciousness: religion, morality, science, art.
The spheres interact and are interconnected.
Public relations- relations and forms that arise in the process of life between social groups, classes, nations, as well as within them.
Public relations
Spiritual Material
The most important component of societysocial institution -a historically established form of organizing people, which, on the basis of a set of norms and statuses, regulates their activities and satisfies fundamental human needs.
Social institutions: property, state, political parties, family, church, labor organizations, educational and upbringing institutions, science, mass media, etc.
Types of societies (according to Daniel Bell, Alvin Toffler)
Types of societies (according to O. Toffler)
social change- the transition of social systems, communities, organizations from one state to another (natural, demographic, social, spiritual changes, etc.).
Directed Development
progress stagnation regression
Progress criterion – the degree of freedom that society gives a person for its optimal development. Progress is controversial (both positive and negative processes)
Progress Forms:revolution and reform. Evolution - gradual development.
Scientific and technological progress (NTP) -a qualitative change in the productive forces of society under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution.
Scientific and technological revolution (NTR)- a leap in the development of the productive forces of society on the basis of fundamental changes in the system of scientific knowledge.
historical process- the chronological sequence of events that influence the development of society.Subjects of the historical process: individuals, social groups, masses.historical factis a social event.
Civilization - the totality of material, spiritual and moral means possessed by a given society in a given historical period.
The term was put forward by N. Danilevsky, called civilizationscultural and historical types.Civilizations were distinguished by 4 features: economic, cultural, political, religious. To characterize civilizations, the concept of mentality is also singled out.
mentality - way of thinking, worldview inherent in a certain group, individual
Two theories: the theory of stage development (study development as a single process) and the theory of local civilizations(study large historically established communities).
Approaches to the study of the historical process:
Formative approach (K. Marx) | Civilization approach (A. Toynbee) | Cultural approach (O. Spengler) |
The basis of the transition from one formation to another.Socio-economic formations:primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. There are two main components in the socio-economic formation - the basis and the superstructure. Basis - the economy of society, the components of which areproductive forces and relations of production(method of production of material goods). Superstructure - state, political, public institutions. Changes in the economic basis lead to the transition from one socio-economic formation to another. Plays a big roleclass struggle. | Civilizations - stable communities of people united by spiritual traditions, a similar way of life, geographical, historical boundaries.At the heart of the change of civilizations. The development of the whole story is built according to the "challenge - response" scheme. Each civilization in its destiny goes through four stages: origin; growth; break; disintegration, culminating in death and the complete disappearance of civilization. | The central concept of this approach is culture. Culture is the totality of religion, traditions, material and spiritual life. Culture is born, lives and dies. Civilization within the cultural approach -the highest level of cultural development,the final period of the development of culture, preceding its death. |
Global problems of our time -a complex of social and natural contradictions affecting the whole world as a whole. I are an indicator of the integrity and interconnectedness of the modern world, pose a threat to humanity, and require joint efforts to solve them.
Main problems:
1. Environmental: pollution, extinction of species, "ozone holes", etc.
The term "Ecology" was introduced E. Haeckel.
2. Demographic;
3. The problem of security and prevention of world war;
4. The problem of resources;
5. North-South problem: developing and highly developed countries.
Globalization - Strengthening integration ties in various fields between states, organizations, communities.
International organizations:UN (United Nations); IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency); UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization); WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization); WTO (World Trade Organization); NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization); OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe); European Union; OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Producing and Exporting Countries); CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States); SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization) and others.
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3. Cognition.
Cognition is a process of acquiring knowledge.
Knowledge - an objective reality given in the human mind. Knowledge is the result of cognitive activity.
Subject of knowledge- the one who knows. Object of knowledge - that to which knowledge is directed.
Epistemology - the science of knowledge.
Gnosticism (gnostics)- they believe that the world is cognizable (Plato, Socrates, K. Marx, G. Hegel).
Agnosticism (agnostics)- the world is cognizable within limited limits or unknowable (I. Kant).
Types of cognition: sensual and rational.
Forms of sensory cognition:
Feeling - a reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects and phenomena that arise when exposed to the senses.
Perception - a holistic sensual image of an object, phenomenon.
Performance - a sensual image of an object or phenomenon that arises with the help of memory without direct contact with the object.
Forms of rational knowledge:
Concept - a form of thinking in which the general and essential properties of an object are fixed.
Judgment - a form of thinking in which something is affirmed or denied.
Inference -a form of thinking in which new judgments are derived from existing judgments.
Two theories on types of cognition:
1. Empiricism (empiricists)- recognize sensory experience as a source of knowledge (T. Hobbes, D. Locke).
2. Rationalism (rationalists)– knowledge can be obtained with the help of reason (R. Descartes, I. Kant)
Intuition - a kind of cognition outside the process of sensory familiarization and without deliberation.
Features: suddenness, thoughtlessness, secrecy of the mechanism.
The purpose of knowledge is to obtain the truth.
Truth - knowledge corresponding to reflected reality.Truth is objective in content and subjective in form.
absolute truth- complete, exhaustive knowledge, not refuted by the further development of science.
Relative truth- incomplete, inaccurate knowledge, refuted by the further development of science.
Criterion of truth - a way to distinguish between true and untrue in the totality of knowledge.
The main criterion of truth is practice.
The antipodes of truth are lies, disinformation, delusion.
Lie - the deliberate erection of deliberately incorrect ideas into the truth.
Disinformation - transmission false knowledge as true or true as false.
Delusion - unintentional inconsistency of judgments or concepts with an object.
Types of knowledge.
I. Non-scientific knowledge:
Ordinary (everyday)
Practical (folk wisdom)
religious
mythological
Artistic (by means of art).
II. Scientific knowledge -knowledge aimed at obtaining objective knowledge. Target - description, explanation, prediction of the phenomena of reality. Signs: objectivity, consistency, validity, reliability, a special language, the need for special devices and specialists.
2 levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical.
Empirical level:
Observation - purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality.
Description - fixation by means of a natural or artificial language of information about an object.
Measurement - comparison of an object by some similar properties or sides.
Experiment - observation in specially created and controlled conditions, which allows you to restore the course of the phenomenon when the conditions are repeated.
Theoretical level:
Hypothesis - assumptions put forward in the course of scientific research.
Theory - a system of interrelated statements.
Law - conclusions about significant, recurring relationships between phenomena.
Scientific methods:
1. General : dialectic (dialectical studies phenomena in motion) and metaphysics (metaphysical studies phenomena at rest).
2. General scientific: Analysis is the real or mental division of an object into its component parts. Synthesis is the combination of constituent parts into a single whole. Induction - the movement of thought from the individual to the general. Deduction is the ascent of the process of cognition from the general to the individual. Analogy (correspondence, similarity) - the establishment of similarities in some aspects, properties and relationships between non-identical objects.
3. Private scientific: questioning, examination, interviewing, graphic method.
III. social cognition -knowledge aimed at studying the nature of social ties, social groups, the social structure of society.
Peculiarity - the subject and object of knowledge coincide, the knowledge obtained is always associated with the interests of individuals, the subjectivity of conclusions and assessments.
Target: identification of historical patterns of development of society, social forecasting.
Methods: content analysis (analysis of statistical data, documents), survey, observation, experiment.
IV. Self-knowledge - self-knowledge, self-esteem, the creation of a "I-concept" - the image of I.
Feature - the object is the subject itself.
Purpose: knowledge of one's physical, mental, spiritual capabilities, one's place among other people.
Self-knowledge is accomplished:
1. In the analysis of the results of their own activities, their behavior, relationships with others.
2. Awareness of the attitude of others towards oneself (qualities of one's personality, character traits), through the opinions of others
people and relating to others.
3. Self-observation of one's states, experiences, thoughts.
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2. Man.
Man | Individual | Individuality | Personality |
The highest level of living organisms on earth, the subject of socio-historical activity and culture | The only representative of the human race | Unique, original features and qualities inherent in a person (biological, psychological, social) | A set of socially significant features that characterize a person as a member of a given society, a person as a subject of relations and conscious activity |
Origin theories:religious, evolutionary(C.Darwin), Marxist (labor made man)
biosocial problem- the problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in man.
At the time of birth, a person is an individual. Personality becomes in the process of socialization.
Socialization - the process of assimilation by a person of social experience, forms of behavior acceptable for a given society.
Primary socialization: agents (relatives, teachers) and institutions of socialization (family, school).
Secondary socialization: agents (colleagues, teachers, officials) and institutions (universities, army, church).
Desocialization -the process of moving away from old values, norms, rules, roles.
Resocialization - the process of learning new values, norms, rules, roles.
Freedom of the individual- the ability to create oneself and the world of other people, to make choices, to be responsible. "Freedom is a recognized necessity" - G. Hegel.
Interpersonal relationships -relationships between different individuals on different grounds.
Interpersonal relationships
Personal worldview- a set of principles, views, beliefs and attitudes towards objective reality and a person's place in it.
Worldview:
mundane, religious, mythological, scientific, philosophical, humanistic.
Activity - human activity aimed at changing and transforming the world around us and ourselves. Subject - the one who carries out the activity. An object - what the activity is aimed at.
Activity structure:
Motive - goal - means - action - result.
Motive - a material or ideal object that prompts action.
Target - a conscious image of the expected result.
Activities:
1. According to the content: work, play, communication, study.
Work - a type of human activity aimed at achieving a practically useful result.
Communication- the process of interaction between people, which consists in perception and understanding and in the exchange of information (communication)
2. By direction: spiritual , practical , creative , managerial .
Creation - an activity that generates something new that has never existed before.
Heuristic is the science that studies creativity.
human needs- experienced or perceived need for something.
Needs:
biological, social, ideal.
Needs according to A. Maslow.
1.Physiological, 2.Existential, 3. Social, 4. Prestigious, 5. Spiritual
Primary, congenital Secondary, acquired
The needs of each level become urgent when the previous ones are satisfied.
Interest - a conscious need that characterizes the attitude of people to objects and phenomena that have important social development for them. Interests are incentives for various activities.
Capabilities - individual characteristics of a person, on which the success of various activities depends.
Abilities are biologically based.
Talent - a set of abilities that allows you to get a product of activity that is distinguished by novelty and significance.
Genius - the highest stage of talent development, which allows to make fundamental changes in a particular field of activity.
Genius is a cultural phenomenon of human nature.
"Conscious" and "Unconscious"- these are correlative concepts expressing the features of the work of the human psyche. A person thinks about situations and makes decisions. Such actions are called conscious . However, often a person acts thoughtlessly, and sometimes he himself cannot understand why he did so.Unconsciousactions suggest that a person acts on an inner impulse, without any analysis of the situation, without clarifying the possible consequences. ( Z. Freud).
Being - something that exists, existing in general (being studies the section of philosophy ontology).
Forms of being : material being, spiritual being, human being, social being.
Spiritual world of man(microcosm) - a complex system of the inner world of a person, the elements of which are spiritual needs, thoughts, feelings, worldview, emotions, values, etc.
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4. Social sphere
Sociology - the science of the laws, formation, functioning, development of society and social relations.(O.Kont).
The structure of the social sphere includes:
I. Social connections -dependence of social groups and people on each other (there are formal and informal).Social connections:
1. Social contacts -unstable connections arising on specific occasions (for example, subway passengers).
2. Social interactions- stable, regular connections based on joint activities (for example, colleagues at work).
3. Social relationships- ultra-stable, self-renewing connections that are systemic in nature (for example, friends).
II. Social groups -communities of individuals united on some basis.(T. Hobbes).
Signs:
population: small groups (differ in direct contact and informal communication), medium, large
demographic:gender, age, education, marital status
settlement criterion:townspeople, villagers
confessional:Catholics, Orthodox, Muslims
by ethnicity, professional etc.
III. Social communities-groups capable of self-reproduction.
Ethnosocial communities: clan (tribe), nationality, nation.
Genus - association of people on the basis of kinship ties, tribe - union of clans nationalities - associations of people on the basis of territorial and linguistic characteristics, nation - large groups of people united by economic space, language, culture, traditions, national identity.
IV. Social institution -see chapter Society.The main social institution is the family.
Function family as a social institution: childbirth.The family is also a small group. Family functions: educational, socialization, leisure, creating a sense of security, economic and economic. Family: matriarchal, patriarchal, partnership.Nuclear family- consisting of 2 generations.
V. Social culture- social norms and social values on the basis of which social relations are formed.
VI. social values- the goals that people in society aspire to.Core Values– vital to society (health, well-being, family, etc.)
VII. social norms- rules of social behavior.
social norms(there are written and unwritten):
Moral norms, ethical norms, norms of traditions and customs, religious norms, political norms, legal norms.
Functions of social norms:regulating, unifying, educational.
Conformist behavior -in line with accepted standards.
Behavior that does not conform to social norms deviant.
Deviant Behavior:
Deviant behavior -violation that does not comply with the rules.
Deviation can be positive (heroes) and negative (drug addicts, murderers)
Delinquent behavior -committing crimes.
Compliance is ensured by the use sanctions - the reaction of society to the behavior of an individual or group. Function of sanctions - social control.
Sanctions:
positive (rewarding) and negative (punishing)
Official and unofficial.
social stratification
Social stratification (differentiation) -stratification and hierarchical organization of society.(P. Sorokin).
Differentiation criteria: income(economic), amount of power (political), education (type of activity.), also distinguish prestige - society's assessment of the social significance of the individual's status. Prestige depends on the real usefulness of the activity and the value system of society.
Social layers:
castes - strictly closed layers of traditional societies.
Estates - groups of people with different rights and responsibilities.
Classes - social groups distinguished by the way they participate in social production and distribution, their place in the social division of labor.
strata - informal groups with a relatively equal social status, the criteria of which are income, access to political power, education.
Status
Status - a position in the social structure of society, associated with other positions through a system of rights and obligations.
personal status - the position that an individual occupies in a small group
social status- the position of the individual in the social group.
status set - a set of statuses of one person.
Prescribed (born) status: gender, age, nationality, kinship
Acquired (achieved) status: profession, education, position, marital status, religion.
social role - some pattern of behavior recognized for people of a certain status.
social mobility
social mobility(P. Sorokin ) - the transition of an individual or group from one position in the hierarchy of social stratification to another.
social mobility: horizontal -within one layer and vertical – transition from one layer to another. Vertical mobility can bedescending and ascending.
Channels of social mobility ("social lifts") -education, army, schools, family, property.
Marginal - an individual who has lost his former social status, unable to adapt to a new social environment (“on the edge”).
Marginality - the intermediate position of the individual between social groups, associated with his movements in the social space.
Lumpens - people who have sunk "to the bottom" of public life.
social conflict.
social conflict(G. Spencer ) - a clash of opposing interests, goals, views, ideologies between individuals, groups, classes in society.
Structure of the conflict: conflict situation--incident--active actions--completion
Types of behavior in conflict: adaptation, compromise, cooperation, ignoring, rivalry.Most scholars consider conflict to be a natural, progressive phenomenon.
Conflict types:internal, external, global, local, economic, political, family, national.
National conflictsassociated with exacerbationthe national questionabout the self-determination of peoples and overcoming ethnic inequality, as well as trends in the modern world.
Two trends in the modern world:
1. International - integration, rapprochement of nations.
2. National - differentiation, the desire for independence.
Social policy of the state- purposeful activity of the state to improve the social sphere of society. Directions: 1. improvement of the social structure of society, 2. regulation of relationships between different layers, 3. development of human potential (programs for the development of education, pensions, health care, ecology).
Social politics: active - direct influence of the state (sometimes centralized and decentralized) and passive - mediated by economic factors
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8. Right
Right
1. A system of rules and norms of behavior established and protected by the state.
2. The ability to do something, carry out, have (the right to work, education).
Signs of law (and rules of law):normativity, obligation, general character, formal certainty.
Theories of the origin of law: the theory of natural law (T. Hobbes), the liberal tradition (first the law - then the state), the statist tradition (first the state - then the law), Marxist, sociological. Statism - the theory that state the highest result and goal of social development
Functions of law - regulatory, educational, protective.
Legal culture:legal knowledge, attitude to law, law enforcement.
Differences between law and morality:
Source (form) of law- specific types of social phenomena that form the law and the result of state lawmaking.Sources (forms) of law:
1. Legal custom- patterns of behavior that have taken root in society as a result of their repetition, which have turned into rules of conduct.
2. Judicial practice.
3. Legal (judicial) precedent- a legal decision made earlier in a specific legal case and served as an example for subsequent decisions.
4. Normative contract- an agreement between the parties containing the rules of law
5. Legal act- an act of law-making by public authorities, establishing or repealing the rules of law.
Legal act: laws and regulations.
I. Laws - regulatory legal acts adopted by the highest legislative body of the state (or by referendum), fixing the most significant social relations. There areFederal Laws and Laws of the subjects of the Federation.
Laws are divided into:
1. Constitutional laws(1. Constitutions, 2. Laws amending the Constitution.
3. Laws provided by the Constitution).
2. Ordinary laws– normative-legal acts of the current legislation. They are current (valid for a specified period) andcodified(codes of laws - codes).
II. Regulations– normative-legal acts specifying the provisions of laws. - Decrees, resolutions, decrees.
Legal system (family) - association of states on the basis of legal regulation.
1. Romano-Germanic- the main source is a legal act. (Russia).
2. Anglo-Saxon– main source – legal precedent
3. Muslim - the main source is the legal custom.
The right is shared to private lawserves private interests (family, civil) andpublic law(constitutional, criminal).
Realization of the right – implementation of the law.Forms of realization of the right:
1. Exercise of the right -use of rights
2. Exercise of law- performance of duties
3. Respect for the law- not a breach of law
4. Application of law- carried out with the help of officials.
Law system - a set of interconnected norms, institutions and branches of law.
System elements -1. Legal regulation(rule of law) is a unit of the system.2. Institute of Law- a small group of rights governing one type of relationship. (For example, the institution of gift in civil law, the institution of marriage in family law). 3. Branch of law - a set of homogeneous legal norms.
Rule of law - the main element of the legal system, the rule of conduct established and protected by the state.
The structure of the rule of law:
1. Hypothesis - part of the norm, indicating the conditions for the emergence of rights and obligations.
2. Disposition - part of the norm, indicating the content of the norm
3. Sanction - part of the norm, indicating the legal consequences of the violation.
Types of rules of law
1. By function: regulatory (establish rights and obligations) and protective (measures against violators)
2. By industry:family, civil, etc.
3. By content:1. binding norms(What do we have to do)2. norms prohibiting(what not to do)3. norms authorizing(what can be done).
Branches of law.
1. Constitutional (state) law -regulates socially significant public relations, the structure of the state.
2. Family law- Regulates issues of marriage and family relations, kinship.
3. Civil law- regulates property and related non-property relations.
4. Administrative law- regulates public relations in the field of management, is associated with the activities of the executive branch.
5. Labor law- regulates the relationship between the employee and the employer
6. Criminal lawregulates relations connected with the commission of criminal acts.
legal relationship– types of social relations regulated by the rule of law.
To become participants in legal relations, legal entities and individuals (subjects of public relations) must have legal capacity and capacity.
Legal capacity -the ability of subjects of legal relations to have legal rights and bear obligations. Comes from birth and ends with death.
legal capacity- the ability of subjects of legal relations to independently exercise their rights and obligations.1. Complete- from the age of 18.2. Partial- (in criminal cases from the age of 16, for some crimes from the age of 14, in the family from the age of 16, in the civil - from the age of 14, in the administrative - from the age of 16)3. Limited- by the court.
legal fact- living conditions in connection with which legal relations arise.
legal facts- 1. Law-formers. 2. Changers. 3. Terminators.
Legal Facts:1. Events(do not depend on the will of people), 2. Actions(depending on the will of the people).
Actionsthere arelegitimateandillegal(offences).
Offenses- acts that are contrary to the prescriptions of legal norms are expressed asaction, andinaction.
Offensesare divided intomisdeedsandcrimes.
Misdemeanors (torts) and legal liability.
1. Administrative(in the field of state and local regulation) –administrative responsibility (warning, fine, deprivation of rights, confiscation of the object, corrective labor, administrative arrest)
2 . Disciplinary(in the field of service relations) -disciplinary responsibility(remark, reprimand, dismissal),material liability(damage)
3. Civil(in the field of property and non-property relations) – civil liability.
crimes– socially dangerous illegal acts causing special harm or threat. Comingcriminal liability.
Signs of an offense:guilt, wrongfulness, public danger.
The legal structure of the offense:
1. The object of the offense -what the action is directed at.2. The subject of the offense -who committed
3. The objective side of the offense- a characteristic that includes signs of illegality, public danger, socially dangerous consequences.
4. Subjective side of the offense- internal characteristics of the offense (motive and purpose).
5. Motive of the offense- a conscious urge to do something.
6. Purpose of the offense- the mental result to which the subject aspired.
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What does social science study?
The object of study of social science issociety.Society is a very complex system that obeys various laws. Naturally, there is no one science that could cover all aspects of society, so several sciences study it. Each science studies any one side of the development of society: the economy, social relations, development paths, and others.
Social science -a generalizing name for the sciences that study society as a whole and social processes.
Every science hasobject and subject.
Object of science -phenomenon of objective reality, which is studied by science.
The subject of science -A person, a group of persons, cognizing an object.
The sciences are divided into three groups.
Sciences:
Society is studied by social sciences (humanities).
The main difference between the social sciences and the humanities:
Social (humanitarian) sciences that study society and man:
archeology, economics, history, cultural studies, linguistics, political science, psychology, sociology, law, ethnography, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics.
Archeology- a science that studies the past according to material sources.
Economy- the science of the economic activity of society.
Story- the science of the past of mankind.
Culturology- a science that studies the culture of society.
Linguistics- the science of language.
Political science- the science of politics, society, the relationship between people, society and the state.
Psychology- the science of the development and functioning of the human psyche.
Sociology- the science of the laws of formation and development of social systems, groups, individuals.
Right -a set of laws and rules of conduct in society.
Ethnography- a science that studies the life, culture of peoples and nations.
Philosophy- the science of the universal laws of the development of society.
Ethics- the science of morality.
Aesthetics -the science of beauty.
Sciences study societiesnarrow and broad sense.
Society in the narrow sense:
1. The entire population of the Earth, the totality of all peoples.
2. The historical stage in the development of mankind (feudal society, slave-owning society).
3. Country, state (French society, Russian society).
4. Association of people for any purpose (club of animal lovers, society of soldiers
mothers).
5. A circle of people united by a common position, origin, interests (high society).
6. Ways of interaction between the authorities and the population of the country (democratic society, totalitarian society)
Society in the broadest sense -part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes the ways of interaction between people and the forms of their unification. Politics: micro level, macro level (state level), mega level (between states).
Political system- a set of elements in which political power is realized.
The type of political system determines the political and legal regime: democratic, totalitarian, authoritarian.
Elements of the political system (spheres or subsystems):
1. Institutional:state, parties, movements (institutions)
2. Communicative- a set of relationships between groups about power
3. Regulatory– rules and regulations
4. Cultural and ideological– ideology, political culture, views, emotions.
Power– the ability to exercise their will, to have an impact.
Power structure:
1. Subjects of power– state, political leaders, parties
2. Objects of power- individuals, groups, masses
3. Foundations of power- legal, economic, power, social, information
4 . Power resources- coercion, persuasion, law, tradition, fear, encouragement, myths
5. Functions of power- domination, leadership, regulation, control, management, coordination, organization, mobilization.
Power is legal- legal authoritylegitimate authority- that which is not imposed by force is accepted by the people voluntarily.
Legitimacy or domination of power (M. Weber)
1. Traditional dominance- driven by tradition
2. Legal domination- on the recognition of legal norms
3. Charismatic dominance- based on the authority of the leader.
Political power is divided into:state and public authority.
Theories of the origin of the state:
1. Patriarchal theory - Aristotle2. Religious theory – Thomas Aquinas3. Contract theory – D. Locke, T. Hobbes4. Organic theory – G. Spencer5. Class theory – K. Marx
State- a special organization of power and administration, which has a special apparatus of coercion and is able to give its orders binding force for the whole country.
Signs of the state
1. The presence of a special public authority
2. The presence of a special control apparatus
3. Territorial organization
4. Taxes
5. Sovereignty of power
6. Monopoly on lawmaking.
State functions – the main, socially significant areas of state activity.
Functions:
1. By objecty: internal and external
2. By content: political, economic, social, cultural and educational, legal, organizational, environmental.
3. By the nature of the impact:protective (ensuring the protection of public relations) and regulatory (development of public relations).
State shape- a set of basic ways of organizing, organizing and exercising state power, expressing its essence.
State forms:
1. Form of government -way of organizing government.
Form of government: 1. Monarchy- power is concentrated in the hands of one head and is inherited.2. RepublicPower is exercised by elected bodies elected for a fixed term.Monarchy:1 . absolute, 2. parliamentary, 3. dualistic.Republic:1. presidential, 2. parliamentary, 3. mixed.
2. Form of government – method of national and administrative-territorial structure.Forms: 1. unitary state, 2. federation, 3. confederation.
3. Political and legal regime – a set of political and legal means and ways of exercising power.Regime: 1. democratic, 2. anti-democratic (1. authoritarian, 2. totalitarian, 3. military).
Democracy – recognition of the principle of equality of all people, active participation of the people in political life.
Signs of democracy:1. recognition of the people as a source of power and sovereignty,2. the existence of rights and freedoms, 3. pluralism, 4. separation of powers(legislative, executive, judicial), 5.publicity. 6. elective power, 7. developed system of local governments.
Forms of democracy: 1. direct (direct), 2 indirect (representative).
Institutions of Direct Democracy: 1. elections, 2. referendum (popular vote).
Electoral system(includes the right to vote, the electoral process and the procedure for recalling deputies) –the procedure for the formation of elected bodies.
Suffrage- principles and conditions for the participation of citizens in elections.Suffrage: 1. active(right to vote)2. passive(the right to be elected).signs: 1. universal, 2. equal, 3. vowel, 4. open.Determination of results takes place on two systems: 1. majoritarian electoral system -The winner is the candidate who receives the most votes.2. proportional electoralsystem - voting on party lists and the distribution of mandates between parties is strictly proportional to the number of votes cast.Mandate- a document certifying the rights of a deputy.
Civil society(G. Hegel)- this is a non-state part of socio-political life, protected from direct state intervention, equality of rights and freedoms of all people;Signs of civil society:1. the presence in society of free owners of the means of production; 2. development and branching of democracy; 3. legal protection of citizens; 4. a certain level of civic culture.
Constitutional state- the state, which in its activities is subject to law.Signs of the rule of law: 1. law supremacy, 2 . observance of rights and freedoms, 3. separation of powers, 4. mutual responsibility of the state and citizens.
Political Party- an institution of the political system, a group of adherents of certain goals, uniting to fight for power.Party features: 1. power struggle, 2. programwith goals and strategy, 3.charter, 4. organizational structure, 5. the presence of governing bodies.
Party types: 1. By methods:revolutionary, reformist. 2. By the nature of membership:personnel, mass3. By ideology: conservative, liberal, social democratic, communist.4. By representation in power: ruling, opposition.5. By the nature of the actions:radical, reactionary, moderate, extremist, conservative.
Political culture (G. Almond, S. Verba) - a set of systems of opinions, positions, values that prevail in a society or group.
Types of political culture:
1. Patriarchal- Orientation of citizens to local values,2. subject- passive attitude of citizens in the political system.3. political culture of participation (activist) - active participation of citizens in political life.Absenteeism- non-participation, avoidance of political life.
Political ideology- system of ideas. Types of ideologies:
1. Conservatism- maintaining order. 2.liberalism- freedom of individuality, entrepreneurship, rights. 3.Socialism- a fair structure of society. 4.anarchism- elimination of the state 5.nationalism- superiority of the nation 6.extremism- Violent methods.
Constitution of Russia– 1918 (first), 1925, 1937, 1978,1993 (12 December). The first in the world1787 - US Constitution.December 10, 1948- "Universal Declaration of Human Rights", 1966 - "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights" and "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights".1959 – "Declaration of the Rights of the Child"1989 – "Convention on the Rights of the Child".
Man. Individual. Personality.
(Man, individual, personality; social, biological, socialization).
1) Man is a product of a long evolutionary development. Nature creates man, but he develops only in society. In other words, man is a bio-social being.
Man is a creation of nature. Nature created the human body, the result of the long development of nature is the human brain. Man has many biological needs (like animals): breathe, eat, sleep, he needs warmth. Our body, blood, brain belong to nature. Therefore, man is a biological being. This is also manifested in physiology, in the course of neuro-cerebral, chemical, and other processes in the body.
The social and the biological are merged together in man. Everyone born has a voice apparatus, a brain, but he can learn to speak and think only in society. Every person and animal has a self-preservation instinct. This means that the biological and the social are initially connected with each other, and only in such a unity does a person exist. This unity allows us to say that man is a biosocial being.
What distinguishes humans from other living beings:
First of all,a person has a complex brain, thinking and articulate speech.
Secondly,a person is capable of purposeful creative activity (i.e., determines in advance what he will strive for; creativity, i.e., the creation of a new one).
Thirdly,man is able to produce tools and use them.
Fourth,Man is a social or social being. Only in society, in communication between people, the formation of human qualities takes place, speech develops, the ability to think, etc.
2) The concept of “individual” in Greek is “atom”, which means “indivisible”. The term "individual" characterizes a person as one of the people. This emphasizes the dependence of each individual on society.
The concept of " individuality" indicates that special, peculiar, that distinguishes a particular person from other people. But we mean not just the external appearance of a person, but, above all, his socially significant qualities.
concept "personality" (“mask”, i.e. mask) emphasizes the conscious-volitional principle. Usually, a person is evaluated by such qualities as charm, ability to behave in society, popularity, sociability.
Personality is also considered as a combination of the most striking and noticeable characteristics of individuality. Thus, a person can be said to be a "sociable person" or a "timid person". But personality there is something much more. AT personalities there are such special qualities that make this person different from all other people .
. Human needs.
(Needs, value orientations, material, spiritual)
Needs It is a person's need for something. Allocate several groups of needs: biological or physiological (in nutrition,
in motion, in the air, in heat…)
social, i.e. generated by society (in communication,
activity, love, friendship, sympathy…);
spiritual(in knowledge, in creative activity) ; ti…);
labor(sometimes it is isolated as a separate need)
through it a person realizes himself in labor, which is
the source of his existence.
You can also talk about needs of primary and secondary. For example, the primary ones are the needs for food, breathing. And the secondary ones are the need for friendship, communication, beauty, etc.
Human needs cannot be the same at all times.. They change over time. For example, for a modern person there is no need for a stone ax or a gramophone, unless, of course, he is a collector. And further, needs depend on the conditions in which people live, on the level of development of the economy. Needs depend on from value orientations person, i.e. from what is valuable to him. This may manifest itself in the predominance of, for example, spiritual or material needs.
Needs d.b. reasonable. It means First of all, understanding that satisfaction all human needs are limited available opportunities, natural resources.
Secondly reasonable is the need have normal living conditions.
Thirdly, needs should not contradict the moral standards of society, cause inconvenience to other people.
Fourth, reasonable are those needs that help development in a man of his truly human qualities (in work, craving for knowledge ...).
Needs include false needs e.g. smoking, drinking, taking drugs. These are false needs, because Initially, a person does not experience such needs. He himself "accustoms" his body to these substances.
Human abilities.
Capabilities- these are individual psychological characteristics of a person, which are expressed in her readiness to master certain types of activity.
Abilities provide an opportunity for the successful acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. The formation of abilities occurs on the basis of makings congenital features of the nervous system.
Abilities are not so much a gift of nature as a product of human activity. Abilities are not acquired in finished form, but are developed in the process of activity and training.
Ability types.
1.intellectual, artistic, organizational, instrumental…
2. A) general - mental, developed memory, perfect speech.
B) special - musical, mathematical, technical, etc.
The words "talent" and "genius" are used to characterize outstanding abilities.
Talent are outstanding abilities. Previously, the word talent meant not only special abilities, but also a monetary unit in the ancient world. The most valuable was measured in talents. So the Greek talent contained 26.2 kg of silver. Most often, talent manifests itself in some particular area - in science, art, technology.
Genius- the highest degree of talent development, it is associated with the creation of qualitatively new, unique creations.
A person does not always manage to realize his talents. Everyone knows the phrases: "ruined his talent", "buried his talent in the ground." Sometimes the person himself is to blame, sometimes society.
Scientists today are unanimous that there are no mediocre people, but there are people who are not doing their job. Those. it is important to notice the inclinations, abilities and develop them. In many ways, this will depend on the willful efforts of the person himself, his perseverance. Will– this is the ability to purposefully and reasonably find something useful for oneself and others, the desire to fulfill it.
Volitional action implies - awareness of the goal,
striving to achieve it,
The choice of ways to achieve,
Overcoming difficulties
Achieving a goal and setting a new one
more difficult target.
Man and culture.
Culture is an essential characteristic of the life of society and is inseparable from man, created by man. His human qualities are the result of his mastering the language, familiarizing himself with the existing values and traditions of this culture.
Initially, culture meant "cultivating the soil", but later it acquired a more general meaning - the creation of any values (material, spiritual). Those. in the broad sense of the word, culture – it is a combination of all types of transformative activity of a person and society, as well as the result of this activity.
Allocate spiritual and material culture.
material culture – these are the material results of material production, these are, first of all, the instruments of production, the products of labor.
spiritual culture - these are the results of spiritual production and spiritual values embodied in works of art, scientific theories, architecture, literature, etc. The main forms of spiritual culture are myth, religion, morality, art, science, and philosophy.
The culture is diverse. Mass culture designed for the mass consumer (serials, pop - music, various shows).
Elite culture- the culture of the privileged stratum of society - the elite. It requires special preparation, is difficult to understand (for example, the painting of K. Malevich, S. Dali).
folk culture– culture based on national traditions and values
The formation of culture involves not only the preservation of the culture of the past, the accumulation of cultural values, but is also associated with their transfer from one generation to another, the creation of a new one.
A truly cultured person strives to be widely educated in the field of art and science. An important sign of the cultural development of a person, society is the presence of the necessary conditions for the manifestation and development of abilities, talents of a person - music and art schools, interest clubs, etc.
Add subculture and counterculture
Interaction of nature and society.
In a broad sense the words nature refers to the whole world around us. AT narrow sense, nature - the whole material world except for society.
Nature is the natural habitat of a person, a storehouse of resources that a person needs in everyday life and production activities. Navigable rivers, forests, ores, coal - all this is actively used by people, and they can no longer refuse it. Otherwise civilization will collapse. Thus, nature serves as a natural basis for the life of human society..
Man himself is the result of the evolutionary development of nature. Nature creates man, and society develops. Society is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes ways of human interaction.
Society can be seen as a system of relationships between man and nature. Human society differs from the rest of the natural world in that a person is capable of creative activity, as a result, he qualitatively influences nature.
Man's influence on the natural environment changes man himself. The nature of this influence depends on the level of development of tools, on the level of development of the person himself. It would seem that the current level of development of production, science gives man power over nature. However, nature itself affects the change of man and society. The thoughtless attitude of society towards nature turned into an ecological crisis for humans (extinction of species, pollution of the biosphere, etc.), man-made disasters (the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant), and the emergence of previously unknown diseases.
The interaction of society and nature is considered in 2 directions. First of all , the impact of nature on society, Secondly , the impact of society on nature. In the first In this case, nature acts as a source of means of life (food, water, heat) and a source of means of production (metal, coal, electricity).
Nature affects the development of society, being the habitat. Climate, flora and fauna, geographic landscape also affect life.
Nature stimulates the development of society, since the development of its riches contributes to social improvement.
In the second case, society acts as a condition for changing the existing natural complexes (mining, deforestation) and creating new ones (arable land, breeding new breeds of livestock). Those. the impact of society on nature is a unity of destruction and creation.
Because nature is the habitat of man and the condition of his existence, his impact on nature must be reasonable (rational), and very careful. Otherwise, the unlimited impact of man on nature may call into question the existence of all mankind.
Features of interpersonal relationships.
In science, the concept “Relationship” denotes a special connection of a person with the outside world, it is determined by the fact that a person is endowed with feelings and reason, which affect his connection with the world.
Interpersonal relationships - the relationship of the relationship of individuals.
Interpersonal relationships differ in the form of organization. They may be business, personal, friendly, family, comradely.
They are usually , are characterized by reciprocity : relationship,
interaction, mutual understanding, mutual perception.
They are are emotional those. formed on the basis of feelings. Feelings that bring people together - love, compassion, etc. Feelings that separate people - anger, hatred, etc.
Business relationship otherwise called official (official). They are connected with the observance of some formalities, established rules. This is, for example, the relationship between student and teacher.
Personal relationships not limited by formal rules, such as between friends.
The broadest form of interpersonal relationships is acquaintance. Dating relationships can be both business and personal. Dating is divided into levels.
1) “I know by sight, I recognize;
2) “Greetings” (with mutual recognition);
3) "Greetings and talking on general topics."
Friendly relations arise with someone from the circle of acquaintances, provided that one person is attractive to another and the desire for contact, communication.
Closer interpersonal relationships become camaraderie. They are based on business ties, the participants of such relations are united by a common goal, a common activity. A higher level of relations is characterized by the word "friendship".
At the heart of interpersonal relationships are certain feelings of people. Most often, feelings express sympathy, i.e. inward disposition, attraction, and its opposite, dislike. On the basis of sympathy, people unite in groups. Likes and dislikes of people are selective. It is often difficult to explain what exactly you like about this person. But, most likely, the reason will be the coincidence of views and interests. Unsympathetic, usually the person who offended you did a bad deed.
The most important condition for interpersonal relationships is the desire to understand another, the ability to sympathize, empathize.
Communication. Communication culture .
Communication is an activity aimed at establishing and developing contacts between people; this is an exchange between people of the results of their mental activity: information, judgments, feelings
Communication with other people is a vital necessity for a person of any age. Its role is shown in the following :
- Through communication, a person gains knowledge about the world around him,
With the help of communication, there is a transfer of experience, the assimilation of cultural, moral values that have been developed by mankind,
- through communication, the rules of behavior are assimilated,
Important human qualities - adherence to principles, responsiveness, honesty, kindness - are manifested and formed in communication,
- communication contributes to the development of interests.
The main means of communication is language that ensures the existence, transmission and assimilation of information. Such communication is called verbal. But in communication, a person also uses non-verbal means: facial expressions, posture, gestures. Such communication is called non-verbal.
(Communication is different from communication. Communication is a one-way process. For example, "Chamomile, chamomile. I am a cornflower. Reception. - Cornflower. I am a daisy. Reception." This is just a transfer of information. In communication, both partners are active. In the process of communication, information increases, enriches.)
Communication may be interpersonal, intergroup, short-term, long-term, immediate, mediated(via telephone, mail, internet).
For the development of healthy relationships, it is important communication culture. This means not only the possession of a culture of speech, but also the ability, the desire to take into account the interests of others. As said L.N. Tolstoy, there is no conversation, not from a lack of intelligence, but from selfishness. The ancient commandments say that whoever wants to communicate must:
- trust in the one with whom you communicate, the belief that the person with whom you communicate is good and ready to communicate with you;
- respect for the one with whom you communicate, recognition that a person is the highest value and it is necessary to communicate with him carefully.
Another important feature of the culture of communication is compliance. . Communication should be entered into without a preconceived negative attitude. M. Gorky advised: "Never approach a person thinking that there is more bad in him than good." The culture of communication assumes that a person does not impose his tastes, habits on another .
Where there is a lack of a culture of communication, there may be conflicts. It is important to be able to get out of them. What does that require?
First of all , awareness by the participants of communication of the situation as a conflict.
Secondly , the choice of a strategy of behavior in a conflict situation (avoidance of the situation, negotiations, "struggle").
Thirdly , the choice of methods of action, if the strategy of "negotiations" or the strategy of "struggle" is chosen. Preferably, of course, the first.
Small group. The person in the group.
small group- this is a small group of people (2-7 hours), united by a common activity, goal, similar interests, who are in contact with each other.
Small groups are a family, a school class, a friendly company, etc. Signs of a small group :
- composition from 2 to 7 people;
- joint activities (industrial, sports, family, educational);
- unity of purpose; general rules;
- interpersonal interaction;
- by the nature of relations M.G. can be formal (official) and informal (informal);
M.G. may be permanent or temporary.
The position of man in M.G. calledSTATUS . It defines the rights, duties, privileges of a person. In different groups (family, work group, sports team), the same person may have a different status. For example, the father - the head of the family may be an ordinary member of the basketball team, subject to the authority of the coach.
In a group, a person always plays some kind of role corresponding to the status: the role of a student, father, daughter, etc. The most important is the role of the leader. Leader - (from lat. "leading") this is a person who has influence on others, i.e. the most authoritative figure playing a central role in M.G..
A person, being in M.G., obeys group norms . These are the rules and requirements that are developed by the group to regulate behavior..
These rules are mandatory. If someone does not obey them, the group takes sanctions (enforcement measures) against the violator, who either obeys or leaves the group. Sometimes M.G. shows group egoism - this is a situation where the goals of M.G. achieved by infringing on the interests of individual members. There are several ways an individual can respond to group pressure. :
a person unconsciously accepts the line of behavior of M.G. - everyone does it;
conformity - conscious external agreement with the opinion of M.G.;
collectivism – conscious agreement with the opinion of M.G..
M.G. accompanies a person from birth to old age. The role, behavior, goals and objectives of a person in M.G. are constantly changing, and MG itself, in which a person exists, also changes.
Society. The main spheres of society.
Society in a narrow sense, it can be considered as a certain group of people united for communication and joint activities, or as a stage in the historical development of a people or country (slave-owning, feudal society).
Society in a broad sense, it is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes the ways of interaction between people and the forms of their unification. Society should be considered as a system, i.e. a whole made up of interrelated parts. It consists of 4 SPHERES or subsystems:
ECONOMIC - associated with the production, exchange, consumption, distribution of material goods;
SOCIAL - the interaction of classes, social strata, is associated with the position that a person occupies in society;
POLITICAL - organization and management of society, the activities of the state. organizations, political parties;
SPIRITUAL - associated with morality, religion, art, philosophy, the activities of scientific, religious and other organizations.
All areas are interconnected, and changes in one inevitably lead to changes in other areas.
The diverse connections that arise between social groups are called PUBLIC RELATIONS.
PUBLIC RELATIONS are the relations that arise between social groups and within them, in the process of creating material and spiritual values and the life of society as a whole.
| Public relations. |
|
| Material. | Spiritual. |
| Provide material opportunities for existence and development. | They are the result and condition of human interaction. (e.g. political, legal, religious, moral, etc.) |
If we consider the means, with pom. which people produce the material goods they need, then you can see 3 stages of development of society: traditional (or agrarian), industrial and post-industrial (or informational).
Stage 1 - traditional (agrarian): 1) domination nature. farms; 2) population, primarily agrarian; 3) dominance manual labor; 4) man adapts to nature; 5) the social division of society is unchanged; 6) group (corporate) relations dominate, individualism is not encouraged; 7) man cannot participate in politics.
Stage 2 - industrial: 1) destruction of natural economy, appearance of machines, appears mass production; 2) specific the weight of the peasants is falling – growing urban population; 3) man freed from dependence on nature; 4) there is an opportunity social mobility, i.e. the opportunity to improve their position; 5) is approved gradually democracy and the possibility of human participation in politics.
Stage 3 - post-industrial (informational): 1) comes to the fore in the economy services sector; 2) individualization production and consumption; 3) leading role science, knowledge, information in production and society; 4) social mobility remains high, the number of middle class - people with a stable, high income, but not millionaires.
There are other classifications of society. Societies are divided into:
1. pre-written and written;
2. primitive society, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, communist (according to K. Marx);
The economy and its role in the life of society.
1) Word "economy" comes from ancient Greek "oikos" - house, economy and nomos - law. Today, the word "economy" is used to refer to economy countries, and relations business related, and science on the laws of economic development. In the broadest sense, it is a system social production .
Production is the process of creating wealth necessary for the existence and development of society. In any society interact work force - a person's ability to workmeans of production, those. object of labor – from which a product is made andtools - by which they are produced.
Work force and means of production form the concept productive forces society.
In the process of production, people enter intorelations of production , which include relationship to property to the means of production, forms of distribution manufactured product, and exchange and consumption. (Productive forces and production relations in unity form the mode of production of material goods).
Ownership of the means of production is the basis of economic relations. Property - that's right own, use and manage means of production . Distinguish:corporate, state, cooperative, private own.
Each of us is a participant in diverse economic relations. They arise when we buy products in the store or receive money for the work performed, we sell something.
2) The role of the economy.
There is a direct relationship between the state of the economy and the standard of living of the population (ie the degree of satisfaction of needs). It is related to production. The standard of living implies an increase or decrease in the consumption of material and spiritual goods per capita. And this will depend on:
production volumes in the country;
efficiency (efficiency) of production; and these two factors depend on the use of the achievements of science and technology, on the degree of automation and mechanization of production.
The presence of competition between producers of goods and services. This enables consumers to choose the best product and at a favorable price.
From the state economic policy.
1) Market economy -
Otherwise, .
3 signs:
unregulated supply
unregulated demand
unregulated price
.
2) Demand and supply.
Demand
Offer
goods
State and economy.
State
special bodies.
The state as a system of social management performs a number of socially significant functions:
Political, i.e. the exercise of political power through a system of organs, the protection of state. borders.
Economic i.e. regulation of economic relations.
Social: development of education, healthcare, social security.
Ideological: education of members of society, the formation of value orientations through the education system.
The mechanism of taxation and the state budget allows the state to cope with various tasks. Taxes are the main sources of funds for the state.
A tax is a certain amount of money that every producer, recipient of income, owner of property must pay to the state. From tax revenues, the state finances spending on defense, education, health care ...
Direct, i.e. levied directly on someone's income or property in a prescribed amount. (Enterprise - income tax; population - income and property).
Taxes.
Indirect– for the sale of goods and services (customs duty, surcharge on the price of certain goods).
The government can lower or raise taxes. The higher the taxes, the more actively the state can support education, science, etc. On the other hand, the less the tax burden on the economy, the faster it develops.
Formed through taxes the state budget. This is consolidated plan of state revenues and expenditures. The budget contains items of income and items of expenditure. After the approval of the budget, the government cannot use funds intended for one purpose to solve other problems.
Sometimes the budget becomes scarce. This is a situation where the necessary expenses are higher than the possible income. To reduce the budget deficit necessary: - reduce costs;
- find additional sources of income;
- borrow from citizens (government bonds), banks, states.
The credit and financial activities of the state are aimed at encouraging and developing small businesses, maintaining the money supply in accordance with commodity resources and strengthening the national currency.
The state has economic property, which includes some enterprises, banks, subsoil, etc.
In legislative activities, the state takes measures aimed at protecting all forms of ownership; in foreign economic activity, the state protects the national producer.
. Social sphere of society. Social politics.
1) Society how the system is from 4 spheres. Among them - social, it includes layers and classes, class relations, nations and national relations, family, educational institutions and medical. service, etc.
Society has SOCIAL STRUCTURE -a set of social groups that differ in position in society . The division of society into groups who occupy different social positions called social inequality or differentiation. There are economic differentiation(in income and standard of living), political (division of society into managers and managed), professional (singling out groups according to professions), age, etc.
Modern science believes that INEQUALITY is a positive phenomenon. It forces one to strive for improvement, for the improvement of one's position.
A certain position of a person in society is called social status. Types of status - PRESCRIBED (i.e. from birth: sex, age, origin).
ACHIEVABLE (education, financial situation, qualification)
Unlike antiquity or medieval society, in modern conditions, a person can change his status. For example, having received an education and a good job, showing diligence and perseverance, he can become both rich and famous.
Depending on his social status, a person performs certain tasks in life. social roles. This isexpected behavior associated with a particular status . (For example, we play the role of a student, son, grandson, friend.)
2) Social policy.
Features of the social sphere of Russian society in the last decade:
The increase in social inequality of the population, the gap in income and consumption levels, the decline in the prestige of many professions. Inequality, as we know, cannot be avoided, but in order to avoid social conflicts, it is important not to allow too large a difference in income. This is the task of the state in social policy.
The emergence of new social groups - entrepreneurs, farmers;
The financial situation of large families, the disabled, pensioners, and the unemployed worsened.
Therefore, social policy becomes the main direction in the activities of the state. It is aimed at smoothing out inequality, helping the poor. Social policy is manifested in pensions for old age, disability, temporary disability, support for the health care system, education, and culture.
Social groups and communities.
Society has always been heterogeneous. Social strata are large groups of people that differ in their position in the structure of society. The main types of social groups areclasses, castes, estates. Recently there is a division into STRATES (layers).
The caste system developed in ancient India: a person from birth to death is a member of one caste. The estate system developed in medieval Europe. The class division, like the caste division, is characterized by sharp property and social differences between groups. The formation of modern classes is connected with the formation of an industrial society. The division into classes is based on the relation of people to ownership of the means of production.
Each person belongs to some social group or occupies an intermediate (transitional) position. People in this position are usually called MARGINAL. The process of marginalization usually intensifies at critical, especially difficult moments in history (for our country, this is the 20-30s of the 20th century or the times of “perestroika”). Allocate also LUMPENOV – people who have sunk to the "bottom" of life - vagabonds, beggars, homeless people.
Social groups occupy different positions in society, have unequal access to such social benefits as money, power, prestige. This is what social inequality is all about. Differences appear especially clearly in property status. Social inequality is usually considered as natural, because. people have always been different, and will be different in health, physical strength, abilities, etc.
A person's belonging to a particular group can change. For example, having started working as a worker, later on getting an education, a person moves to another social group. Under the conditions of a caste or estate system, such transitions are practically impossible. In modern industrial society, this happens quite often.
Not only an individual can move. Changes in the position of entire social groups are possible, especially during revolutions.
Because our country has made the transition to a market economy, then there have been changes in the social structure of society, new social groups appeared: farmers, entrepreneurs, managers and others. The position of traditional groups of the population is also changing. There is a stratification among the working class. The science-intensive part of it is quite successful. Many highly qualified specialists - intellectuals have lowered their status or left the scientific or other sphere altogether. The prestige of some professions related to intellectual work has fallen.
Or morality - morality,
; .
. This is the first task of morality . conceptsgood and evil ; honor - dishonor ; , meanness
, - This is another issue of morality.
She governs our lives 2 ways:
The meaning of morality is that
-
Good and evil are the basic concepts of ethics. Moral choice.
Ethics is the science of morality that studies questions about the origin and essence of morality, about what evil and good are.
Good and evil - basic concepts of ethics .
The concept of good expresses our striving for humanity, for humanism. By good we understand everything that contributes to the improvement of life, the elevation of a person’s personality, society improvement. Relationships are considered good trust, justice, mercy, love of neighbor . We consider good movement for a democratic society, rule of law, for rights and freedoms every citizen, and most importantly - for the moral rebirth of the person himself, for his true happiness.
All, what is opposite to good is evil. The concept of evil is invested with the idea of immoral, inhumane, unkind. It's all that deserving of condemnation, contempt and must necessarily be overcome by people, by society. Evil is found where a person is humiliated, insulted, where he is treated not as a living person, but as a thing with which you can benefit. The concept of evil encompasses all negative phenomena: violence, deceit, meanness, theft, cruelty, betrayal, denunciation, etc. P. When the strong offend the weak, when the blame is shifted to another, when they mess around at work...
Good and evil are the basic concepts of ethics. They serve as a guide for us. A highly moral person organizes his activities in such a way as to increase good and reduce evil. All our actions, as well as the economy, politics, culture, morality evaluates from the point of view of humanism, determines whether it is good or bad, good or evil. And if our actions are useful to people, this is good, this is good. Do not contribute, hinder - evil. If we want to give a moral assessment to something, we do it with the help of the concepts of good and evil. Assessing something.
Moral or moral behavior is always a choice due to moral freedom, which is determined by goodness.
Who and how will evaluate our choice? There is an invisible and strict controller. This is our conscience. It should be remembered that the choice of an act always has consequences, both for others and for us personally. And you have to pay for the consequences. Choice and responsibility are intertwined. The ability to act correctly in accordance with the requirements of morality is developed throughout life.
. Spiritual world of man.
Spiritual world
is that
-
- and behavior;
Right to freedom of conscience ( freedom of thought and speech.
Sets two conditions lawful, beliefs: 1) by law; 2) .
.
Nations and interethnic relations in modern society.
A nation is a historically established community of people based on a common territory, language, culture, and economic ties.
The external form of expression of the nation is - national identity (Russian, German, etc.). awareness of the individual himself as an inseparable part of the nation through the history of his people, the national language, the achievements of spiritual culture.
Today there are two majordirections in the development of the nation : differentiation and integration.
Differentiation manifests itself in the natural desire for national independence, the development of national culture, economics, politics, etc. Integration manifests itself in the expansion of ties between different nations, the breaking down of national barriers, the development of communication in the field of culture, the deepening of economic and political relations.
One of the leading factors in the development of mankind today is the scientific and technological revolution. It involves extensive cooperation. There is a process of economic integration, and with it the process of rapprochement of peoples. An example is the European Union, which unites a dozen and a half European countries. A single European law has been developed, in case of conflicts, a European court is organized to solve complex problems, the decisions of which are binding on all states.
There are about 2,000 nations and about 180 states in the world, that is, almost all states are multinational. Interethnic relations do not always develop successfully. Sometimes a NATIONAL QUESTION arises, i.e. a situation of dissatisfaction with their position of representatives of certain nationalities, caused by infringement of rights.
Causes of international problems may be the following:
territorial disputes,
Inequality of socio-economic conditions, different representation in power;
Controversies associated with the use of language;
Any infringement of rights on a national basis, prejudice, anger, low culture.
For our multinational country, the implementation of a well-thought-out national policy is a very important task. The documents that determine the national policy in our country are the Constitution of the Russian Federation, as well as the “Concept of National Policy of the Russian Federation” adopted in 1996, which proclaim, first of all, the equality of all nations and nationalities and the prohibition of inciting ethnic hatred.
The following measures will help to normalize interethnic relations in our state:
Irreconcilability to manifestations of national hatred;
Guaranteed equality of people regardless of nationality by the state;
Granting national-territorial autonomy;
Guarantee of cultural and national autonomy;
Guarantee of the right to use one's native language;
The right to national associations;
Legislative prohibition of inciting ethnic hatred, racial and religious hatred, propaganda of exclusivity on a national basis.
Politics, its role in the life of society.
Politics(from Greek) - the art of government.
These are the relations between social groups concerning the authorities, the state, this is participation in the affairs of the state, the definition of tasks, the content of the state's activities.
Politics and everything connected with it is usually attributed to the political sphere. A special feature of politics is that it unites the interests of large masses of people into a single whole. The most active representatives of these social groups unite in parties expressing their interests.
Political parties are active. They hold meetings and conferences to discuss goals and objectives, organize rallies, distribute printed publications, nominate candidates for deputies, campaign for them.
The majority of citizens are involved in politics, participating in elections, referenda (popular vote on major issues, such as the constitution).
Politics is of an authoritative nature, tk. it is impossible to achieve the set goals without coercion, without strong-willed efforts.
Power- this is an opportunity, the ability to dispose of someone, something; it is the force that regulates relations in society.
Political power is the real ability of a class, group, individual to put into practice their will, expressed in politics.
Polit. the authorities manage monetary and material resources, issue laws that are binding on everyone, and stop violations of the law.
Signs watered. authorities:
1. legal use of force;
2. binding decisions for any other power;
3. publicity of power, i.e. distribution to all citizens;
4. the presence of a single decision-making center.
The role of politics in the life of society:
1) politics in modern demos. expresses the interests of all groups and strata of the population;
2) political socialization of the individual, i.e. inclusion of people in political life;
3) maintaining order and stability in society;
4) management and leadership of society, resolution of emerging contradictions.
Political parties and movements. Multi-party system.
Political parties -These are associations of like-minded people expressing the interests of large social groups. Parties justify political goals, develop ways to fight for power.
Because social groups are diverse, diverse and their interests. Therefore, in democratic countries there is not one, but several parties. They compete with each other in the struggle for power and for voters. When one party is in power, which pursues a certain policy, then other parties that do not agree with this policy criticize the ruling party, being in it. opposition. Criticizing the policy of the ruling party, offering voters their own version of the policy, the opposition expects to come to power in the next elections.
The presence of 2 or more parties is called a multi-party system. In the presence of a multi-party system, one or another party, replacing each other, comes to power. (The consignment, which receives the most votes in an election becomes ruling, the rest in opposition).
In the modern world in different countries there are a large number of parties. In the US, the most influential are 2 - Republican and Democratic, in the UK - Conservative and Labor.
In our country at the beginning of the 20th century, there were also several parties. In the future, for many years there was only one party - the COMMUNIST.
Currently in RF about 50 parties, the most influential Communist Party, United Russia, Union of Right Forces, LDPR.
Signs of modern parties:
Voluntary association of citizens
P.p. not only participates in politics, but also seeks to conquer the watered. authorities;
Availability of a program, charter, organization, governing core;
Own property, financial resources;
Own symbols, badges, banners.
Political tasks. parties:
1. influence the formation of public opinion, the growth of watered. culture of citizens;
2. organizing the participation of citizens in political life;
3. influence on the activities of parliament and government;
4. education of party members, promotion of political leaders.
Socio-political movements- political entities that are not part of the state and party structures, but which influence the political. a life.
Their types: socio-political, social, military-patriotic, national, ecological…
Property, its forms. Legal regulation of property.
Ownership is the attitude to a thing as to one's own. Ownership means possession, use and disposal.
Own(in economics) is the relation to the means of production with
the purpose of obtaining income (profit) is the right to own, use and dispose of the means of production. Ownership of the means of production is the basis of economic relations. Its forms are distinguished:
1 .
Korporagavna
i (stock) form of ownership,
The second shareholder is entitled to receive a share of the income of the share
stock company (dividends) corresponding to the amount of shares
tions, and the right to participate in the management of its affairs. Owner
shares can be any member of the company. To resolve issues
concerning the affairs of the joint-stock company, a management is created, in
which includes shareholders holding a significant part of the shares
(control laket).
2. Private property (legal entities - organizations and individuals-citizens) represented in agriculture, craft, trade, services. Private property plays a big role, it stimulates initiative and enterprise, responsible attitude to work.
3. State property. First of all, it includes some large industrial enterprises, banks, railways, energy, communications, etc. The state, by creating enterprises, contributes to the development of science-intensive industries or takes over the technical re-equipment of the weak sectors of the economy.
4.Cooperative property is property created by a group of people who voluntarily come together to share their own property
in business activities. Activities are carried out on the basis of self-government, i.e. the participants of the cooperative themselves jointly resolve issues of economic activity, elect
governing bodies. Income is distributed on a share basis.
5. Collective form of ownership - the labor collective, being the owner, participates in the management of production, elects the head of the enterprise, controls the financial and other activities of the administration.
6. Property of religious and public organizations.
7. Municipal- the property of urban and rural settlements.
Ownership is enshrined in law and can be protected in court. Relations aboutproperty ispropertyvenous relation(Relations buying, selling, using, renting, donating, inheriting and much more related to this or that property). Regulations governingproperty relations are fixedCivil Law, Consumer Protection Law, etc. In modern conditions of the formation of a market economy, it is necessary to know the rules governing property relations.
The legal culture contributes to the protection of the interests of the owner's rights in the preparation of contractual relations, primarily sales contracts, the full and timely fulfillment of their obligations.
Rights and obligations of citizens of the Russian Federation.
The rights, freedoms and duties of citizens of the Russian Federation are enshrined in the Constitution. It also establishes the principle of mutual responsibility of the state and the citizen. Man, his rights and freedoms are the highest value. their observance is the main duty of the state. So it is written in the Constitution - the basic law of the state.
The Russian state is obliged to pursue a social policy aimed at ensuring a decent life and free development of citizens.
The citizen, in turn, must
- I will complygive the Constitution and other normative acts of the state,
- pay taxes; protect the environment;
-protectfatherland.
The Constitution of the Russian Federation enshrines generally recognized democratic values and regulates the most important relations between a person, society, and the state. It guarantees and citizens' rights:
- the right to life, to personal freedom;
- personal integrity;
- on non-interference in personal life; to the secrecy of correspondence;
-to own property, etc.
- freedom of speech, freedom of movement
- the right to work; social Security;
- freedom of peaceful assembly and association, access to public service;
- participation in government and public affairs,
- in the cultural life of the country;
- the right to free education; medical care, etc.
The rights of citizens are inseparable from duties.
State, its main features. Forms of government.
State- a special form of organization of political power in society, which has sovereignty and manages with the help of
special bodies.
The state did not always exist. The emergence of state - a long historical process (for example, in Western Europe, the state arose in 500 among the Franks, and the Russian state - in the 9th century).
There are several theories of the origin of the state:
divine, class
negotiable
State signs:
unity of the territory.
public authority. It extends to the entire population of the country, for its implementation a special administrative apparatus is created, the army, the police, intelligence ....
Sovereignty. Interior means that the government above the power of any other organization in society, its decisions are binding on all; external manifested in independence from other states.
legislative activity: only state. has the exclusive right to make laws. With the help of the legal norms of the state. fixes a certain social order.
Tax fees, they are necessary to solve the social economy. and cultural tasks, for the maintenance of the state. apparatus.
State functions:
1. Political, i.e. the exercise of political power through a system of organs, the protection of state. borders.
2. Economic i.e. regulation of economic relations.
3. Social: development of education, healthcare, social security.
4. Ideological: education of members of society, the formation of value orientations through the education system.
State forms.
Political regime- a set of methods and methods for the implementation of state. authorities.
Democracy (power of the people) - power is exercised by the people through elected representatives, multiparty, broad dem. rights and freedoms, equality before law.
Totalitarianism (from Latin full. Universal) - the imposition of a single ideology, a one-party system, a powerful punitive system, terror ..
Legal state, its main features.
The legal state is which in all its activities is subject to law and its main goal is to ensure human rights and freedoms.
Legal state. developed in many countries of the world in the last third of the 20th century. In the first place in it is law, in the second place is the state, which means the rule of law in society, in all its spheres. The legal state ensures all human and civil rights.
Signs of the rule of law:
Executive
Law supremacy . Not a single state body, not a single official, not a single person is released from the obligation to obey the law. State. power is formed strictly in accordance with the Constitution and other laws. acts. State bodies and officials have the right to do only what follows from the Constitution and other laws.
Guarantee of the rights and freedoms of citizens . The state must pass such laws that recognize, guarantee and reliably protect human rights, freedom and equality of all. Recognition that rights belong to a person by birthright.
Equality of all citizens before the law regardless of the position or social status, i.e. position in society.
Separation of powers into 3 branches Legislative
Judicial
This should prevent the concentration of the entirety of the state. power in the same hands and provide citizens with the opportunity to control the state.
Independent Court designed to act in accordance with the law.
Priority of international law .
Constitutional state - this is the movement of mankind towards freedom, the desire to create a state capable of protecting and respecting the rights, honor, dignity of the individual as the highest value.
Law, its role in human life and society.
Every human society needs a clear organization of people's activities, their behavior in order to protect the lives of members of society, their property. Gradually, general rules were formed, enshrined in traditions, morality, which exactly indicated to everyone how to act in a given situation. Later, the law associated with the formation of the state appears.
Right -is a set of binding norms (rules) established by the state . Norms reinforce the historically established ideas of order and justice in society.
Signs of law:
The right is expressed in normative acts.
Accepted by government agencies.
There is always legal liability for violation of a right.
Law regulates only actions, does not interfere with people's feelings.
Law is not eternal and can be changed.
The system of law includes large groups of legal norms, which are commonly called branches of law. Branches of law- groups of legal norms united by a commonality of regulated relations. There are many branches of law constitutional(fixing the form of government, the rights and obligations of citizens, the functions of the highest authorities),
- administrative(regulating public relations related to the activities of officials and government bodies, for example, traffic rules),
civil(regulating property and personal non-property relations),
labor(regulating labor relations),
criminal (determining which socially dangerous acts are a crime),
family(regulates family and marriage relations, etc.
Law establishes order and justice by clearly defining the measure of human freedom. True freedom consists in knowing how to properly use your rights and respect the rights of other people.
Normative legal acts are considered as sources of law:
The Constitution of the Russian Federation
federal laws,
Decrees of the President,
government decrees,
normative acts of ministries and departments.
By legal force, all legal acts are divided into the laws(1,2) and regulations (3,4,5).
Law – This is a normative act that regulates the most important social relations and is adopted by parliament or the people at a referendum. The law of supreme legal force, to which other normative acts are subordinated, is the Constitution.
Regulations- these are normative acts that are issued on the basis of laws and contain legal norms.
The role of law (or functions of law):
Implementation of justice.
Regulation of relations between people (regulatory).
Ensuring public order (protective).
Legal responsibility and its types.
concept "legal (legal) liability" used in 2 senses. First of all, this is an internal quality of a citizen, manifested in a person's respect for law and legal law, in the conscious and voluntary observance of law. Secondly, This is the application of measures of state coercion for the committed offense. And if moral responsibility is responsibility to others and to one's own conscience, then legal responsibility is responsibility before the law and the court.
The types of legal liability depend on the natureoffenses.
Offense
Signs of an offense: a) ; b) ; in) ; G) e) social harm.
Offenses
| A crime | misdemeanor |
| similarity. |
|
| Differences. |
|
| More dangerous Provides for criminal liability (deprivation of liberty, confiscation of property) | Less serious offense (warning, penalty) |
Allocate criminal, civil, administrative, disciplinary responsibility.
The most severe, strict and tough type of liability - criminal. This is responsibility for crimes, and consists in applying criminal penalties to the guilty - imprisonment, confiscation of property, etc. . It is carried out only in a judicial order. Criminal liability comes from 16 years, and for some crimes with 14 years old(murder, kidnapping, rape, robbery, terrorism, hostage taking, false report of terrorism, etc.).
Administrative- comes for committing an administrative offense, involves warning, fine, deprivation of special rights, administrative arrest up to 15 days, imposed by government authorities.
Disciplinary- comes as a result of committing disciplinary violations; includes sanctions such as reprimand, reprimand, reprimand, dismissal .
Civil Law- is of a property nature and has a compensatory focus. The amount of liability usually corresponds to the amount of harm caused. Sanctions - fines, penalties, forfeit.
The Constitution of the Russian Federation. Fundamentals of the constitutional order of the Russian Federation .
1) Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted by popular vote (i.e. in a referendum) December 12, 1993. It consists of an introductory part (preamble) and two parts.
Constitution (fromlat. - “device, establishment” ) is the main, fundamental law of the state, establishing the state. device, form of government, state structure. authorities, fixing the rights, freedoms, duties of citizens, etc.
The Constitution establishes the principle of mutual responsibility of the state and the individual. A person, his rights and freedoms are the highest value, their observance is the main duty of the state
One of the first constitutions was adopted in the United States in 1787. Before 1918, Russia did not have a constitution. The Constitution of 1993 is the fifth for our country (1918, 1924, 1936, 1977), but the first democratic one.
The Constitution of the Russian Federation is the fundamental law of the country, which has the highest legal force. It means. that all other laws must be guided by the Constitution, cannot contradict it. (If the Constitution states that the right to freedom of speech is guaranteed, then no one can impose censorship; if it says that labor is free, then no one can impose forced labor).
All articles of our Constitution have direct effect. And if you think that any article has been violated, you can go to court, referring to the relevant article.
Before the Constitution are 3 main tasks:
consolidate and guarantee fundamental human rights.
Organize state power. The organization of power must exclude its concentration in one hand, i.e. there should be a separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. The status of the president is clearly defined.
Assert justice. It should be an independent and strong government.
2) Fundamentals of the constitutional system.
Build, i.e. certain structure of society. The constitutional order determines
Principles of economic relations;
Relations between state and church.
the essence of the state (form of government, state structure, political regime);
The legal status of the individual;
Fundamentals of the constitutional system of the Russian Federation.
RF is a democratic legal state.
Russia is a federal state with a republican form of government.
Democracy, i.e. the only source of power in the Russian Federation is a multinational people who exercise their power both directly (referendum, elections) and through state authorities and local self-government.
Separation of power into legislative, executive and judicial.
Man, his rights and freedoms are the highest value.
RF is a social and secular state. The first means pursuing a social policy that ensures a decent existence. The second is the separation of church from state and school from church.
Local government guarantee.
Political and ideological diversity (multi-party system, no single ideology).
Diversity and equality of forms of ownership (private, state, pile driver…).
Supreme legal force and direct effect of the Constitution.
Offense, types of offences.
Offense- it is a violation of the law; illegal action of a citizen, organization.
Signs of an offense: a) wrongfulness, i.e. law violation; b) the presence of guilt in the actions of the offender, i.e. intent; in) this is an act expressed in action or inaction (but not thought); G) sanity, legal capacity of the persons who committed the offense; e) social harm.
Offenses
| A crime- a guilty socially dangerous act prohibited by the Criminal Code. The law considers it a crime to prepare for it. (Murder, grievous bodily harm, kidnapping, robbery). | misdemeanor- an offense not directly provided for by criminal law is characterized by a lesser degree of harmfulness. (Drunkenness in a public place, ticketless travel, absenteeism). |
| similarity. They are an encroachment on order, they violate the established law. |
|
| Differences. |
|
| More dangerous Criminal liability (imprisonment, confiscation of property) is envisaged. | Less serious offense Non-criminal punishment (warning, fine, seizure of an object that has become an instrument of an offense, confiscation). |
Citizens who have reached the age of 16 can be recognized as offenders, and for a number of crimes (murder, kidnapping, car theft, hostage-taking, false reporting of terrorism, etc.) from the age of 14.
Crimes can be committed in the form of action or inaction. Crime is distinguished from misdemeanor by 3 signs;
The perfect must be very dangerous for society and the state;
The act must violate the norms of criminal law;
The person must be guilty.
Crimes committed in a group are considered especially dangerous. organized (organizer, performer; instigator, accomplice).
The basis of criminal liability is the commission of an act containing all the signs of a crime. The elements of a crime include:
The subject of the crime, i.e. the person who committed the crime;
The object of the crime (property, public safety, state power);
The culpability of the act in the form of intent (direct and indirect) or negligence;
The act itself and the resulting consequences.
Human rights. Protection of human rights.
The idea of human rights was developed in ancient Rome. The rights of Roman citizens were divided into 2 groups: public, i.e. public (the right to vote at the people's assembly, the right to hold public office) and private, i.e. benefiting an individual (for property and land, for marriage). Later, the idea of human rights was developed by educators. In modern Russia, human rights are enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation. They are divided into several groups.
Personal rights and freedoms protect privacy, freedom from outside interference. Among them : the right to live; to the inviolability of the home;
To liberty and security of person; to protect the dignity of the individual;
On the secrecy of correspondence and other communications; to privacy;
Freedom of movement and choice of residence; to freedom of conscience;
To use their native language; the right to determine and indicate nat. belonging.
Political rights and freedoms provide citizens with participation in political life, the implementation of state. authorities. These include:
Freedom of thought and speech; the right to seek, receive, transmit, distribute information in any legal way;
The right to assemble peacefully and without weapons, to hold meetings, rallies, processions;
The right to participate in the management of state affairs. directly and through present th;
The right of citizens to apply to the state. bodies and bodies of local self-government.
Economic rights provide participation in economic activities:
The right to work, to property, to entrepreneurship;
The right to work in conditions that meet safety requirements;
The right to remuneration for work not lower than the established min. wages
social rights provide a person with a decent standard of living and social security:
The right to social insurance; pensions, medical care;
To protect against unemployment; the right to rest; the right to housing;
The right to a favorable environment and to reliable information about its condition.
cultural rights guarantee the spiritual development of man.
The right to education, to access to cultural values;
The right to freely participate in the cultural life of the community;
The right to creativity, to use the results of scientific and technological revolution;
The right to freedom of creativity.
A right is only a right when it can be defended. In case of violation of their rights, a citizen must go to court (for this he must have a legal culture - to know his rights and be able to protect them). He must correctly draw up a statement of claim, provide facts of violation of rights and apply to the appropriate court. Usually this is the district court. If necessary, a citizen applies to a higher court - to the city, regional, republican, Supreme. The highest European instance, if a citizen has gone through all the stages of legal proceedings and he was denied protection, is the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.
The Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees everyone judicial protection of their rights and freedoms. The court oversees the rule of law in the country, ensures the priority of the rights and freedoms of citizens over any actions of the state.
Religion. Freedom of conscience.
Religion is a set of spiritual ideas based on belief in supernatural forces that are the subject of worship.
Religious beliefs are an inner conviction in the existence of God (or gods), who created the world, rules the world, comforts, punishes, rewards. Religious beliefs presuppose the adoption of certain DOGMA - statements. For example, about the structure and origin of the world, the rules of behavior in life. They are accepted as absolutely reliable. Serving God, fulfilling his commandments, believers consider the meaning of life.
Religion is one of the options for finding and understanding the meaning of life, i.e. shapes human worldview(religious) is a system of views on the world around. The humanistic orientation of religion is very significant; consideration of religious norms as absolute values.
Along with the development of society, the FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE, which means the freedom to profess any religion or none, to change one's beliefs and spread them. That., freedom of conscience is based on FREEDOM OF RELIGION and TOLERANCE. In the Russian Federation, this is guaranteed by the Constitution. .
FREEDOM OF RELIGION means the right to profess any religion and change religious beliefs, perform cults and rituals, ensure the religious education of their children, aFREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE affirms the right to be an atheist and to spread one's beliefs . (Constitution and Universal Declaration of Rights h.).
Atheism is a set of statements that reject belief in God.
In Russia, the church is separated from the state, and the school from the church. The Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" approves the secular nature of education, i.e. lack of religious disciplines, which guarantees freedom of conscience. This does not infringe on the rights of believers, because they retain the right to religious education outside of school.
All religions are divided into:
1) archaic POLYTHEISTIC religions TOTEMISM, FETISHISM, ANIMISM;
2) WORLD POLYTHEISTIC religions - BUDDHISM, CHRISTIANITY, ISLAM.
In addition to the 3 listed world religions, there is JUDAISM - a monotheistic religion professed by Jews; Hinduism, one of the largest in the world.
Archaic relays are more ancient. Based on beliefs(belief, adherence to an idea, myths are based on them) and myths(fantastic, fictional picture of the world; from the Greek "tradition").
TOTEMISM is a set of beliefs and rituals of a primitive society associated with ideas of kinship between groups of people and TOTEMS - species of animals and plants.
FETISHISM - religious worship not of animals, but of specific objects. A fetish is an inanimate object, according to believers, endowed with supernatural magical powers and serving as an object of worship.
A variety of fetishism is idolatry (from the Greek “image, likeness”).
ANIMISM - (from Lat. "soul, spirit") - belief in the existence of spirits and souls.
CULT - (from Latin - veneration) actions expressing religious worship
(body movements, reading or singing texts). The cult consists of RITES. For example, the rite of baptism, sacrifice
Global problems of the present.
In the second half of the 20th century society is faced with GLOBAL PROBLEMS (from the Latin "globes" - a ball). These are universal problems of our time, affecting both the world as a whole and its regions, which have put society on the brink of survival. They are characterized by the following features:
1) affect the interests of all mankind, and cannot be ignored by anyone ;
2) threaten the destruction of all mankind;
3) require the collective efforts of all mankind.
4) encourage the search for mutual understanding for cooperation;
5) the search for solutions to these problems contributes to the formation of a single civilization.
The problem of war and peace connected primarily with the achievements of scientific and technical progress - the emergence of weapons of mass destruction (chemical, nuclear, atomic). Regional conflicts, which can develop into interregional ones, are a serious problem. The situation in the world can become explosive, which is why it is so necessary to reach an agreement between the peoples by peaceful means, the effective activity of the UN, and the rational reduction of armaments.
Ecological problem- a consequence of the contradictions between human activity and nature. Human activity leads to an increase in carbon dioxide levels and can lead to a "greenhouse effect" and "heat death". There is pollution of the seas and oceans, soil erosion, etc. In order to overcome the environmental problem, it is necessary to switch to rational nature management, to waste-free technologies, and to engage in environmental protection.
demographic problem caused by the growth of the world's population. There are now more than 6 billion people on Earth. But the population explosion takes place primarily in developing countries. This problem can be solved by reducing the birth rate by prohibitive measures, but this is not very effective or on the basis of socio-economic transformations with the active assistance of the entire world community.
For the Russian Federation, this problem is connected, on the contrary, with low birth rates. And the solution also lies in a reasonable state and socio-economic policy.
Causes of global problems lie in the intense, unrestrained transformative activity of people.
Ways to resolve global problems the following:
This is the unification of efforts of all countries of the world at the governmental and non-governmental level;
Rational, i.e. reasonable attitude of people to the environment.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Since people in modern conditions feel more and more not only citizens of their state, but of the entire planet Earth , there were legal documents addressed to all mankind. There are quite a few of them. The main ones got the name International Charter of Human Rights. This includes: Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (“declaration” - proclamation, statement; “charter” - an important document; “pact” - treaty) and International agreements on the protection of human rights during periods of armed conflict (international humanitarian law).
The most important of them - Universal Declaration of Human Rights. She is was adopted by the United Nations (UN) on 10 Dec. 1948 it contains the minimum amount of rights and freedoms that every person should have today in all spheres of public life.
The main idea of the Declaration can be expressed as follows: every person on Earth has inalienable rights, they are the basis of freedom, justice and peace in the world.
That, the focus of the Declaration are human life, his rights and freedoms. The Declaration in the very first articles proclaims the value of each individual without exception.
Declaration - small document, only 30 short articles but it covers all aspects of human life. Conditionally allocate the following varieties rights and freedoms person: civil, political, cultural, economic, social.
Conditionally rights can be divided into 3 groups:
First group - "Guardians": right to life, to the inviolability of the person, home, to the protection of honor, reputation, to the secrecy of correspondence etc. This group of rights protects a person from any interference in his private life by the state and society.
Second group rights suggests free activity of the person himself: the right to freedom of creativity, the right to earn a living by freely chosen work, the right to freedom of assembly, the right to freely receive and disseminate information. This group of rights can be realized only if the person himself is active. This group of rights provides a person with freedom for active actions.
Third group of rights obliges the state and society to take care of a person, create social (public) security for him: the right to health care, housing, an adequate standard of living and other rights that are usually called socio-economic. They express the freedom of a person from a bad, humiliating life for human dignity: unemployment, homelessness, poverty, helplessness and etc.
It is impossible to consider some rights more important, some less important. Great historicalthe meaning of the Declaration that is what it defined a unified system of natural inalienable human rights.
The Declaration ends with an article that clearly states the responsibility of a citizen to society: you need to firmly understand that if you have inalienable, natural rights, then everyone else is endowed with the same rights. Therefore, each of us must recognize and respect the rights and freedoms of other people. Therefore, we are responsible for the freedom of another person.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights – it is a universal ideal (model) of law, to which all peoples and all states should strive.
Market economy. Supply and demand.
1) Market economy -it is a way of organizing social production based on the freedom of enterprise and independent decisions about volume, prices and sales.
Otherwise, it is a way of organizing social production. When questions WHAT? HOW MANY? And How? To produce, the manufacturer decides independently, focusing on the ratio of supply and demand in the market.
The free market is characterized3 signs:
unregulated supply - the manufacturer independently decides what goods and in what quantity to produce;
unregulated demand - the buyer, depending on the availability of funds, independently determines what and how much to purchase.
unregulated price balanced by supply and demand.
In the presence of these signs, market regulation of economic activity takes place. .
2) Demand and supply.
Coordination of the interests of market participants is achieved on the basis of the interaction of DEMAND, PRICE and SUPPLY.
Demand is a solvent need for goods and services that are ready and can be bought by consumers at a market price. Demand depends on a number of factors: money income and population growth, consumer tastes, etc., but the main thing is the price.
The buyer offers the maximum price for which he agrees to buy the goods. The price cannot rise above, because. the buyer has no more money. If the seller does not make concessions, a crisis situation may arise associated with an excess of goods.
Lowering the price allows consumers to buy more goods, while a high price limits the demand for them. This dependence characterizes the essence of the law of demand: consumers want to buy more goods at a lower price and vice versa.
Offer- the quantity of goods and services that producers are willing to produce and sell at a certain market price. The supply is influenced by the following factors: technological progress, resource prices, the level of taxation. Producers seek to sell the goods as expensive as possible in order to cover costs and generate income. If prices rise, then the supply of goods also increases.
The market excludes price controls, so supply and demand are in balance andmarket price is set goods. Equilibrium occurs when the amount of goods buyers want to buy matches the amount sellers want to sell. As a result, the EQUILIBRIUM PRICE is formed.
Citizen. Participation of citizens in political life.
1) The concept of " citizen' is used in different senses. But first of all, Citizenship means the legal affiliation of a person to a given state or in other words, Citizenship is the legal connection of a person with the state, giving him protection.
The state of citizenship creates rights and obligations for a person not only on the territory of his state, but also abroad. Basically, people become citizens from birth. and retain this right throughout life. But due to various reasons (interethnic conflicts, international economy. ties, marriages between citizens of different states etc.) there are movements of people from one country to another. Such movements cause problems of acquiring and changing citizenship. (AT unitary states – single citizenship, In many federal states. face is considered union citizen and at the same time subject of the federation).
Most residents are citizens of this state, but some of them are stateless or are foreign citizens.
In the Russian Federation, according to the Constitution, citizenship is single and equal, regardless of the grounds for acquisition. A citizen cannot be deprived of citizenship or the right to change it. The Russian Federation guarantees all citizens protection and patronage beyond its borders. (The law governing citizenship in the Russian Federation is the Citizenship Law of 1991.
2) Citizens of the Russian Federation in accordance with Art. 32 K. RF, belongs the right to participate in politics, both directly and through their representatives . This is the right of citizens to participate in a referendum and free elections,
the right to be elected to state bodies. authorities and local self-government.
Every citizen becomes a voter from the age of 18 (this is participation in politics through representatives). To make the right choice, it is necessary to analyze and evaluate the election program of the deputy.
From the age of 21, any citizen can nominate his candidacy for deputies, and from the age of 35 - for the presidency of the country.
Effective, competent participation in politics requires versatile political knowledge, mastering the methods of political activity. These conditions characterize political culture . Possessing it, it is easier for a person to navigate political life.
Basic values and moral standards. "Golden Rule of Morality".
Morality - (from Latin "morality") is a special form of social consciousness that regulates the behavior of people in society with the help of norms.
Or morality - a set of norms that regulate human behavior in society. Sometimes, along with the concept of morality, the concept is used morality, in science they are used as synonyms.
Moral values are special, universal spiritual values and ideals - humanism, love for man, mercy. They are eternal, because moral rules live forever: do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself (the golden rule of morality) ; honor elders, do not kill, do not debauchery, do not lie, do not envy and do not encroach on someone else's. People have always condemned malice, meanness, betrayal, lies, but valued kindness, courage, honesty, modesty. Thousands of years ago people discovered that the highest moral value is love for one's neighbor. This means that we must strive for peace and brotherhood. You have to be merciful and generous. This is where love for one's neighbor comes in.
The reflection of universal human values can be found in the Bible, the Koran, in ancient Indian, Chinese, Buddhist beliefs.
All our personal actions, as well as our entire social life morality evaluates from the point of view of humanism, determines whether it is good or bad, good or evil . This is the first task of morality . If our actions are useful to people, contribute to the improvement of their lives, their free development - this is good, this is good. Do not contribute, hinder - evil. If we want to give a moral assessment to something (our own actions, the actions of other people, some events, etc.), we, as you know, do this with the help of conceptsgood and evil . Or with the help of other close, derivative concepts: justice - injustice; honor - dishonor ; nobility, decency - meanness, dishonesty , meanness etc. At the same time, when evaluating any phenomenon, action, deed, we express our moral assessment in different ways: we praise, agree or condemn, criticize, approve or disapprove, etc.
Evaluation, of course, affects our practical activities, otherwise we would simply not need it. When we evaluate something as good, then by doing so we want to say that we should strive for this, and if we consider it bad, evil, this should be avoided. Therefore, moral evaluation helps us in our search for true values.
Morality regulates the activities of people , direct the activities of a person, society for humane purposes, for the achievement of good - This is another issue of morality.
Moral regulation has its own characteristics, it differs from other forms of regulation, such as state regulation. Any state also regulates the life of society, and does this with the help of institutions, organizations, laws, officials, police. etc. there is nothing like morality. Moral requirements are the result of the creativity of many generations of people. She governs our lives 2 ways: through the opinions of others(public opinion), and most importantly through the inner convictions of the individual, through conscience.
Moral questions accompany a person all his life, how he should act, what is good and what is evil, what is the purpose and meaning of a person’s life, etc. The answers to these questions develop a line of human behavior.
The meaning of morality is that
- it gives a person an ideal, a model for improvement; clear rules of conduct;
- helps a person to live together with other people;
Legal basis of marriage and family.
Marriage and family relations in our country are regulated primarily by the Family Code of the Russian Federation, adopted in 1996. It formulates the main principles of family relations- voluntariness of marriage, equality of spouses and parents, priority of family education of children, protection of disabled family members; any form of restriction of family rights on the grounds of social, racial, national, linguistic affiliation is prohibited.
Family law - this is a set of rules governing property and non-property relations arising from marriage, kinship, adoption.
Marriage - an equal voluntary lifelong union of a man and a woman, concluded for the creation of a family, the birth and upbringing of children, and the maintenance of a common household.
Registration of marriage is carried out in the registry office.
Conditions for marriage : 1) mutual consent; 2) reaching the age of 18 (reduced to 16 years is allowed); 3) the absence of another marriage; 4) lack of family ties; 5) the absence of relations between the adoptive parent and the adopted child; 6) legal capacity of the future spouses.
The day of registration is set not less than 1 month from the date of filing the application; it is carried out in the presence of spouses; the entry in the book of acts of civil status is sealed with signatures; appropriate marks are made in the passport; a marriage certificate is issued.
With the receipt of a marriage certificate, the spouses acquirecertain rights and obligations – personal (non-property) and property.
Personal: free choice of occupation, profession, place of stay and residence.
Property- concerning the acquired property. Property acquired before marriage is personal separate property; property acquired during marriage is joint property.
The law establishes the equal rights of spouses to property, regardless of salary; equal rights to conduct transactions. Divorce leads to the division of property in court. Today, the system of marriage contracts is widely used, in which those entering into marriage stipulate all the legal aspects of their relationship to each other, as well as conditions in the event of divorce.
Marriage contract – This is an agreement of persons entering into marriage or an agreement of spouses that determines the property rights and obligations of spouses in marriage and in the event of its dissolution.
The law governs the rights and obligations
Rights are also duties, both parents equally have them; rights and obligations combine the interests of parents and children
The rights of parents are not unlimited (up to 18 years).
Spiritual world of man.
Spiritual world person, i.e. the world of thoughts and feelings, refers to private life, because it is based on a group of civil (enclosing) rights expressing a person's ability to exercise spiritual freedom.
The starting point in this group of rights is the RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF BELIEF. Beliefs are firm beliefs that motivate action. Beliefs are formed due to the work of our mind, feelings, assessments (what is good and what is bad; what is fair and what is unfair, etc.). They give rise to confidence in their rightness and encourage action, certain actions.
The meaning of the right to freedom of opinion is that
- the state, another person does not impose on a person any one (only correct) view of the world, of a person’s place in the world and “are not forced to act in accordance with this view.
- every citizen should have the opportunity to get acquainted with different views and points of view on the basis of which he himself forms his beliefs, subject to the observance of laws and moral standards.
- the ability of a citizen to choose a way of life that corresponds to his convictions and behavior;
Right to freedom of conscience (the right to profess any religion or no creed). This right, in addition to the right to freedom of opinion, is closely related to the right to freedom of thought and speech.
Any right, as you know, is not unlimited. It implies a measure (limit) and responsibility for the consequences: legal, moral, social. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights establishes two conditions lawful restrictions on freedom of thought, speech, beliefs: 1) by law; 2) in order to protect public safety, order and morals as the fundamental rights and freedoms of others.
To summarize: the considered rights not only protect, but also provide an opportunity express yourself spiritually in all areas - whether raising children, doing business, creating books, films, etc. This is nothing more thanhuman right to spiritual freedom, freedom of thought and feeling .
The inner world of the individual is not accidentally called spiritual, and not just mental. Spirituality implies a close union of the mind, feelings and their consistency with morality.
How is the spiritual wealth of the individual formed? It arises when a person begins to think about what is faith, love, goodness, justice, etc.
A spiritually rich person resists difficult life circumstances, does not allow the voice of conscience to be drowned out, compassion to be dulled in himself. pity and other moral feelings.
There are many different countries in the world. Among them there are huge in territory and very small ones, people in them speak different languages, but they are all states. Let's try to figure out what a state is, and what features distinguish it.
Definition
The concept of the state can be considered from two sides:
- in a broad sense, we use this term when we call this or that country a state;
- In a narrower sense, the state is a system of authorities and administration.
Theories of the origin of the state
The state did not appear immediately. In primitive society, a person obeyed the customs and was guided by the opinion of the oldest representatives of the family.
Over time, groups of people began to appear who were engaged in leadership. They were entrusted with the functions of managing society. In this regard, the indispensable attributes of power gradually began to appear:
- various laws;
- judicial system;
- army.
Given the historical periods in the development of mankind, the following types of states can be distinguished:
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- states of the ancient world;
- medieval states;
- states of the New Age;
- modern states.
Why the need for management arose is still debated. Let's take a look at some of the theories:
- influence of religion
The strengthening of the role of religion contributed to the spread of the idea of the divine origin of state power. People were sure that the authorities and those who govern society are appointed by God.
- contract between people
Supporters of this theory believe that the state appeared as a result of the fact that people agreed among themselves and came to an agreement on its creation. If earlier a person in his actions was limited only by the traditions of his family, then with the development of society this was not enough. In order for people not to violate each other's interests, it was necessary to transfer power over them to one or several of their representatives.
- conquest
Those who adhere to this theory argue that the first states appeared when some tribes were conquered by others. For example, when settled communities that were engaged in agriculture were captured by nomads.
- appearance of classes
This theory is as follows: at a certain stage of its development, society was divided into rich and poor. For those who had more material wealth, it was important to strengthen their position so as not to lose them. As a result, some people began to strive to concentrate political power in their hands, to issue laws.
signs
The state, like any other phenomenon, has a number of specific features by which we can define it. This is:
- single territory (The state occupies a certain area and has its own borders);
- public authority (There is a group of people who govern the state, and all citizens recognize their power);
- state sovereignty (The power of the state is higher and stronger than any other in the country, and other states cannot interfere in its affairs);
- its laws and regulations (Only the state can create laws that all citizens must follow);
- tax system (The state may collect taxes, from which the general budget is then formed).
State activity
The state performs special functions:
- domestic
For example, maintaining order in society, creating favorable conditions for people's lives, supporting the development of education and medicine, and so on.
- external
These include the development of the country's defense, as well as the establishment of relations with other states in various fields.
Features of the internal device
The state is a large and complex system that lives by special rules, has its own structure and governing bodies.
The main difference between states is their form.
Form of government (How the authorities are arranged):
- Monarchy
In a monarchy, there is one person at the head of the state. His power is hereditary. In the history of many countries, there were periods of sole rule of the monarch (King, Emperor), including in Russia.
The monarchical form of government is still preserved in such countries as Japan, Kuwait, Oman, the Vatican, Great Britain, Luxembourg, Monaco, Sweden, Morocco and others.
- Republic
The differences between the republican form of government is that the highest bodies of power (Parliament, President) elected for a certain period of time play an important role here. Modern examples of republics: Italy, Germany, USA, France and others.
Form of state-territorial structure (How central and local authorities interact, what functions they have):
- unitary (The main governing bodies are in the center, and the local ones are subordinate to them, they do not have their own constitution: the Czech Republic, Hungary, Greece, Ukraine);
- federal (Individual territories - states, republics - have independence, along with the center, have their own constitutions and laws: Russia, Germany, the USA, Mexico.
What have we learned?
From the article on social science (grade 9), we learned that the state is a special organization of people living in a certain territory. It is characterized by the presence of public authorities, its own laws and regulations, the tax system. All states differ in the form of government and the form of the state-territorial structure.
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The exam in social studies is very popular among schoolchildren. The exam is considered easy: no need to do calculations, no need for laborious calculations. This ease is deceptive, and passing the exam can be difficult for two reasons. Firstly, the course of social studies consists of several sections that are only conditionally interconnected, so it can be difficult to structure the acquired knowledge. Secondly, during the test, you will have to quickly switch between different sections, which will require composure, the ability to concentrate.
Item Features
Social science is a discipline that includes a complex of sciences, one way or another related to society. These are sociology, psychology, social philosophy, history, history, cultural studies, political science, economics, jurisprudence, ethics, etc.
The course is divided into several topics:
- Man and society
- Right
- Politics
- Economy
- social relations
The exam will ask you questions on all of these topics. Coping with tasks without preparation will be very difficult even for those who received good grades in social studies classes from the fifth to the eleventh grade. It is necessary to refresh knowledge, remember definitions, systematize what has been covered. This requires the study of theory in social science.
Exam
Each exam ticket contains four types of tasks:
- with the need to select one or more correct answers;
- to identify the structural elements of concepts;
- on knowledge of terminology, definition of concepts;
- to match positions.
For 20 tasks it is required to give a short answer, for 9 - a detailed one. Graduates will also have to write an essay. When passing an exam, it is impossible to do without knowing the theory.
Preparation for the exam in social studies
- Start preparing early. The subject only at first glance seems easy: getting the highest score is not so easy.
- In the process of preparation, you will have to learn by heart many terms and definitions. You should not just mechanically cram the wordings, facts, events, names proposed in the textbook. Try to understand the essence, and then it will be easier for you to remember the material.
- Everything that you need to learn by heart, write out in a special notebook.
- Start with tasks that seem easy to you. You should not skip them - even if you are confident in yourself, it does not hurt to refresh your knowledge.
- After that, move on to more complex topics. Study the theory, repeat the definitions several times, and then proceed to the practical exercises. Finally, again make sure you remember the terminology accurately.
- When doing trial options, practice reading the questions carefully. Practice shows that misunderstanding of questions is one of the common causes of errors.
- Experienced tutors recommend starting training in December-January with the study of economics. This section is small.
- After that, you should take on the most difficult thing - the right. Practice shows that it is this section of social science that causes the greatest difficulties for graduates. Spend more time studying the law.
- Social relations, man and society are relatively simple sections. They can be taken as a last resort.
- Ideally, the study of theory should be completed in April. After that, give yourself a little rest and do the repetition. Make sure you remember all the wording and definitions, you can repeat all the legal acts by heart.
