Introduction…………………………………………………………………..……..3

1. Brief biography of Catherine II………………………………………4

2. The beginning of the reign………………………………………………………6

3. Reforms of Catherine II……………………………………………….…….7

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..17

References………………………………………………………….........19

Introduction

Among the autocrats of the Russian Empire there are many strong, strong-willed personalities whose political and legislative activities had a huge impact on the growth of not only Russia as a whole, but also individual social strata, the life and culture of society. The gradual modernization of life in Russia, the main impetus of which was given by the European policy of Peter I, was continued by other monarchs, whose era played an equally important role in the formation of a powerful Russian Empire. The Russian Empress Catherine II was an imperious legislator; in her government, she strove for reforms and made an invaluable contribution to the development and strengthening of Russia. The era of her reign is distinguished by historians as a separate stage in the development of the empire, since it was Catherine II who carried out a course of reforms in the socio-political life of Russia, aimed at modernizing it and strengthening state power in the country. This legislative activity of the empress corresponded to the spirit of the time, new European trends and ideas that the Enlightenment brought with it in the 18th century. The policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, as the main reflection of the principles of the Enlightenment in Russia, is interesting not only for its innovations, but also for the combination of Western trends with the originality of Russia.

1. Brief biography of Catherine II

Catherine was born in 1729 in the German seaside town of Stettin. Born Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, she came from a poor German princely family.

Ekaterina Alekseevna was a rather complex and, of course, an outstanding personality. On the one hand, she is a pleasant and loving woman, on the other, she is a major statesman.

In 1745, Catherine II adopted the Orthodox faith and was married to the heir to the Russian throne, the future Peter III. Once in Russia as a fifteen-year-old girl, she quickly mastered the Russian language and customs. But with all her abilities, the Grand Duchess had a hard time adapting: there were attacks from the Empress (Elizaveta Petrovna) and neglect from her husband (Pyotr Fedorovich). Her pride suffered. Then Catherine turned to literature. Possessing remarkable abilities, will and diligence, she acquired extensive knowledge. She read a lot of books: French enlighteners, ancient authors, special works on history and philosophy, works by Russian writers. As a result, Catherine learned the ideas of the enlighteners about the public good as the highest goal of a statesman, about the need to educate and educate citizens, about the primacy of laws in society.

In 1754, Catherine had a son (Pavel Petrovich), the future heir to the Russian throne. But the child was taken from his mother to the apartments of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.

In December 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter III came to the throne.

Catherine II was distinguished by her enormous capacity for work, willpower, determination, courage, cunning, hypocrisy, unlimited ambition and vanity, in general, all the features that characterize a strong woman. She could suppress her emotions in favor of developed rationalism. She had a special talent to win general sympathy.

Catherine slowly but surely advanced to the Russian throne, and, as a result, took away power from her husband. Soon after the accession of Peter III, unpopular among the tribal nobility, relying on the guards regiments, she overthrew him.

From the first days of her reign, Catherine wanted to be popular among the broad masses of the people, she defiantly visited pilgrims, went to worship at holy places.

In the first years of her reign, Catherine II was intensely looking for ways to establish herself on the throne, while showing extreme caution. Deciding the fate of the favorites and favorites of the previous reign, she showed generosity and condescension, being careful not to cut from the shoulder. As a result, many really talented and useful people for the state remained in their former positions. Catherine loved and knew how to appreciate the merits of people. She knew that her praise and rewards would make people work even harder.

2. The beginning of the reign

At the beginning of her reign, Catherine had not yet mastered her new role and either continued to implement the policy outlined in the previous time, or completed it. Separate innovations of the empress were of a private nature and did not give grounds to classify Catherine's reign as an outstanding phenomenon in Russian history.

Catherine, not without reason, pointed out the rather difficult circumstances under which she began to reign. Finances were depleted. The army did not receive a salary for three months. Trade was in decline, for many of its branches were given over to a monopoly. There was no correct system in the state economy. The War Department was plunged into debt; the marine was barely holding on, being in utter neglect. The clergy were dissatisfied with the taking away of his lands. Justice was sold at a bargain, and the laws were governed only in cases where they favored the strong person.

Immediately after the accession of Catherine, a vigorous activity in the state body was noticeable. At the same time, in all respects, the personal participation of the Empress in resolving various issues was shown.

From the moment of accession to the throne and before the coronation, Catherine participated in 15 meetings of the Senate, and not without success. In 1963, the Senate was reformed: it was divided into six departments with strictly defined functions and, under the leadership of the Prosecutor General, appointed by the monarch, became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The Senate lost its main function - the legislative initiative, it actually passed to the Empress. The death of Ivan Antonovich freed Catherine from fear for the future of her throne. Now her ambition could be satisfied by the realization of her own plans. It has accumulated a certain management experience, there were plans to implement innovations.

3. Catherine's reforms II

"Instruction" and the Commission 1767 - 1768

In January 1765, Catherine began work directly on a legislative project.

In July 1767, over 500 locally elected deputies gathered in Moscow to form a "Commission on drafting a new code", which worked for seven years. On June 30, the Commission began its work, the "Order" was officially promulgated, and all deputies received the texts of the Code of Legal Principles.

The official text of the "Order of the Commission on the drafting of a new code" consisted of 20 thematic chapters and 526 articles. Most of the text was apparently borrowed. However, in the end, Catherine came out with an independent creation in terms of design and political principles. The postulates of laws developed by her were aimed at strengthening the unlimited power of the monarch, legality based on "reasonable indulgence", guaranteeing civil rights in the form of privileges to estates, and general reforming of the legal system in the spirit of these principles.

The first five chapters fixed the most important principles of the power of state government in Russia as indisputable, "fundamental" beginnings of the life of society in general. One of the very first articles of the "Nakaz" proclaimed Russia a European power. This provision had an important political implication: following Montesquieu's criteria, all the patterns of European statehood are inherent in Russia, despite its special vastness. The main of these patterns is “The sovereign in Russia is autocratic; for no other, as soon as the power united in his person, can act similarly to the space of such a great state. And "any other government would not only be harmful to Russia, but also ruinous in the end." However, the new, legal, monarchy has a new goal: to direct all the actions of people towards obtaining the greatest good from all, to promote the prosperity of society, to guarantee the rights of citizens-subjects. The sovereign cannot and should not rule everywhere himself, although it was he who relied on the legal source of all power in the state. This shows that Nakaz fully preserved the absolutism of the monarchy.

Chapters 9 and 10 established the principles of legislation in the field of criminal law. Correctly constructed criminal law was proclaimed the most important guarantee of civil "liberties". "Nakaz" categorically forbade any cruel form of punishment, reduced the possible cases of the death penalty. The court is also an institution not so much a punitive one as a body for the protection of society and the citizen. And since the court operates in a real class society, the guarantees of judicial justice in it should consist in the participation of elected representatives from the estates in the consideration of cases.

Chapters 11-18 were devoted to legislation in the social and legal sphere and civil law. Society is divided into three estates, based on the natural and historical differences in occupations. The more honorable place of the nobles guaranteed them special privileges in the service, in property. But it is also important for the peasantry to "establish something useful." The law should protect everyone, but civil rights are granted according to class.

The last, 19th and 20th chapters of the "Nakaz" established some rules in certain issues of legislation. Freedom of religion was declared, courts not provided for by law were prohibited.

Despite the complete failure of the Commission, it still had important consequences for the subsequent activities of Catherine II. In this regard, the assembly of deputies of 1767-1768 played an important role. The deputies brought a lot of orders, their speeches were left in the archives of the Commission, thus the opinions of both estates and individuals elected by them on subjects that were of interest to the empress were expressed. Huge factual material was collected, reflecting the picture of the views, moods and interests of the then society. In addition, Catherine managed to make the Russians think about state liberty, political rights, religious tolerance, and the equality of all subjects in the face of the law. The Commission has shown exactly what needs to be corrected and to what these principles need to be applied. After the dissolution of the Commission of the Code, Catherine II began her own development of a series of legislative acts that constituted the reform of "enlightened absolutism", the basis for which were the principles and rules of the previously issued "Instruction". The reform of local self-government was especially important.

Provincial reform

The provincial institutions of Empress Catherine II constituted a whole epoch in the history of local government in Russia. In 1775, an extensive legislative document "Institution for the management of the provinces" was published. In accordance with this document, a new administrative-territorial division came into force, major changes were made to local government. This system lasted almost a century.

All newly formed provinces and districts received a uniform structure based on a strict separation of administrative, financial and judicial affairs. At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the government with his deputy - the vice-governor. Sometimes two or three provinces were united under the control of the governor - the governor general. The country was divided into 50 provinces; the provinces were abolished, each province was divided into 10-12 counties. This division was based on the principle of taxable population. For provinces and counties, a certain number of inhabitants was established: 300-400 thousand and 20-30 thousand people, respectively.

With the change in the boundaries of the former administrative territories, new county and provincial centers arose. The local government system was reorganized. The weakness of the past local government was manifested in its inability to suppress anti-government protests on its own. This was convincingly proved by the events of the Moscow "plague riot" of 1771 (a wide demonstration caused by the strictness of quarantine), and especially the Pugachev uprising. Now at the disposal of the central government were numerous administrative institutions, any armed uprising would have met with a quick and cruel rebuff.

Catherine II developed her own regulations on the provinces, seeking, first of all, to increase the strength of the administration, to delimit departments and to involve zemstvo elements in management. In each provincial city, the following were established: provincial boards headed by the governor (it had an administrative character, represented government authority and was the auditor of the entire administration), criminal and civil chambers (the highest court bodies in the province), the treasury chamber (financial administration), the upper zemstvo court (court for noble litigation and for trial of nobles), provincial magistrate (judicial seat for persons of the urban estate in claims and litigation against them), upper reprisal (court seat for fellow believers and state peasants), order of public charity for the construction of schools, almshouses, etc. All these institutions were collegiate in nature and were considered estates, but in reality all power belonged to the governor.

In each county town there were: the lower zemstvo court (in charge of the affairs of the county police and administration, consisted of a police officer and assessors), the county court (for nobles, subordinate to the Upper Zemstvo Court), city magistrate (judicial seat for citizens, subordinate to the provincial magistrate), lower reprisal (a court for state peasants, obeyed the upper reprisal).

Judicial reform

For the first time in Russia, a court appeared, separated from the executive branch, although dependent on it. The activities of the new bodies acquired the features of self-government, as local residents took part in it. The new courts were elective. Separately, courts were elected for the nobility, the urban population and for those peasants who were not serfs.

As a result of the regional reform, police-noble supervision of the population was strengthened, and the number of officials was increased. 216 new cities appeared due to the abolition of the autonomy of the outskirts (in 1775 the Zaporozhian Sich was destroyed, the Cossack self-government on the Don was abolished, the autonomy of Estonia and Livonia was liquidated).

These were the main measures taken by Catherine II regarding the administration of the state. As a result, the empress strengthened the composition of the administration, correctly distributed the departments among the governing bodies, and gave the zemstvos broad participation in new institutions. But the disadvantage of the local institution in 1775 was the old system in the central administration, the duty of leadership and general supervision. With the exception of two institutions (a court of conscience and an order of public charity), all the rest were bodies of any one class. Self-government received a strictly estate character: it was not an innovation for the townspeople, but it was a major reform for the nobility.

"Charter to the nobility"

In 1785, Catherine II promulgated the Letter of Complaint to the nobility and in it confirmed all his rights received from the former sovereigns, endowing them with new ones.

Under Catherine II, the nobleman became a member of the provincial noble corporation, which was privileged and held local self-government in its hands. The charter of 1785 established that a nobleman cannot, except by court order, lose his rank, transfers it to his wife and children. He was freed from taxes and corporal punishment, owned as inalienable property everything that was in his estate, was finally freed from the previously obligatory public service, but could not take part in elections for noble positions if he did not have an officer rank. Deprivation of noble dignity could be carried out only by decision of the Senate with the highest approval. The estates of convicted nobles were not subject to confiscation. The nobility was henceforth referred to as "noble".

Peasant reforms

It forbade free people and freed peasants to re-enter serfdom. By her order, for the newly established cities, the government redeemed the serfs and turned them into townspeople. The children of serfs, taken into state care in educational homes, became free. Catherine was preparing a decree according to which the children of serfs born after 1785 were considered free. She also dreamed of implementing another project - it would lead to the gradual liberation of the peasants during the transfer of estates from one hand to another. But this project was not published, as the empress was afraid of noble discontent.

"Charter to cities"

Simultaneously with the Charter to the nobility, a Charter was issued for the rights and benefits of the cities of the Russian Empire. Like the nobility, the city society was considered as a legal entity enjoying corporate rights, the main of which was the right of self-government. Its primary body was the city assembly, which elected the city head and representatives of judicial institutions. The general city duma, which met every three years, became the administrative body of estate self-government. It featured the mayor and the so-called vowels (deputies) from six categories of the urban population (“real city dwellers”, that is, owners of real estate within the city); merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; Russian and foreign specialists; "eminent citizens" - a large group of people who served in the elections, businessmen, intelligentsia, townspeople. In the interval between meetings of the city duma, its functions were transferred to the executive body - the six-vowel Duma, which included one vowel from each category of the population. Compared with the self-government of the nobility, elected city bodies had much fewer rights and were subjected to petty state-bureaucratic tutelage.

Comparison of all three documents (Charter of the nobility, Letter of grant to the cities and unpublished Letter of grant to state peasants) suggests that the empress did not so much seek to support this or that class, but rather cared about strengthening the state, the basis of which, in her opinion, were the strong estates of Western Europe. type. It was under Catherine II that a civil society began to take shape, based on the strengthening of the estates.

An important role in the formation of civil society in the Russian Empire was played by other works on legislation and law, developed by Catherine II in 1770-1780. Catherine II was engaged in other projects: on the reorganization of prisons, on changing the search order. From the Code grew a small decree of 1781 to change the responsibility for various types of theft. At the same time, Catherine drew up an extensive statute of the deanery, promulgated in 1782. The Charter determined the principles of reforming the police institutions in the country, the new tasks of police institutions - not only to search for criminals and maintain order, but also to regulate social life in general in cities. The charter also included the Criminal Code (since the right was introduced into the powers not only to prosecute, but also to determine the punishment for minor crimes).

Development of trade and industry

Of the individual events of the enlightened government of Catherine II, the patronage of the Empress to Russian trade is also distinguished, proof of which is the Charter of Letters to the Cities of 1785. Catherine's attitude to Russian trade and industry was affected by the empress's dependence on Western European ideas. Since Peter I in Russia, a system of the old government control was established over trade and industry, and the activity of the commercial and industrial class was constrained by regulation. Catherine II removed these restrictions, destroyed the control bodies - the Berg-Manufactory-collegium. It contributed to the development of industry and trade. Under her, banknotes, or paper money, were first issued, which greatly helped trade. Wishing to better arrange a loan, Catherine II established a state-owned loan bank with large capital.

In November 1775, for the development of trade and industry, a Manifesto was issued on the freedom to establish industrial enterprises (“mills”), and freedom of entrepreneurship was declared. Merchants who owned capital over 500 rubles were exempted from the poll tax and paid a tax of one percent on capital; a representative of the merchant class could be freed from recruitment duty by paying 360 rubles. Also in 1775, the empress adopted a preferential customs tariff for the Black Sea ports and abolished industrial and trade monopolies. The development of southern Russia made it possible to trade in grain on the Black Sea; new cities were laid in Russia, a naval base was built in Sevastopol. These events, carried out by Catherine in the economic policy of Russia, contributed to the expansion of exports and the improvement of various industries.

Expanding public education

Important results of the activity of the government of "enlightened absolutism" include the measures taken by Catherine II regarding public education. Catherine II in her "Instruction" was the first to speak about the educational significance of education and then began to take care of the establishment of various educational institutions.

In accordance with the “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth”, a school was opened at the Academy of Arts (1764), a Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens (1764) with departments for petty-bourgeois girls, a commercial school (1772)

In 1782, a Commission for the Establishment of Schools was formed to carry out a larger-scale school reform. These schools were all-class and were maintained at the expense of the state.

The main merit of Catherine II in the field of educational reforms can be considered the first experience in creating a system of general primary education in Russia, not limited by class barriers (with the exception of serfs). The significance of this reform is very high, because it was about creating an all-Russian system of educational schools.

Organization of medical care for the population

It is also noteworthy that under Catherine II, the organization of medical care for the population was entrusted to the authorities. Concerns about people's health and hygiene caused an attempt under the empress to properly organize medical care throughout the country. The medical commission, established in 1763, and the orders of public charity were to observe the medical unit in the empire and train medical workers. Each city was obliged to have a hospital and a pharmacy, where the patients were offered not those medicines that were cheaper, but those prescribed by the doctor. The city was also to establish shelters for the terminally ill and the insane. Since there were not enough doctors, they were discharged from abroad and Russian doctors and surgeons were trained. At the same time, pharmacies and factories for surgical instruments were founded. In 1783, Catherine II organized a medical service to monitor the health of the population. She established hospitals and psychiatric hospitals.

The development of Russian science

Russian science is making a big step forward. In 1783, a special Russian Academy was founded to study language and literature. The Academy of Sciences, which existed since the times of Peter the Great, conducted five geographical expeditions in 1768-1774, which made a valuable contribution to the study of the geography of the country. The Academy of Sciences began publishing Russian chronicles, twenty-five volumes of ancient Russian documents were published. In 1765, the Free Economic Society appeared, designed to popularize advanced agronomic knowledge and promote landlord rationalization. Numerous articles on the organization and management of agriculture were published in the works of the Free Economic Society. The number of Russian scientists at the Academy of Sciences has increased significantly, among them are the outstanding naturalists I. I. Lepekhin, N. Ya. Ozeretskovsky, the astronomer S. Ya. Rumovsky, the mineralogist V. M. Severgin, and others. The activities of prominent historians M. M. Shcherbatov and I. N. Boltin belonged to the second half of the 18th century; Sources on Russian history were actively published (by N. I. Novikov, the Academy of Sciences). Publishing output is increasing tremendously. Over the entire 18th century, 9,500 books were published in Russia, of which about 85% were in the reign of Catherine II. On January 15, the Empress signed a decree allowing the establishment of "free" printing houses.

Positive changes have also taken place in the organization of research work. In 1783, Princess E. R. Dashkova was appointed director of the Russian Academy of Sciences, who showed remarkable abilities in the administrative field. During the twelve years of her tenure in this post, the academic economy and academic educational institutions were put in order, the work of public courses in the main branches of science was established, and the publishing activity of the Academy was intensified.

Conclusion

Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent connoisseur of people, she skillfully selected her assistants, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine's time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists, and musicians. In dealing with subjects, Catherine was, as a rule, restrained, patient, tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist, able to listen carefully to everyone. By her own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she was good at capturing any sensible thought and using it for her own purposes.

During the entire reign of Catherine, there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles was disgraced, exiled, let alone executed. Therefore, there was an idea of ​​​​Catherine's reign as the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything in the world. For the sake of her preservation, she is ready to make any compromises to the detriment of her beliefs.

Under Catherine II, the territory of the country, the population (by 75%), and income (more than four times) increased significantly. Victories on land and sea glorified Russian weapons and military art. Equally impressive are the successes in the economy and culture. But it is impossible not to see with all this the difficult situation of the working strata of the population. Not without reason, during the reign of Catherine II, the most powerful popular uprising in the history of feudal Russia took place, led by E. I. Pugachev.

In her policy, Catherine II relied on the Russian nobility. No wonder the Russian nobles, both during her lifetime and after her death, spoke and wrote about the golden age of Catherine the Great, mother empress, wise ruler.

It is difficult to unambiguously assess the results of the reign of Catherine II. Many of her undertakings, outwardly effective, conceived on a large scale, led to modest results or gave unexpected and often erroneous results.

It can also be said that Catherine simply implemented the changes dictated by the time, continued the policy outlined in previous reigns.

Or to recognize in it a paramount historical figure who took the second, after Peter I, step along the path of Europeanization of the country, and the first - along the path of reforming it in the liberal-enlightenment spirit.

Bibliography

1. Encyclopedia for children "Avanta +". Russian history. Volume 5, part two. Moscow: Avanta+, 1997.

2. "Order" of Empress Catherine II. S. - Petersburg, 1907.

3. History of Russia. A. Ishimova. M.: Olma-Press, 2000.

Provincial reform:
"Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted on November 7, 1775. Instead of the former administrative division into provinces, provinces and counties, territories began to be divided into provinces and counties. The number of provinces increased from twenty-three to fifty. They, in turn, were divided into 10-12 counties. The troops of two or three provinces were commanded by the governor-general, otherwise called the governor. At the head of each province was a governor appointed by the Senate and reporting directly to the empress. The vice-governor was in charge of finances, the Treasury Chamber was subordinate to him. The chief officer of the county was the police captain. The centers of counties were cities, but since there were not enough of them, 216 large rural settlements received the status of a city.

Judicial reform:
Each class had its own court. The nobles were judged by the zemstvo court, the townspeople - by magistrates, and the peasants - by reprisals. Conscientious courts were also established from representatives of all three estates, which performed the function of a conciliatory instance. All these courts were elected. The higher courts were the judicial chambers, whose members were appointed. And the highest judicial body of the Russian Empire was the Senate.

Secularization reform:
It was held in 1764. All monastic lands, as well as the peasants who lived on them, were transferred to the jurisdiction of a specially established College of Economy. The state took over the maintenance of monasticism, but from that moment on it received the right to determine the number of monasteries and monks necessary for the empire.

Senate Reform:
On December 15, 1763, Catherine II issued a manifesto “On the Establishment of Departments in the Senate, Justice, Votchinnaya and Revision Collegiums, and on Separation According to These Cases.” The role of the Senate was narrowed, and the powers of its head, the Prosecutor General, on the contrary, were expanded. The Senate became the highest court. It was divided into six departments: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, science, education, art, the fourth - military land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow Judicial Department. The heads of all departments, except for the first, were chief prosecutors subordinate to the prosecutor general.

City Reform:
The reform of Russian cities was regulated by the "Charter on the Rights and Benefits of the Cities of the Russian Empire", which was issued by Catherine II in 1785. New elective institutions were introduced. At the same time, the number of voters increased. Residents of cities were divided into six categories according to various property, class characteristics, as well as merit to society and the state, namely: real city dwellers - those who owned real estate within the city; merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; foreign and out-of-town guests; eminent citizens - architects, painters, composers, scientists, as well as wealthy merchants and bankers; townspeople - those who were engaged in needlework and handicrafts in the city. Each category had its own rights, duties and privileges.

Police reform:
In 1782, Empress Catherine II introduced the "Charter of the Deanery or Policeman". According to it, the deanery council became the body of the city police department. It consisted of bailiffs, a mayor and a police chief, as well as townspeople determined through elections. The court for public violations: drunkenness, insults, gambling, etc., as well as for unauthorized building and bribes, was carried out by the police authorities themselves, and in other cases a preliminary investigation was carried out, after which the case was transferred to court. The punishments applied by the police were arrest, censure, imprisonment in a workhouse, a fine, and in addition - the prohibition of certain activities.

Education reform
The creation of public schools in the cities laid the foundation for the state system of general education schools in Russia. They were of two types: the main schools in the provincial towns and small ones in the county ones. These educational institutions were maintained at the expense of the treasury, and people of all classes could study in them. The school reform was carried out in 1782, and earlier in 1764 a school was opened at the Academy of Arts, as well as the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens, then (in 1772) a commercial school.

Monetary reform
In the reign of Catherine II, the State Bank and the Loan Office were formed. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (banknotes) was put into circulation.

What do we know about the Russian Empress Catherine the Great? In the memory of descendants, facts often come up that have little to do with Catherine was a very big fan of court balls and exquisite toilets. Strings of cavaliers always followed her. The life of her favorites, once connected with her by love bonds, went down in history. Meanwhile, the Russian Empress was, above all, a smart, bright, extraordinary personality and a talented organizer. It is worth noting that under her rule the system of state government was transformed for the first time after the reign of Peter the Great. Even today they are of great interest. To summarize them, however, is unlikely to succeed. In general, all its political changes fit into the mainstream of the theory called enlightened absolutism. This movement gained particular popularity in the 18th century. Many areas of state and public life were affected by the reform of Catherine II. The table "Transformations within the country" below clearly shows this.

Childhood and upbringing of Princess Fike

Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst - this was the full name of the future Russian Empress. She was born in the spring of 1729 in a small German town called Stettin (now it is the territory of Poland). Her father was in the service of the Prussian king. This was a vain man. At one time he was first a regimental commander, then a commandant, and then the governor of his native city. The mother of the future empress was of royal blood. She was a cousin of Peter III, the future husband of her daughter. Sofia, or, as her relatives called her, Fike, was educated at home.

She studied French, Italian, English, geography, history, theology, danced and played music. The girl had a cheerful disposition, was restless, was friends with the boys. Her parents were unhappy with her behavior. The Fike family was not rich. But her mother dreamed of getting her daughter in marriage profitably. Soon her dreams were brought to life.

Marriage with the heir to the throne of Russia

In 1744, the Zerbst princess Fike was invited along with her mother to Russia to the royal court for a wedding with the future Russian emperor Peter III, who was her second cousin.

The sixteen-year-old bride was soon introduced to Elizaveta Petrovna, who, in an effort to secure the Romanovs' right to the throne, hoped to marry her unlucky nephew. The Russian Empress believed that the pretty and graceful Sophia could distract Peter from his childish pastimes with puppies and toys. As soon as Fike was in Russia, she eagerly began to study the Russian language, court etiquette and the Orthodox law of God. The wedding was scheduled for August 25, 1745. The day before, Sofia converted to Orthodoxy and received the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. On the wedding day at 6 o'clock in the morning, the princess was taken to the chambers of Elizabeth Petrovna, where she was dressed and combed. The wedding ceremony took place in the Kazan Church. It is noteworthy that 17 years after that, the Life Guards will swear allegiance to their new Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna here. After the wedding, a big ball and a banquet were given at the royal court, where Fike was forced to dance with an endless series of elderly nobles. Immediately after the wedding, it turned out that the newly-made husband was not going to fulfill his marital duties. Peter spent all his time playing with tin soldiers and cardboard castles. He turned his matrimonial bedroom into a kennel for hunting dogs. It was obvious that this undergrowth was not capable of governing the state. Meanwhile, Russia needed internal reforms. Catherine 2, as such, did not yet exist. Yes, and those close to the royal court expected that everything would be limited to the role of the wife of the emperor and the mother of his children for Fike. How wrong they were.

Catherine's accession to the Russian throne

The current Empress Elizabeth Petrovna was fading away every day, her health was very poor. And the relationship of the crowned spouses did not develop. Peter openly lived with his mistress and talked about his desire to marry her. Catherine herself soon also became interested in the 26-year-old chamber junker Sergei Saltykov. A few months later, Fike gave birth to a son, who was named Paul. There were rumors at court that Catherine's lover was his father. Despite all this, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna proclaimed the boy the second in line heir to the throne. Meanwhile, Russia, in alliance with Austria and France, was at war with Prussia, where it won one victory after another. This pleased everyone except the infantile Peter, who considered King Frederick II of Prussia to be an unsurpassed military genius. It was clear that in the event of his accession to the throne, Russia would conclude a humiliating peace with Prussia, losing everything that it had gained during the war. Soon this happened. Elizabeth died on Christmas Day in 1761. After that, Peter became the Russian emperor. In March 1762, he made peace with Prussia, which caused a lot of discontent in the ranks of the Russian army. This was what Catherine's associates, the Orlov brothers, decided to use against Peter III, one of whom, Grigory, was her lover and the father of her last child. In the Kazan Church, Catherine underwent the rite of anointing and taking the oath as Empress of All Russia. The soldiers were the first to swear allegiance to her.

It happened on June 28, 1762. At that time, no one could have imagined what the policy of Catherine II would be.

General information about the reign of the empress

A week after the events described, on July 6, Catherine received a letter from Orlov stating that her husband Peter, who had written the abdication and exiled to the Ropsha manor, had died. According to eyewitnesses, the newly-made empress rushed about, cried and shouted that her descendants would never forgive her for this. However, other sources indicate that she knew about the impending assassination attempt on her husband, since 2 days before his murder, doctor Paulsen was sent to him not with medicines, but with tools for dissecting corpses. Be that as it may, no one began to challenge Catherine's right to the throne. And today we can sum up the results of her 34-year reign. Historians often use the term "enlightened absolutism" to characterize her rule within the state. Adherents of this theory are convinced that the state must have a strong autocratic power that will work for the benefit of all its citizens. Catherine II was expressed primarily in the strengthening of the bureaucratic apparatus, the unification of the management system and the centralization of the country. The Empress believed that the vast territory of Russia and its harsh climate necessitated the emergence and prosperity of the autocracy here. Schematically, it is possible to depict the reforms of Catherine 2 in this way.

Table "Transformations within the country"

	Name	Regulations
	Provincial reform	The territories began to be divided into governorships and districts, the number of the former increased from 23 to 50. Each province was headed by a governor appointed by the Senate.
	Judicial reform	The Senate became the highest judicial body. The nobles were judged by the zemstvo court, the townspeople - magistrates, the peasants - reprisals. So-called Soviet courts were created.
	Secularization reform	The monastic lands, together with the peasants who lived on them, were placed at the disposal of the College of Economy.
	Senate reform	The Senate became the highest court and was divided into 6 departments.
	urban reform	Catherine 2 was that the inhabitants of the cities were divided into 6 categories, each of which had its own rights, duties and privileges
	Police reform	The deanery council became the body of the city police department
	Education reform	Public schools were created in the cities, supported by the money of the state treasury. People of all classes could study in them.
	Monetary reform	The loan office and the State Bank were formed. Banknotes were issued for the first time - paper money.

As we can see from the data in the table, these reforms fully manifested the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II. She sought to concentrate all state power in her hands and ensure that all classes lived in the country according to the special laws she introduced.

Document "Instruction" - the concept of enlightened absolutism of Catherine 2

The Empress, who spoke enthusiastically about the works of Montesquieu and adopted the basic principles of his theory, attempted to convene the so-called Legislative Commission, the main purpose of which is to clarify the needs of the people in order to carry out the necessary transformations within the state. This body was attended by 600 deputies from various estates. As the guiding document of this Commission, Catherine issued the “Instruction”, which, in fact, became the theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism. It is known that it was almost completely rewritten from the works of Montesquieu, a zealous supporter of this theory. Catherine herself admitted that here she owns "somewhere one line, one word."

This Commission existed for only a year and a half, and then was dissolved. Was this body called upon to carry out the administrative reforms of Catherine II? Maybe yes. But historians today agree that all the work of the Commission was aimed at creating a favorable image of the Empress in Russia and abroad. It was this body that decided to award her the title of "Great".

Administrative reforms of Catherine II

These innovations were legalized on November 7, 1775. The system of administrative division of the territory of Russia has changed. Previously, it was three-link: provinces, provinces, counties. And now the regions of the state began to be divided only into governorships and counties. At the head of several governorships was a governor-general. The governors, herald-fiscals and refatgeys obeyed him. The Treasury Chamber, with the support of the Accounts Chamber, was in charge of finances in the governorates. At the head of each county was a police captain. A city was singled out as a separate administrative unit, at the head of which a mayor was appointed instead of a voivode.

Reform of the Senate of Catherine II

This neoplasm was accepted by the Empress on December 15, 1763. According to him, the Senate became the highest judicial authority. In addition, it was divided into 6 departments:

The first one was in charge of all state and political affairs in St. Petersburg;

The second - court cases in St. Petersburg;

The third - medicine, science, art, education, transport;

Fourth - military maritime and land affairs;

Fifth - state and political affairs in Moscow;

The sixth - court cases in Moscow.

The reforms of Catherine II's governance here were aimed at making the Senate an obedient instrument of autocratic power.

Economic reforms

The reign of the empress was characterized by the extensive development of the country's economy. The economic reforms of Catherine 2 affected the banking and monetary spheres, and foreign trade.

During her reign, new credit institutions appeared (loan offices and the State Bank), they began to accept funds from the population for deposits for storage. Banknotes were issued for the first time - paper money. Under Catherine, the state began to export goods abroad in large quantities, such as cast iron, sailcloth, timber, hemp, and bread. It is difficult to say whether these reforms of Catherine 2 brought a positive result. It is unlikely that it will be possible to talk about this briefly. Mass under its management led to the Holodomor in 1780 in many regions of Russia. Cases of mass ruin of peasants became more frequent. The price of bread has risen. The state treasury is empty. And it exceeded 33 million rubles.

Innovations in the education system

But not all transformations of the Empress had negative consequences. The education reform of Catherine II was launched in the 1760s. Schools began to open everywhere, which children from different classes could attend. Particular attention was paid to women's education. In 1764, the Smolensk Institute for Noble Maidens was formed. In 1783, the Russian Academy was opened, where eminent foreign scientists were invited. What else was the education reform of Catherine 2 manifested in? The fact that in the provinces they formed orders of public charity, which were in charge of the management of public schools, hospitals, asylums for the insane and the sick, and hospitals. In Moscow and St. Petersburg, houses were opened for homeless children who received upbringing and education in them.

Estates under Catherine 2

This transformation is still controversial among historians. The estate reforms of Catherine 2 consisted in her issuing two charters in 1785, one of which finally secured privileges for the nobility, and the other divided the urban population into 6 categories. The empress herself called these innovations "the crown of her activity." "Charter to the nobility" suggested the following:

This estate was exempted from quartering military units, from corporal punishment, from confiscation of property for criminal offenses;

The nobility received the right to the bowels of the earth, the right to own land, the right to have class institutions;

These people were forbidden to hold elective positions if their income from the estates was less than 100 rubles, and they were also deprived of the right to vote if they did not have an officer's rank.

What was the urban reform of Catherine II? The Empress ordered to divide the population into 6 categories:

Urban dwellers (homeowners);

Merchants of 3 guilds;

Artisans;

Out-of-town and foreign merchants;

Eminent citizens (wealthy merchants, bankers, architects, painters, scientists, composers);

Townsmen (who do not have houses).

With regard to these innovations, we can say that the policy of Catherine 2 here contributed to a strong stratification of society into rich and poor. At the same time, the economic situation of some of the nobles worsened. Many of them could not enter the civil service, not being able to purchase the necessary clothing and footwear for this. At the same time, a number of large nobles owned vast territories of land and hundreds of thousands of serfs.

Religious policy

What other areas were affected by the state reforms of Catherine II? This strong-willed woman tried to control absolutely everything in her state, including religion. In 1764, by issuing a decree, she deprived the church of land. Together with the peasants, these territories were transferred to the management of a certain Collegium of Economy. Thus, the clergy became dependent on the royal power. In general, the empress tried to pursue a policy of religious tolerance. In the first years of her reign, the persecution of the Old Believers ceased, Buddhism, Protestantism, and Judaism received state support.

Catherine 2 as an adherent of the Enlightenment theory

The 34-year reign of the empress is filled with many contradictory events. The enlightened absolutism of Catherine 2, which she tried to preach among the nobility, was manifested in the “Instruction” she created, and in the class reform, and in the administrative division of the territory of Russia, and in transformations in the field of education. However, all these reforms were limited. the autocratic principle of government, serfdom remained unshakable. Catherine's relationship with the French enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot) deserves special attention.

She was in active correspondence with them, exchanging ideas. They had a very high opinion of her. True, modern historians are sure that these relations were purely sponsored. The Empress often generously presented her "friends".

The results of the reign of the great empress

The time has come to characterize the reforms of Catherine II briefly and sum up the results of her reign. She carried out many transformations, sometimes very contradictory. The era of the empress is characterized by the maximum enslavement of the peasants, the deprivation of their minimum rights. Under her rule, a decree was issued prohibiting peasants from filing a complaint against their landowner. Corruption flourished, and on a particularly large scale. The example was set by the Empress herself, generously giving gifts to relatives and close associates of the court and appointing her favorites to responsible government posts. It is not surprising that after a few years of her reign, the country's treasury was empty. How did the reforms of Catherine II eventually end? Briefly, this can be said as follows: a severe economic crisis and the complete collapse of the financial system of the state. Be that as it may, she actively participated in public life and loved Russia, which had become her native.

We learned how the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II manifested itself during her reign, some of the provisions of which she was able to bring to life.

Catherine the Second made many reforms that raised the economy and enlightenment of Russia, for which she can be safely called the Great.

What did she do?

First of all, reorganization of the Senate. Catherine the Second returned the status of the supreme judicial institution to the Senate and took away legislative functions from it, leaving them only to the emperor.

Secondly, provincial reform. Catherine created 50 provinces throughout Russia and arranged noble self-government there, which created absolute control by the monarchy without harm to the population.

Thirdly, economic reform. Catherine the Great introduced paper money - banknotes. Actually, the advantage of this reform is that you do not need to carry a lot of coppers in your pocket, which they are pulling more and more. Everything fits in a couple of pieces of paper.

Fourth, improvement of education. Catherine created a system of educational institutions. She also created many Orphanages, whose students received not only education, but also money.

Fifth, liquidation of the hetmanship at the Zaporozhian Sich. Ukraine was left without any signs of autonomy.

At sixth, letters of commendation to cities, in which the rights and privileges of merchants, as well as the rights and benefits of citizens, were determined.

Seventh, decree on the liberties of the nobles. By this decree, Catherine broke the previous fearsI am nobles and gave them many privileges, rights and advantages. In addition, now the nobles were not obliged to serve, they became arbitrators (in the provinces). Also, the nobles became inviolable: they could not be punished, deprived of liberty and property without trial.

Eighth, secularization of church lands. Catherine transferred the church lands to the College of Economics. This reform forced the state to support the church, but the advantage of this transformation was that now the state determined how many churches and priests the country needed. The lands that were not spent on the construction of monasteries and other church buildings were sent to the state fund.

Ninth, police reform. This reform helped to control the main population, its activities, both physical and moral and spiritual, therefore, not only police, but also church supervision was established.

Tenth, freedom of enterprise. This reform allows products to be produced and sold abroad. Also, this reform made it possible for anyone to create an enterprise. The economic freedoms of the population increased, but the administration became more and more centralized.

Reform results:

• The results of the reforms of Catherine the Great are dual, in fact, that is why she is great.
• By strengthening power, it gave the population economic freedoms, because of which it was possible to rise from the lower levels of society and start their own enterprise, get an education.
• The threat from the Zaporozhian Sich was also eliminated, as its autonomy was eliminated. Citizens could finally participate in the life of their country, society became more enlightened and freer.

Reforms of Catherine II (briefly)

Catherine 2, like most monarchs who ruled for at least some considerable time, sought to carry out reforms. Moreover, she got Russia in a difficult situation: the army and navy were weakened, a large external debt, corruption, the collapse of the judicial system, etc., etc. Next, we will briefly describe the essence of the transformations carried out during the reign of Empress Catherine 2.

Provincial reform:

"Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted on November 7, 1775. Instead of the former administrative division into provinces, provinces and counties, territories began to be divided into provinces and counties. The number of provinces increased from twenty-three to fifty. They, in turn, were divided into 10-12 counties. The troops of two or three provinces were commanded by the governor-general, otherwise called the governor. At the head of each province was a governor appointed by the Senate and reporting directly to the empress. The vice-governor was in charge of finances, the Treasury Chamber was subordinate to him. The chief officer of the county was the police captain. The centers of counties were cities, but since there were not enough of them, 216 large rural settlements received the status of a city.

Judicial reform:

Each class had its own court. The nobles were judged by the zemstvo court, the townspeople - by magistrates, and the peasants - by reprisals. Conscientious courts were also established from representatives of all three estates, which performed the function of a conciliatory instance. All these courts were elected. The higher courts were the judicial chambers, whose members were appointed. And the highest judicial body of the Russian Empire was the Senate.

Secularization reform:

It was held in 1764. All monastic lands, as well as the peasants who lived on them, were transferred to the jurisdiction of a specially established College of Economy. The state took over the maintenance of monasticism, but from that moment on it received the right to determine the number of monasteries and monks necessary for the empire.

Senate Reform:

On December 15, 1763, Catherine II issued a manifesto “On the Establishment of Departments in the Senate, Justice, Votchinnaya and Revision Collegiums, and on Separation According to These Cases.” The role of the Senate was narrowed, and the powers of its head, the Prosecutor General, on the contrary, were expanded. The Senate became the highest court. It was divided into six departments: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, science, education, art, the fourth - military land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow Judicial Department. The heads of all departments, except for the first, were chief prosecutors subordinate to the prosecutor general.

City Reform:

The reform of Russian cities was regulated by the "Charter on the Rights and Benefits of the Cities of the Russian Empire", which was issued by Catherine II in 1785. New elective institutions were introduced. At the same time, the number of voters increased. Residents of cities were divided into six categories according to various property, class characteristics, as well as merit to society and the state, namely: real city dwellers - those who owned real estate within the city; merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; foreign and out-of-town guests; eminent citizens - architects, painters, composers, scientists, as well as wealthy merchants and bankers; townspeople - those who were engaged in needlework and handicrafts in the city. Each category had its own rights, duties and privileges.

Police reform:

In 1782, Empress Catherine II introduced the "Charter of the Deanery or Policeman". According to it, the deanery council became the body of the city police department. It consisted of bailiffs, a mayor and a police chief, as well as townspeople determined through elections. The court for public violations: drunkenness, insults, gambling, etc., as well as for unauthorized building and bribes, was carried out by the police authorities themselves, and in other cases a preliminary investigation was carried out, after which the case was transferred to court. The punishments applied by the police were arrest, censure, imprisonment in a workhouse, a fine, and in addition - the prohibition of certain activities.

Education reform

The creation of public schools in the cities laid the foundation for the state system of general education schools in Russia. They were of two types: the main schools in the provincial towns and small ones in the county ones. These educational institutions were maintained at the expense of the treasury, and people of all classes could study in them. The school reform was carried out in 1782, and earlier in 1764 a school was opened at the Academy of Arts, as well as the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens, then (in 1772) a commercial school.

Monetary reform

In the reign of Catherine II, the State Bank and the Loan Office were formed. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (banknotes) was put into circulation.