Now we have finally come to the answer to the question of the origin of the mysterious beta particles. The source of their appearance is the reverse process of the transformation of a proton into a neutron, namely: the transformation of a neutron into a proton. From logical considerations, such a process, by analogy, is associated with the emission of an electron (the same beta particle). After all, the loss of a negative charge is equivalent to the acquisition of a positive one. But where can one find a negative charge in an absolutely uncharged neutron and release it to freedom?
In fact, if everything were limited only to the emission of a negatively charged particle, this would simply be impossible. Centuries of experience have accustomed physicists to the idea that neither a negative nor a positive charge can arise from nothing. Just as none of these charges can disappear without any trace. This is the law of conservation of electric charge.
In reality, the neutron does not just release a beta particle; at the same time, it also forms a proton, which completely balances the negative charge of the latter and maintains total neutrality. Thus, no additional charge is formed in the sum. Similarly, when an electron meets a positron and annihilates, the net charge change is also zero.
When a proton emits a positron to become a neutron, the original particle (proton) has a unit positive charge, and the two resulting particles (neutron and positron) also have a +1 charge.
The nucleus can also absorb an electron, then the proton inside the nucleus turns into a neutron. An electron with a proton (their total charge is zero) form a chargeless neutron. Usually, the nucleus captures an electron from the K-shell closest to it, so this process is called K-capture. Immediately, the vacant place is occupied by an electron from a more distant L-shell, which is accompanied by the release of energy in the form of X-rays. This effect was first described in 1938 by the American physicist L. Alvarez. As a rule, chemical transformations, which are associated with the movement of electrons, do not affect nuclear reactions. But since K-capture involves not only nuclei, but also electrons, this process is to some extent associated with chemical changes.

Proton of neutron origin

The mechanism of the emergence of a proton from a free neutron

Vasily Manturov

The discovery of a previously unknown phenomenon in the form of a physical mechanism, consisting in the fact that in the known process of electronic beta decay of a free neutron, when a gamma quantum of at least 1.022 MeV appears (with an interval of 10-16 minutes), one of the closest (on nuclear scales) to a free to a neutron, an electron-positron pair from the Dirac sea, a dipole (e-e+), dissociates into e+ and e-, and the resulting positron e+ immediately recombines with a neutron (captured), which turns into a proton of neutron origin (PNP) with radiation (release) of the electron e- and energy, partially unclaimed during the recombination of the positron e + with a neutron (and called antineutrino).

Electronic beta decay of a free neutron is one of the types of beta decay phenomena from the region of weak nuclear interactions.

“The neutron is the simplest system that experiences β-decay, since the influence of strong interactions of nucleons is absent and the process of β-decay admits an almost unambiguous interpretation.(selected-VM)"

This type of decay, also called beta minus decay (electron beta decay), in symbolic (classical) notation looks like this (1)

N -> p + e- + v, (1)

where n is a neutron, p is a proton, e- is an electron, ν is an antineutrino.

Unfortunately, it is (1) flawed, wrong in a number of ways, and counterproductive. This will be discussed below.

Here, for example, is how (1) this phenomenon is presented in the past by respected academician Kikoin, with the simultaneous recognition of the mysteries supposedly overcome in it. (There are almost no special deviations in, from.)

“As you know, natural beta radioactive decay consists in the fact that the nuclei of atoms of one element spontaneously(highlighted by us - VM) emit beta particles, that is, electrons, and at the same time turn into nuclei of another element with an atomic number one greater, but with the same mass (“Physics 10”, § 103). Symbolically, this transformation is written as follows:

M Z X→ M Z+1 Y+ 0 −1 e .(2)

Here X is the original nucleus, Y is the decay product, e is the electron (the superscript "0" indicates that the mass of the electron is very small compared to the atomic mass unit).

Careful study of beta decay has shown that this phenomenon is fraught with two mysteries.

The first riddle: "disappearance" of energy.

If the X nucleus spontaneously transforms into the Y nucleus, then this means that the energy WX of the X nucleus is greater than the energy WY of the Y nucleus. And the energy of the beta particle emitted in this case must be equal to the energy difference WX - WY (if we neglect the recoil energy).

Since all the initial X nuclei are the same, as well as all the resulting Y nuclei, all emitted beta particles must have the same energy. Experiments show that the energy of almost all beta particles is less than the energy difference WX - WY. More precisely: β-particles have different energies, and they all lie in the range from zero to a maximum value equal to WX - WY. For example, for beta particles emitted by 210 83 Bi nuclei (half-life 5 days), the maximum energy value is about 1 MeV, and the average energy per particle is less than 0.4 MeV.

It seemed that beta decay is a process in which, in violation of the law of conservation of energy, energy disappears without a trace. Some physicists were inclined to think that the law of conservation of energy, unconditionally true in the world of macroscopic processes, is "optional" for some processes associated with elementary particles. Even such a physicist as Niels Bohr was inclined to this idea (about the possibility of violating the law of conservation of energy).

Neutrino

The law of conservation of energy was, however, "rescued" by the Swiss theoretical physicist Wolfgang Pauli. In 1930, he suggested that during beta decay, not only an electron flies out of the nucleus, but also another particle, which accounts for the missing energy. But why does this particle not reveal itself in any way: it does not ionize the gas, as an electron does; does its energy not transform into heat in collisions with atoms, etc.? Pauli explained this by saying that invented(selected by us-VM) the particle is electrically neutral and does not have a rest mass (http://www.physbook.ru/index.php/Kvant._%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0-%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF %D0%B0%D0%B4#cite_note-0 ).

The second riddle: where do electrons come from?

This riddle of beta decay (it could have been put in the first place) consisted of this.

As is known ("Physics 10", § 107), the atomic nuclei of all elements consist only of protons and neutrons. How can electrons, which are not there, and neutrinos, which are not there either, fly out of nuclei?

This amazing fact (what is not there flies out of the nucleus) can only be explained by the fact that the particles - protons and neutrons that form the nucleus, are able to mutually transform into each other. In particular, beta decay consists in the fact that one of the neutrons entering the nucleus of a radioactive element turns into a proton.

In this case, there is one more proton in the nucleus than it was, and the total number of particles remains the same. Just one of the neutrons became a proton. But if the matter were limited to just that, the law of conservation of electric charge would be violated. The nature of such processes does not allow! So, it turns out that along with the transformation of a neutron into a proton, an electron is born in the nucleus, the negative charge of which compensates for the positive charge of the emerging proton, and a neutrino, which carries away a certain amount of energy. Thus, during beta decay in the nucleus, one of the neutrons is converted into a proton and two particles are born - an electron and a neutrino. The proton remains in the nucleus, while the electron and the neutrino, which are “not supposed to be in the nucleus”, fly out of it.”

Essence of discovery

Let's discuss this, albeit a sparse, but very extensive citation from .

1. To begin with, we note that the respected academician Kikoin attributed his symbolic record (2) as if to all three types of beta decays (without distinguishing between them). And thus, a number of other mysteries accompanying all types of this phenomenon were hidden.

And then, according to Kikoin, it turns out that in the electronic beta decay free neutron, the birth of a proton does not contradict: a) the law of conservation of charge (observed); b) the law of conservation of mass with an error in the mass of the electron. Yes it is. But only according to Kikoin, if we assume that the mass number of the neutron and proton is the same: both of them are nucleons, i.e. if counted in units of nucleons.

In fact, the laws of conservation of mass and energy here (2) are not only not respected, but for some reason ignored. The fact is that objectively the mass of a neutron is greater than the mass of a proton by 2-3 masses of an electron. And only one appears during beta decay, and it is not clear where. Even from a neutron. But even in this case, 1-2 electron masses remain as excess mass. And therefore, apparently, the author did not even introduce into (2) signs of the law of conservation of the so-called "relativistic" (E = mc 2) energy, when the unit is the electron mass me = 0.511 MeV. What is it?

Omission, misunderstanding or deceit?

Yes, a neutron has a mass greater than that of a proton. And formally correct. But only formally. Then where did the mystery about the loss of energy from the arsenal of the upper limit of beta decay E 0 =1.022 MeV come from? Where did you get that she is so big? And why was the “loss” of energy attributed to an ephemeral antineutrino?

Let's start to find out the truth.

Let's ask a counter question. And why does this happen about once every 13-16 minutes? According to Aleksandrov and, a little more than 10 minutes.

After all, “... decay is not spontaneous, but is always associated ... with electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation. A similar hypothesis about the launch of nuclear reactions by an external source, which brings the system out of balance, was put forward by many scientists. Even the pioneer of nuclear physics F. Soddy agreed with Kelvin's opinion that nuclear reactions cannot proceed independently ... (ie without external influence - VM). And Tesla … considered radioactive decay not as a spontaneous process, but as induced by cosmic radiation.”

And why are these minutes associated with the most important condition - with the obligatory appearance of a gamma-quantum of at least 1.022 MeV?

And this is an experimental fact. And nothing is said about this either by Kikoin or by other authors. Therefore, a very important experimental fact is being concealed? And, as you know, experimental facts are the basis for building theories. So why did they hide it? Yes, because this fact testifies to the following: the proton that arises in this case is not identical to the usual, stable “forever”, eternally living proton.

We are talking essentially about a new particle. It turns out that as a result of (1 and 2), not just a proton, but a proton of neutron origin (PNP) arise. And only then - an electron and some energy.

Electronic, i.e. a beta-minus-decay proton is a proton of neutron origin (PNP), which, unlike the stable “forever” proton, 1) is subject to positron beta decay, 2) is “heavier” than a neutron by the mass of an electron (more precisely, positron- see below), since the NNP is a neutron plus a positron (*). Consequently, its (PNP) mass exceeds the mass of the neutron also by the mass of the positron, i.e. now already at 3-4 m e .

According to Kikoin and FE, - n -> p + e- + v,

And according to the Discovery, - n -> (n + e+) + e- + ..., (*)

where (n + e+) = PNP ~ p,

not according to Kikoin

P = n - e- - v, (**)

Although even with (**) the masses (n – e-) > p

3) therefore, such a reaction (*) cannot be carried out without the expenditure of additional energy. She is endothermic.

4) where does the positron come from, without which a neutron cannot turn into a proton (PNP). But even this is silent, it is not even mentioned anywhere.

What is this, a cover-up? type "swept under the carpet" (according to Feyman), fraud or error?

Nature here, unlike the author, is objective and truthful: in order for both the positron and the proton (PNP) to appear instead of the neutron, Nature adds a significant addition of 1.022 MeV to its “relativistic” energy.

And since the balance of energy even in this, the electronic beta decay of a free neutron, is always disturbed, and academic science cannot explain this, they preferred to spontaneous additives 1.022 MeV to hide, hide and forget. As if in Nature there is no such "ugly duckling".

Thus, the most important experimental facts are concealed!!! Namely, On the indispensable participation of the 1.022 MeV gamma-quantum and the positron in the reaction (2) . And without this information, the physics of this process becomes hopelessly flawed. In the way in which it is reduced to the words of both Kikoin and many, many other authors, not excluding either FES or PE: “ Just one of the neutrons became a proton».

It should be recognized, however, that many authors still made an attempt to perform an analysis with respect to the law of conservation of energy in the Einstein interpretation (mass<=>energy).

And since the energy balance was not achieved, Malyarov tried to take into account the difference in the masses of the neutron and proton in atomic mass units. But at the same time, he did not take into account that both the 1.022 MeV gamma-ray and the positron are involved here. Maybe he, Malyarov, is already one of those who have already been deceived and could not know about it?

And Shirokov and Yudin tried to do this, but admitted that “... to study β-decay processes, it is necessary to use not the binding energy, but the mass defect ((2.7)), since the binding energy does not take into account the energy released during the transformation of a neutron into a lighter a particle - a proton (vydel.-VM) and absorbed during the reverse process. (The binding energy is a complex theory, it is not of help to us, and we will not touch it. - VM)

Here, Shirokov and Yudin have a clear understanding of the process of beta decay in the spirit: mass ceases into energy, and energy into mass. This is their philosophical creed.
In fact, perhaps, the point is that, according to the Discovery, the neutron, turning into NNP, remains its basis, therefore, no energy is released in the form of a mass defect. The neutron turns into PNP and vice versa, remaining a whole neutron, + - e +. There is no equivalence of energy and mass here.

Beta decay model. We say that the neutron in the nucleus plays the role of cement or magnet. Let's do this metamorphosis. We represent the neutron (replace) with a two-pole magnet, for example, in the form of a short rectangle. Moreover, let the magnetic field take on the role of nuclear forces: they are short-range. And let the proton be in the form of an iron ball of the appropriate size. (Iron is drawn to a magnet like a proton to nuclear forces.) And we will also get a pair of iron balls, too, albeit an order of magnitude smaller = e+ and e-. And let them be our positrons and electrons. Let both large balls and small ones have the corresponding charge of the same magnitude and, therefore, are covered with an insulating film.

Let's start modeling.

For this purpose, we bring a pair of e + e- to one of the poles of the neutron magnet. We and the neutron-magnet from this pair need only e+ - positron. Therefore, it is necessary to break e + e- apart. To break means to expend some effort and energy (this is what Nature does: 1.022 MeV). And we will attach the e + ball to the magnet (yes, it will join itself). We get the model TNP = "(magnet = neutron) + e +". We thus repeat the process of electronic beta decay, which is established by Nature.

It is possible to attach either one large ball-proton to the magnet, or two of them. We get either a deuteron or helium three.

You can also get a model

"p + [(magnet = neutron) + e+]". (***)

(p + PNP) = = 2 He 2

This is also helium, but helium is two or two 2 He 2, beta-plus-decay. It also has a neutron inside, but now this neutron plays the role of a proton of the TNP. Does such a 2 He 2 occur? YES - WIKIPEDIA CONFIRMS!!!

“The atomic nucleus consists of nucleons - positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, which are interconnected by means of a strong interaction. ... The only stable atom that does not contain a neutron in the nucleus is light hydrogen (protium). The only unstable atom without neutrons - Helium-2 (diproton) (division. -VM). ( From Wikipedia Atomic nucleus).

.»

But let's go back, from "magnet-neutron" to "magnet-neutron + e+". It is clear that there cannot be the slightest “mass defect” here. We did not chip off even the slightest piece of the magnet and did not stick it back.

We will see the same thing in positron beta decay: let's bring the ball e- with a sufficiently strong charge of a negative sign closer to the "magnet + e +". The small ball e+ will slip away and again a free “neutron magnet” will remain. And the positron recombines with the negatively charged ball, turning into e+e-.

It, this virtual energy (“mass defect” = 0), remains in the neutron basis of the NNP, as in our model. Here, only the energy of 1.022 MeV, sent down by Nature, is "sawed" to extract e+ from the e+e- dipole.

Let the person who wishes continue the simulation to make sure that 1) no isotope “p + magnet + p, + p” can be built, because 2) the magnet has only two poles, like the neutron - only two “nests”, , to which one can join protons, or a proton and a positron, or only one positron (electronic beta decay of a free neutron).

But did the mentioned and other respected physicists really know nothing about AI Alikhanov's experiments? About the opening of the so-called. external pair conversion? Here's what it's about.

“In some cases, an excited atomic nucleus, provided that the excitation energy exceeds the rest energy of two electrons (E\u003e 2m e c 2 ...), instead of a real gamma quantum, a virtual quantum is emitted. The virtual gamma quantum immediately turns into an e + e - pair, emanating, one might say, from the atomic nucleus(this is an erroneous opinion, everything is turned upside down here - VM).» What is it about?

Yes, that the neutron-rich nucleus of an atom is somehow excited to an energy greater than 1.022 MeV before undergoing beta decay. And such excitation is possible only due to the intervention of external forces, i.e. with the appearance and impact of Alikhanov's "virtual" gamma quantum is greater than 1.022 MeV. Which, in order to extract the necessary for the conversion of a neutron into PNP, and contributes to the dissociation of an already polarized dipole, i.e. turning it into an "e + e- -pair". And not coming from the atomic nucleus, as was believed then, but born-dissociated in the field of this nucleus. This means that Alikhanov also knew about the fate of the positron and the participation of 1.022 MeV. It turns out that the 1.022 MeV gamma-ray quantum given by Nature was called virtual, in order to then “get rid of” it, so as not to mention it? Physicists should have known about everything, about it.

There is every reason to say that they know about it. Below is placed, extracted from the PE page 192 Fig.3.

Let's take a closer look and see: the graph with the spectra is deployed along the abscissa (energy scale in units of mc e 2) between 1 and 2 such units (mc 2).

So the modern physicist Semikov, a devoted and supporter and successor of the Ritz Ballistic Theory, writes: “... at the birth of electron-positron pairs (and we argue that beta decays and the indispensable participation in them with the birth and “annihilation” of pairs is an inseparable process - BM) particles, as experiments have shown, are not born from a vacuum, but are knocked out of nuclei (more precisely, they dissociate near nuclei - BM) by γ-rays.

Yes, and we repeat again and again, without claiming authorship, that Nature gives a gamma quantum of at least 1.022 MeV. Where does this coincidence come from?

So - are they deceiving, or have they already been deceived ???

2. And in the reverse process, i.e. during positron beta decay, only part of the electron energy is absorbed: to seduce and steal the positron from the PNP. On the other hand, two gamma quanta of 0.511 MeV are emitted. And in describing the combustion of hydrogen, Ishkhanov and co-authors find that in proton-proton reactions, i.e. (in particular) positron beta decays, an energy Q > 1.20 MeV is released.

Here is an example, "13 N -> 13 C + e+ v e (Q = 1.20 MeV, T = 10 min.)"

Where does = 1.20 MeV come from? Answer: this e+ positron will instantly combine with e-, and about 2 x 0.511 MeV will be released.

Thus, we come to the explanation of the "second riddle".

The question is not just "where do electrons come from?" And in that - how and why do they appear? They really (in science, it seems, there was no such refutation) are not present either in the nuclei, or in the neutron, or in the proton.

But we are not satisfied with the very explanation of this type: "It's just that one of the neutrons became a proton" ... And in the form:

“Thus, during beta decay in the nucleus, one of the neutrons is converted into a proton and two particles are born - an electron and a neutrino.”

We are just looking for the answer to a slightly more general riddle: how not just one of the neutrons becomes a proton. What is the physical mechanism of this phenomenon, from the essence of which they concealed the indispensable participation of the 1.022 MeV gamma-quantum and the positron? Moreover, accompanied by two unnecessary particles, one of which is INVENTED.

It turns out that those involved were concealed, and those who were not involved were invented, written about and propagandized with might and main.

“The hypothesis of the existence of an extremely weakly interacting particle with matter was put forward on December 4, 1930 by Pauli - not in an article, but in an informal letter to the participants in a physical conference in Tübingen:

...meaning ...continuous β-spectrum, I made a desperate attempt to save "exchange statistics" and the law of conservation of energy. Namely, there is a possibility that in the nuclei there are electrically neutral particles, which I will call "neutrons" and which have a spin of ½ ... The mass of the "neutron" in order of magnitude should be comparable to the mass of the electron and in any case not more than 0.01 mass of the proton . The continuous β-spectrum would then become clear if we assume that during β-decay, a "neutron" is also emitted along with an electron, so that the sum of the energies of the "neutron" and the electron remains constant.

I admit that such a way out may seem unlikely at first glance ... However, without risking, you will not win; The seriousness of the situation with the continuous β-spectrum was well illustrated by my esteemed predecessor, Mr. Debye, who recently told me in Brussels: "Oh ... it's better not to think of this as new taxes at all."

- "An open letter to a group of radioactive people gathered in Tübingen", op. according to M.P. Rekalo.

It is clear that in those days (1929-30), when Pauli discovered that such a balance was not observed, the mistake was that he (Pauli) considered a pair of proton and electron, supposedly arising (from the neutron, although it, like the positron have not been opened yet ) ,

Yes, then (December 4, 1930) the participation of the positron in beta decay was still, of course, not known. Like the neutron. Consequently, at that time there were not sufficient grounds for constructing the Pauli theory. That's why she's flawed. (But he took a chance and ... won, and we?). Even worse, with the discovery of the positron and neutron, the Pauli-Fermi theory was practically not corrected. Does physics need almost a century of stagnation on this issue?

PROOF OF THE RELIABILITY OF THE DISCOVERY

Our discovery states that the electronic beta decay of a free neutron occurs due to the fact that the neutron has the property of attaching a positron to itself and thereby turning into a proton of a different type (a proton of neutron origin). But such a unique phenomenon occurs only if a gamma-quantum of 1.022 MeV appears in the right place and at the right time, which leads to the dissociation of the dipole closest to the neutron (e + e-) from the “Dirac Sea”. It is for this that the free and not free neutron, prepared for the implementation of this "operation", idly walks for 10-16 minutes, waiting for its turn. On a nuclear scale, this is a very long time. But that moment is coming. And as a result, the emerging gamma-quantum (1.022 MeV) breaks, dissociates the dipole (e+e-) into a positron e+ and an electron e-.

Each of them receives a portion of energy 0.511 MeV in compliance with the balance of momentum (vectors). And the positron combines with the neutron.

So, where do both the electron and the positron come from? And above all - a positron? Without a positron, it is impossible to construct a proton (of neutron origin). And so it (the positron) had to be extracted from somewhere. And waste energy. Alexandrov has a reservation: “The characteristic energy of nuclear processes is of the order of megaelectronvolts, ...“” Dipole dissociation occurs (e + e-). Both the positron and the electron are released. But only the positron is needed. Then the positron recombines with the neutron. So the neutron turns into a proton of neutron origin.

The riddle, "where did the electron come from?" turned into a guess where the positron came from, and not just the electron . Did we open it?? NO!!! We, rather, revealed something hidden for some reason.

And physicists knew that Nature itself helps physicists in this phenomenon. That it sends an energy quantum of at least 1.022 MeV to both the heavy nucleus and the free neutron.

That is why the neutron-derived proton of the PNP - as we called it - turns out to be more massive than the neutron by the mass of the positron. But the neutron is already more massive than the usual proton by 2-3 electron masses. And that is why academic science is silent about this. And not just silent, but rewrites, rewrites and rewrites on the Internet the physics of this phenomenon in the spirit of Wikipedia. Physics - science or politics?

Pauli's fault is not here: the positron had not yet been discovered (1932), but the neutron-neutrino had already been invented by him.

And this was another reason for the emergence of the Pauli and Fermi hypothesis. But the positron was still discovered. According to our point of view, it is not the proton and the electron that dissociate from each other, but the electron from the positron under the action of 1.022 MeV.

Such, as according to Pauli, violation of the balance of the momentum cannot arise in principle if the dipole (e + e) ​​is subject to dissociation.

Unfortunately, after the discovery of the positron, there was no revision and refinement of the physics of this phenomenon with the participation of a 1.022 MeV gamma-quantum, a positron and an electron. After all, the neutron was also discovered in 1932. But this discovery was taken into account by Fermi. So why is the gamma quantum so unlucky 1.022 MeV , and the positron, and even such an absurd situation persists to this day?

And further. Yes, they, it is they, the born electron-positron pair, should scatter in different directions, while maintaining the balance of momentum.

And yet, they do not scatter quite arbitrarily. And here, too, a knot of mysteries opens.

Does the proximity of the dipole to the neutron affect the behavior of the positron? This is also an interesting circumstance. On the one hand, if the neutron craves the charge of the positron, then for such a recombination, like any recombination, energy costs are almost unnecessary and. There is no one to resist if there is no proton behind the back of a free neutron (as in a deuteron). The positron simply escapes from the accompanying de Broglie wave, and even with an energy of 0.511 MeV. And she told him almost(≠) = 0 not needed. And therefore, in the spectrum of the neutron beta decay electron, even the maximum of its (electron) energy does not reach the limit: 1.022 MeV. True, the situation becomes more complicated in the deuteron, but this circumstance is an order of magnitude or two rarer.

Proximity to the neutron affected the behavior of the positron, and only indirectly - on the electron. A particle called the "free neutron" craved the positron in its arms. Moreover, the place for this has already been predetermined: the neutron has two nests, to which one or two protons, or one positron can join: the positron has weaker bonds with the neutron than the proton. (Otherwise, helium could have been formed - two with one nucleon.) Usually such a place is intended for a proton. But there were no free protons near the nucleus. And although the positron in its own way (mass, gradient of the electric field and shape) is far from the proton, but in the absence of such, the positron can fit: after all, the neutron needs a positive charge. The charges of a proton and a positron are the same.

Therefore, the positron from the composition of the nearest dipole (e + e-) has already “looked”, polarized at the neutron that thirsts for it and the place on it, prepared for “connection” with the neutron. And not just looking, but reaching for this place. Stretched because the dipole electron was not going to let it go. After all, they, a couple, once, when reuniting with each other, spent all their Coulomb force on this, radiating energy (2 x 0.511 MeV).

But the Cosmos (or something else) intervenes, and a 1.022 MeV gamma-ray appears.

We don't know how this gamma ray works, but it breaks the dipole into e- and e+, giving each of them 0.511 MeV. And if the positron is so close to the nest of the neutron that it does not need energy for the input work, then its excess either goes to the electron, or turns into NE - unclaimed energy (called neutrino). If the dipole was far enough away from the nest of the neutron, then the electron would still reach for the positron, losing both speed and energy. This is the work of parting.

Let it sound harsh. But in a scientific way, the recombination of a positron with a neutron occurs. Only as a result of this process does the transformation of a neutron into a proton take place. (n + e+ => = PNP ≈ p).

And that (in particular, the absence of a proton) beta decay of a free neutron is special, that with all the accidents noted below (for a non-free neutron), the de Broglie wave remnant of the positron becomes two-thirds (on average) smaller. And this still puzzles nuclear scientists. In those days, leading physicists Pauli and Fermi perceived this incident, the loss of part of the energy, almost as a violation of the world order in nuclear physics. And neutrinos were "appointed" guilty for this. That is why nuclear scientists are still looking for this invented “particle”. But Kikoin somehow kept silent about this (about these reasons). And governments, satisfying the insistence of the nuclear scientists, are forced to spend money, and not small ones, on the search for this notion. And schoolchildren, having become officials, will continue to believe in the neutrino-particle. What is this justified?

On the other hand, in cases of the same beta decay of complex and many nucleon nuclei entrance of a positron into a neutron waiting for it, all the protons of the nucleus resist (curve Z=80,β-). And to overcome their Coulomb counteraction, the positron spends almost all of its (due to it) energy (0.511 MeV). But the electron often gets a significant part of the energy (1.022 MeV) of the gamma-quantum, bestowed by Nature. The point is, apparently, that the distance to the "nest" of the neutron, which the positron must overcome, is not determined by anything, its value is random. It is, of course, very small, but on a nuclear scale the difference can be large, and the Coulomb field is large. So the positron has to share with the electron, its partner, the energy of 1.022 MeV due to them “in a brotherly way”. So the electron turns out to be slow among many on the spectral graph on the curve Z = 80,β.

Rice. 3. Energy spectra of allowed transitions with Coulomb correction for Z=80 and Z=0 for 1 MeV; in the case of Z=0, the b- and b+-spectra coincide. The abscissa shows the total energy of the electron.

The Coulomb field of the nucleus increases the probability of emission of electrons and reduces the probability of emission of positrons in the low energy region.

ATTENTION!!! From Fig. 3, obtained theoretically, it can be seen, by the way, that the total energy of the electron was incorporated into the theory by theoreticians as initial, as basic. But why does it exactly coincide with 1.022 MeV, which we talk about from the very beginning as a gift from Nature? And why is it the same for the beta decay of a free neutron and for Z=80-? Most authors keep counting in atomic units, and then tens of MeV appear in the tables, and not 0-1.022 MeV. So, they knew, they know, and it turns out that they are deceiving?

So, a positron joined the neutron, making it even heavier compared to the neutron "before". Consequently, the neutron, which is already heavier than the proton by 2-3 electron masses, turned into PNP - a proton of neutron origin. And this means that the proton that emerged from the neutron became heavier than the neutron by the mass of the positron. And this is a gross violation of the relativistic law of conservation of energy. Hidden in (2). Hidden violation of the law of conservation of energy!!! And about this - not a word ,,, , , As if it is not known about it. DECEPTION!!??!

And Kikoin doesn’t say a word about this either. And therefore, Kikoin mentions 1.022 MeV and those involved in this gamma-quantum and positron in passing, as supposedly not involved.

Although it is, of course, impossible to accuse him of ignorance of this process: he knew Ioffe, he studied and worked under the guidance of Ioffe. And Ioffe was attracted to research by Alikhanov, the director of the institute. This means that Ioffe knew about the discovery of pairwise conversion by Alikhanov. And therefore, he described in great detail the phenomenon of beta decay and especially the beta decay of a free neutron back in 1934 [Science and Life 1934. I read this article in 2005 (far from Moscow), but do not read it on the Internet, everything is adapted there about Kikoinski]. He also knew Shpolsky, the author of Atomic Physics in 1944. And in it Shpolsky admitted:

"... with regard to β-decay, it can be said that it represents the most difficult problem of nuclear physics." [(28, p.555)] And that beta decay has something to do with internal conversion. [(28, p.555)] Shpolsky also does not mention Ioffe. And he does not mention the participation of the positron in beta decay. What is strange!? True, he devoted several pages of his book to the positron, but mainly in connection with the Dirac theory and annihilation. By the way, he noted about the Dirac theory: “Its advantage, in particular, is that it makes it possible to simply explain the annihilation of particles and shows that no annihilation of particles occurs here at all (highlighted - VM), so the very term “ annihilation" does not convey the essence of the process." Therefore, he emphasized that “…when a photon with energy > 2m e c 2 is absorbed near some nucleus, an electron with negative energy can go to the level” of positive energy, i.e. … a pair of electron-positron particles will appear." Hence, according to Shpolsky, the Dirac Sea does not consist of holes-antielectrons, but of dipoles (e+e-). And I approve it. Our views coincided. Hooray!!! They form a quasi-crystalline system similar to the Ising lattice.

The clue to where the electron comes from is now clear. It should only be added that in the process considered, the electron does not escape either from the nucleus or from the neutron. He has not been there. The electron appeared as an extra, restless object. Extra!!! Because the excess neutron really, really needed a positively charged positron (and not even always a proton! This is already a distant sight of Nature: chains of beta decays!). And they, positrons, are almost never free in Nature. After all, this is one of the representatives of "antimatter". The one we often talk about but know so little about. Therefore, Nature allows (as in beta-minus decay) to break, dissociate, individual dipoles. And this can be done only with the cost of a gamma quantum of at least 1.022 MeV and in the presence of the "consumer" = the right place.

All physicists know that it is thanks to the 1.022 MeV gamma-quantum that the processes of birth of a pair of particles, a positron with an electron, take place in the entire Universe. And the reverse process (see Fig. 9.2 below) with a pronounced peak 511 keV.

But it was precisely about this, about the participation of the positron in beta decay, that Kikoin kept silent. And why? Because I didn’t know why a positron is needed here !!!?? Yes, he knew, he knew. Ioffe, his boss, published a long article about this. (Science and Life 1934)

But then it turns out that this is a project about some kind of idea like: we will not tell the young people about this. And the subsequent ones, therefore, will not guess, since outwardly everything looks in order: the mass of the neutron is greater than the mass of the proton and electron. Moreover, it is redundant, which is what the thieving neutrino uses (cuts).

So in Kikoin's textbooks on physics for high school students, the appearance of compliance with the conservation laws in beta decays is created. And later they become decision makers. And the inventors will never convince them. Glory to the bosses and woe to the innovators.

Everything kind of revolves around and around.

So - a violation or not? And who are the judges? Yes, those who hide.

The foregoing allows us instead of (1) and (2) to propose the equation of electron beta decay in the form where there is no violation of the law of conservation of energy

(n + (e+e-) + 1.022 MeV) => ((n + e+) + e- + NE) => (PNP + e- + NE), (3)

Here n is a neutron; (e+e-) - dipole from the Dirac Sea; NE - unclaimed energy (during the recombination of a positron with a neutron). But it is only a fraction of the 1.022 MeV gamma-ray energy. And the rest is not (anti)neutrino carried away, but spent (as work) on entering the neutron (uncertainty of distances, orientations, formation of de Broglie's own wave, etc.). In the physics of beta decays, there is no such concept as “work expended on the entry of a positron into a neutron»;

PNP is a proton of neutron origin. In the first curly bracket it is shown that the dipole, chosen by the neutron, thirsting for the positron, is ready for dissociation (polarized), and the long-awaited energy quantum has appeared, which is necessary for the implementation of dissociation.

In the second curly bracket - it has already happened: the dissociation is completed and the neutron has reunited the positron to itself, the work of entry has been completed. The electron has become the third extra - that's why it appears in (1,2 and 3). There are no invented (anti)neutrinos here. On the other hand, there is a remainder of the NE energy unclaimed in the process of recombination of a positron with a neutron.

And in the third - it is shown that a neutron with a positron turned into a PNP - a proton of neutron origin, the electron remained restless, and the NE is different every time, and this is how it appears on the continuous graph of the spectrum.

So, a proton of neutron origin PNP has been discovered - a new, previously unrecognized particle! Q.E.D.

If we compare (3) with (1), we find that the left side of (1) is significantly poorer than the contents of the first curly brace in (3).

Note. About some additional facts-arguments that testify to the correctness of our discovery, it is said in.

AREA OF SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL USE OF THE DISCOVERY

The most important merit of our discovery is that

a) the second type of proton was discovered, namely, the proton of neutron origin (PNP) in the form of NNP = (n + e+);

b) which is endowed by Nature with the ability to sacrifice electrons when attacking it ( like a lizard - tail ) a positron and again turn into a neutron (positron beta decay), as in the case of the initiation of K-capture;

([PNP = (n + e+)] + e-) -> -> (4)

Here in curly bracket: the electron attacks the NNP, i.e. neutron with a positron attached to it, and lures out (also with the cost of work), steals the positron from the PNP.

In the first square bracket: the stolen positron reunites (“annihilates”) with the electron, turning into a dipole (e + e-), with the emission of two gamma quanta of 0.511 MeV each. And thus, a neutron is released, which before that was in the toga of the PNP. We also note that all protons of the (complex) nucleus also contribute to the abduction of the positron (to reduce the cost of work as well). Kolpakov mentions this, but from the standpoint of theory;

In the second square bracket: the same neutron, the emitted pair of gamma quanta and the empty space - the electrically neutral dipole (e+e-) that disappeared from observations and returned to the Dirac Sea;

c) a previously unknown property of the neutron, consisting in the fact that it, the neutron, is able to attach to itself or 1-2 protons, has been additionally revealed. Or - one positron. In this case, a neutron with an attached positron is converted into a proton of neutron origin TNP. Or - one proton and one positron, turning into positron beta-decay helium 2 He 2 (***). For decades I dreamed that two or two helium exists and this is proof of my hypothesis about the crystalline nature of nucleons and nuclei, moreover, constructively repeating my hypothesis,. Only our Discovery made it possible and allows us to understand how helium 2 He 2 is arranged and to predict its existence. But there was not the slightest information about it. And on January 4, 2015, I managed to find this information on Wikipedia. HURRAH!!!

Or even into helium with a single nucleon 2 He 1 .

Without a neutron - two protons do not combine, but with a neutron - they form helium 2 He 2 are turning. Because they, protons, are different;

d) thereby revealing the physical mechanism of weak interactions;

e) the source of energy in the form of "annihilation" radiation of two gamma quanta of 0.511 MeV at controlled positron beta decays is ajar Figure 9.2

Rice. 9.2. Basic physical mechanisms of generation of cosmic gamma radiation. In the region of low energies (less than 1 MeV), soft gamma radiation is observed, arising from the interaction of cosmic protons with nuclei. Excited nuclei pass into the ground state, with the emission of gamma quanta (mechanism 1). In the same energy range, a discrete 511 keV line is generated as a result of annihilation of electrons and positrons (2). The motion of electrons in magnetic fields is accompanied by synchrotron radiation of gamma rays at higher energies (3). Scattering of electrons by low-energy photons (for example, by relic radiation) leads to the so-called inverse Compton scattering of gamma quanta (4). In area
MeV energies are dominated by the effect of generating gamma radiation during the decay of neutral pions arising from collisions of cosmic ray protons (5) ;

f) Nature's gift to people was discovered, which consists in the fact that a person does not need to accumulate (imitating Nature) and make a supply of hydrogen in the form of atoms with PNP nuclei. Nature has been doing this for billions of years (3) and has apparently accumulated enough of them: Figure 9.2. Man (in boundless Siberia) needs to learn how to isolate (from snow) hydrogen with PNP nuclei and safely use them as an energy source;

g) the discovery allows us to unravel a much larger number of mysteries lurking in beta decay phenomena, including, it seems, their participation in the so-called CNS. and

INFORMATION ON PRIORITY AND RECOGNITION OF NOVELTY AND RELIABILITY

1. In previous years (60s, 70s), I several times applied to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR with a request to consider my hypothesis about the crystal structure of the nuclei of chemical elements, about their good agreement with the then known isotopic composition (spectrum) and even with the nuclear force curve three particles. They answered me with replies and explanations, but I was a military man, I was transferred to different cities and places, and much has been lost. In the Academy of Sciences of the USSR can be preserved.
2. At the Institute of Nuclear Physics, where I worked and studied at the evening engineering physics faculty of Moscow State University, they were not interested in my hypothesis.
3. With the advent of a computer, I sat down to study the books I had accumulated on nuclear physics (after suffering heart attacks, I could no longer visit Leninka) and as a result, I first published in TM, and then published a book.
4. Since 2009, he began to post his articles on the Internet,,,,,,. .

FORMULA OF DISCOVERY

The discovery of a previously unknown phenomenon in the form of a physical mechanism, consisting in the fact that in the known process of electronic beta decay of a free neutron, when a gamma quantum of at least 1.022 MeV appears (with an interval of 10-16 minutes), one of the closest (in terms of nuclear scales) to a free to a neutron, an electron-positron pair from the Dirac sea, a dipole (e-e+), dissociates into e+ and e-, and the resulting positron e+ immediately recombines with a neutron (captured by a neutron), which turns into a proton of neutron origin (PNP) with the emission (release) of the electron e- and parts energy, remaining unclaimed during the recombination of the positron e + with a neutron (called the antineutrino).

Bibliography

1. Aleksandrov Yu.A. Fundamental properties of the neutron M. 1982;

2. A. G. Alenitsyn, E. I. Butikov, and A. S. Kondrat’ev, Acoust. Brief physical and mathematical reference book M 1990;

3. Ishkhanov B.S. Nucleosynthesis in the Universe;

4. Kikoin A.K. Two mysteries of beta decay // Kvant. - 1985. - No. 5. - S. 30-31, 34;

5. Kolpakov P.E. Fundamentals of nuclear physics M 1969;

6. Malyarov V.V. Fundamentals of the theory of the atomic nucleus M 1959;

7. Manturov V.V. To the question of the "hidden mass of the Universe" ;

8. Manturov V.V. Nuclear forces. TM clue offer Feb. 2006;

9. Manturov V.V. From crystalline nucleons and nuclei to unraveling the distribution of prime numbers М 2007; 2007 and http://www.site/ ;

13. Manturov V.V. About the size of a photon or Hydrino Nature does not provide ;

14. Manturov V.V. Protons are different, rather, by nature than because of the "labels" hung on them - spins, ;

15. Manturov V.V. Weak interactions. New ideas 18. Neutrino Wikipedia;

19. Panasyuk M.I. Wanderers of the Universe or Echoes of the Big Bang 1992 Moscow State University, http://nuclphys.sinp.msu.ru/pilgrims/;

20. First Director of ITEP, http://www.itep.ru/rus/history/Alihanov.shtml;

21. Semikov S.A. Ballistic Theory of Ritz and the picture of the universe Nizhny Novgorod 2013;

22. Subatomic physics. Under the editorship of Prof. B.S. Ishkhanov, Moscow State University, M 1994;

23. Table of isotopes http://logicphysic.narod.ru/Tabl_H_Si.htm;

24. Physical Encyclopedic Dictionary;

25. Physical encyclopedia;

26. NASA scientist announced the operation of the fusion reactor without fusion http://www.membrana.ru/particle/16230/;

27. Shirokov Yu.M. and Yudin N.P. Nuclear Physics M 1972;

beta decay

β-decay, radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus, accompanied by the departure of an electron or positron from the nucleus. This process is due to the spontaneous transformation of one of the nucleons of the nucleus into a nucleon of another kind, namely: the transformation of either a neutron (n) into a proton (p), or a proton into a neutron. In the first case, an electron (e -) flies out of the nucleus - the so-called β - decay occurs. In the second case, a positron (e +) flies out of the nucleus - β + decay occurs. Departing at B.-r. electrons and positrons are collectively referred to as beta particles. Mutual transformations of nucleons are accompanied by the appearance of another particle - a neutrino ( ν ) in the case of β+ decay or antineutrino A, equal to the total number of nucleons in the nucleus, does not change, and the nucleus product is an isobar of the original nucleus, standing next to it to the right in the periodic system of elements. On the contrary, during β + -decay, the number of protons decreases by one, and the number of neutrons increases by one, and an isobar is formed, standing in the neighborhood to the left of the original nucleus. Symbolically, both processes of B.-r. are written in the following form:

where -Z neutrons.

The simplest example of (β - -decay is the transformation of a free neutron into a proton with the emission of an electron and an antineutrino (neutron half-life ≈ 13 min):

A more complex example (β - decay - the decay of a heavy isotope of hydrogen - tritium, consisting of two neutrons (n) and one proton (p):

It is obvious that this process is reduced to β - decay of a bound (nuclear) neutron. In this case, the β-radioactive tritium nucleus turns into the nucleus of the next element in the periodic table - the nucleus of the light helium isotope 3 2 He.

An example of β + decay is the decay of the carbon isotope 11 C according to the following scheme:

The transformation of a proton into a neutron inside the nucleus can also occur as a result of the capture by the proton of one of the electrons from the electron shell of the atom. Most often, electron capture occurs

B.-r. observed in both naturally radioactive and artificially radioactive isotopes. In order for the nucleus to be unstable with respect to one of the types of β-transformation (i.e., it could undergo a B.-r.), the sum of the masses of the particles on the left side of the reaction equation must be greater than the sum of the masses of the transformation products. Therefore at B. - river. energy is released. B.'s energy - river. Eβ can be calculated from this mass difference using the relation E = mc2, where with - speed of light in vacuum. In the case of β-decay

where M - masses of neutral atoms. In the case of β+ decay, a neutral atom loses one of the electrons in its shell, the energy of the B.-r. is equal to:

where me- the mass of an electron.

B.'s energy - river. distributed among three particles: an electron (or positron), an antineutrino (or neutrino) and a nucleus; each of the light particles can carry away almost any energy from 0 to E β i.e. their energy spectra are continuous. It is only in K-capture that the neutrino always carries away the same energy.

So, in β - -decay, the mass of the initial atom exceeds the mass of the final atom, and in β + -decay, this excess is at least two electron masses.

B.'s research - river. nuclei has repeatedly presented scientists with unexpected mysteries. After the discovery of radioactivity, B.'s phenomenon - river. has long been considered as an argument in favor of the presence of electrons in atomic nuclei; this assumption turned out to be in clear contradiction with quantum mechanics (see atomic nucleus). Then, the inconstancy of the energy of the electrons emitted during B.-r., even gave rise to disbelief in the law of conservation of energy among some physicists, since. it was known that nuclei in states with a well-defined energy participate in this transformation. The maximum energy of electrons escaping from the nucleus is exactly equal to the difference between the energies of the initial and final nuclei. But in this case, it was not clear where the energy disappears if the emitted electrons carry less energy. The assumption of the German scientist W. Pauli about the existence of a new particle - the neutrino - saved not only the law of conservation of energy, but also another most important law of physics - the law of conservation of angular momentum. Since the spins (i.e., proper moments) of the neutron and proton are equal to 1 / 2, then in order to preserve the spin on the right side of the B.-r. there can only be an odd number of particles with spin 1/2. In particular, in the case of β - decay of a free neutron n → p + e - + ν, only the appearance of an antineutrino excludes the violation of the momentum conservation law.

B.-r. occurs in elements of all parts of the periodic system. The tendency to β-transformation arises due to the presence of an excess of neutrons or protons in a number of isotopes compared to the amount that corresponds to maximum stability. Thus, the tendency to β + decay or K-capture is characteristic of neutron-deficient isotopes, and the tendency to β - decay is characteristic of neutron-rich isotopes. About 1500 β-radioactive isotopes of all elements of the periodic table are known, except for the heaviest ones (Z ≥ 102).

B.'s energy - river. currently known isotopes ranges from

half-lives are in a wide range from 1.3 10 -2 sec(12 N) to Beta decay 2 10 13 years (natural radioactive isotope 180 W).

In the future, B.'s study - river. repeatedly led physicists to the collapse of old ideas. It was established that B. - river. forces of an entirely new nature govern. Despite the long period that has passed since the discovery of B.-r., the nature of the interaction that causes B.-r. has not been fully studied. This interaction was called "weak", because. it is 10 12 times weaker than the nuclear one and 10 9 times weaker than the electromagnetic one (it surpasses only the gravitational interaction; see Weak Interactions). Weak interaction is inherent in all elementary particles (See elementary particles) (except for the photon). Almost half a century passed before physicists discovered that in B.-r. the symmetry between "right" and "left" can be broken. This parity nonconservation has been attributed to the properties of weak interactions.

B.'s studying - river. It also had another important aspect. The lifetime of the nucleus relative to B.-r. and the shape of the spectrum of β-particles depend on the states in which the initial nucleon and the product nucleon are located inside the nucleus. Therefore, the study of B.-r., in addition to information about the nature and properties of weak interactions, significantly expanded the understanding of the structure of atomic nuclei.

B.'s probability - river. depends essentially on how close the states of nucleons in the initial and final nuclei are to each other. If the state of the nucleon does not change (the nucleon seems to remain in the same place), then the probability is maximum and the corresponding transition of the initial state to the final one is called allowed. Such transitions are characteristic of B. - river. light nuclei. Light nuclei contain almost the same number of neutrons and protons. Heavier nuclei have more neutrons than protons. The states of nucleons of different types are essentially different from each other. It complicates B. - river; there are transitions at which B. - river. happens with a low probability. The transition is also hampered by the need to change the spin of the nucleus. Such transitions are called forbidden. The nature of the transition also affects the shape of the energy spectrum of the β-particles.

An experimental study of the energy distribution of electrons emitted by β-radioactive nuclei (beta spectrum) is carried out using a Beta spectrometer. Examples of β-spectra are shown in rice. one and rice. 2 .

Lit.: Alpha, beta and gamma spectroscopy, ed. K. Zigbana, trans. from English, c. 4, M., 1969, Ch. 22-24; Experimental Nuclear Physics, ed. E. Segre, trans. from English, vol. 3, M., 1961.

E. M. Leikin.

Beta spectrum of the neutron. The kinetic is plotted on the x-axis. electron energy E in kev, on the y-axis - the number of electrons N (E) in relative units (vertical lines indicate the limits of measurement errors of electrons with a given energy).

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

Synonyms:

See what "Beta decay" is in other dictionaries:

Beta decay, radioactive transformations of atomic nuclei, in the process of rxx, the nuclei emit electrons and antineutrinos (beta decay) or positrons and neutrinos (beta + decay). Departing at B. p. electrons and positrons have a common name. beta particles. At… … Big encyclopedic polytechnic dictionary

Modern Encyclopedia

beta decay- (b decay), a type of radioactivity in which a decaying nucleus emits electrons or positrons. In electronic beta decay (b), a neutron (intranuclear or free) turns into a proton with the emission of an electron and an antineutrino (see ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

beta decay- (β decay) radioactive transformations of atomic nuclei, during which the nuclei emit electrons and antineutrinos (β decay) or positrons and neutrinos (β+ decay). Departing at B. p. electrons and positrons are collectively called beta particles (β particles) ... Russian encyclopedia of labor protection

- (b decay). spontaneous (spontaneous) transformations of a neutron n into a proton p and a proton into a neutron inside an atom. nuclei (as well as the transformation of a free neutron into a proton), accompanied by the emission of an electron on e or a positron e + and electron antineutrinos ... ... Physical Encyclopedia

Spontaneous transformations of a neutron into a proton and a proton into a neutron inside the atomic nucleus, as well as the transformation of a free neutron into a proton, accompanied by the emission of an electron or positron and a neutrino or antineutrino. double beta decay… … Nuclear power terms

- (see beta) radioactive transformation of the atomic nucleus, in which an electron and an antineutrino or a positron and a neutrino are emitted; during beta decay, the electric charge of the atomic nucleus changes by one, the mass number does not change. New dictionary... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

beta decay- beta rays, beta decay, beta particles. The first part is pronounced [beta] ... Dictionary of pronunciation and stress difficulties in modern Russian

Exist., Number of synonyms: 1 decay (28) ASIS Synonym Dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary

Beta decay, beta decay... Spelling Dictionary

BETA DECAY- (ß decay) radioactive transformation of the atomic nucleus (weak interaction), in which an electron and an antineutrino or a positron and a neutrino are emitted; at B. r. the electric charge of the atomic nucleus changes by one, the mass (see) does not change ... Great Polytechnic Encyclopedia

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• A set of tables. Physics. Grade 9 (20 tables), . Educational album of 20 sheets. Material point. moving body coordinates. Acceleration. Newton's laws. The law of universal gravitation. Rectilinear and curvilinear motion. Body movement along...

The nuclei of atoms are stable, but change their state when a certain ratio of protons and neutrons is violated. In light nuclei, there should be approximately equal numbers of protons and neutrons. If there are too many protons or neutrons in the nucleus, then such nuclei are unstable and undergo spontaneous radioactive transformations, as a result of which the composition of the nucleus changes and, consequently, the nucleus of an atom of one element turns into the nucleus of an atom of another element. During this process, nuclear radiation is emitted.

There are the following main types of nuclear transformations or types of radioactive decay: alpha decay and beta decay (electron, positron and K-capture), internal conversion.

Alpha decay - is the emission of a radioactive isotope of alpha particles from the nucleus. Due to the loss of two protons and two neutrons with an alpha particle, the decaying nucleus turns into another nucleus, in which the number of protons (nuclear charge) decreases by 2, and the number of particles (mass number) by 4. Therefore, for a given radioactive decay, in accordance with the rule displacement (shift), formulated by Fajans and Soddy (1913), the resulting (daughter) element is shifted to the left relative to the original (parent) two cells to the left in the periodic system of D. I. Mendeleev. The process of alpha decay in general terms is written as follows:

where X is the symbol of the initial nucleus; Y is the symbol of the nucleus of the decay product; 4 2 He is an alpha particle, Q is the released excess energy.

For example, the decay of radium-226 nuclei is accompanied by the emission of alpha particles, while the radium-226 nuclei turn into radon-222 nuclei:

The energy released during alpha decay is divided between the alpha particle and the nucleus in inverse proportion to their masses. The energy of alpha particles is strictly related to the half-life of a given radionuclide (Geiger-Nettol law) . This suggests that, knowing the energy of alpha particles, it is possible to set the half-life, and to identify the radionuclide by the half-life. For example, the polonium-214 nucleus is characterized by the energy values ​​of alpha particles E = 7.687 MeV and T 1/2 = 4.510 -4 s, while for the uranium-238 nucleus E = 4.196 MeV and T 1/2 = 4, 510 9 years. In addition, it has been found that the higher the energy of alpha decay, the faster it proceeds.

Alpha decay is a fairly common nuclear transformation of heavy nuclei (uranium, thorium, polonium, plutonium, etc. with Z > 82); over 160 alpha-emitting nuclei are currently known.

Beta decay - spontaneous transformations of a neutron into a proton or a proton into a neutron inside the nucleus, accompanied by the emission of electrons or positrons and antineutrinos or neutrino e.

If there is an excess of neutrons in the nucleus (“neutron overload” of the nucleus), then electron beta decay occurs, in which one of the neutrons turns into a proton, emitting an electron and an antineutrino:

.

During this decay, the charge of the nucleus and, accordingly, the atomic number of the daughter nucleus increases by 1, but the mass number does not change, i.e., the child element is shifted in the periodic system of D. I. Mendeleev by one cell to the right of the original one. The process of beta decay in general terms is written as follows:

.

In this way, nuclei with an excess of neutrons decay. For example, the decay of strontium-90 nuclei is accompanied by the emission of electrons and their transformation into yttrium-90:

Often, the nuclei of elements formed during beta decay have excess energy, which is released by the emission of one or more gamma rays. For example:

Electronic beta decay is characteristic of many natural and artificially produced radioactive elements.

If the unfavorable ratio of neutrons and protons in the nucleus is due to an excess of protons, then positron beta decay occurs, in which the nucleus emits a positron and a neutrino as a result of the transformation of a proton into a neutron inside the nucleus:

The charge of the nucleus and, accordingly, the atomic number of the child element decreases by 1, the mass number does not change. The child element will occupy a place in the periodic system of D. I. Mendeleev one cell to the left of the parent:

Positron decay is observed in some artificially produced isotopes. For example, the decay of the isotope phosphorus-30 with the formation of silicon-30:

The positron, flying out of the nucleus, tears off the “extra” electron (weakly bound to the nucleus) from the shell of the atom or interacts with a free electron, forming a “positron-electron” pair. Due to the fact that the particle and the antiparticle instantly annihilate with the release of energy, the formed pair turns into two gamma quanta with an energy equivalent to the mass of the particles (e + and e -). The process of transformation of a pair of "positron-electron" into two gamma quanta is called annihilation (annihilation), and the resulting electromagnetic radiation is called annihilation. In this case, one form of matter (particles of matter) is transformed into another (radiation). This is confirmed by the existence of a reverse reaction - the reaction of pair formation, in which electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently high energy, passing near the nucleus under the action of a strong electric field of the atom, turns into an electron-positron pair.

Thus, during positron beta decay, in the end result, not particles fly out of the parent nucleus, but two gamma quanta with an energy of 0.511 MeV each, equal to the energy equivalent of the rest mass of particles - a positron and an electron E \u003d 2m e c 2 \u003d 1.022 MeV .

The transformation of the nucleus can be carried out by electron capture, when one of the protons of the nucleus spontaneously captures an electron from one of the inner shells of the atom (K, L, etc.), most often from the K shell, and turns into a neutron. This process is also called K-capture. A proton turns into a neutron according to the following reaction:

In this case, the nuclear charge decreases by 1, and the mass number does not change:

For example,

In this case, the place vacated by the electron is occupied by an electron from the outer shells of the atom. As a result of the rearrangement of the electron shells, an x-ray quantum is emitted. The atom still retains electrical neutrality, since the number of protons in the nucleus during electron capture decreases by one. Thus, this type of decay leads to the same results as positron beta decay. It is typical, as a rule, for artificial radionuclides.

The energy released by the nucleus during the beta decay of a particular radionuclide is always constant, but due to the fact that this type of decay produces not two, but three particles: a recoil nucleus (daughter), an electron (or positron) and a neutrino, the energy is different in each act of decay, it is redistributed between an electron (positron) and a neutrino, since the daughter nucleus always carries away the same portion of energy. Depending on the angle of expansion, a neutrino can carry away more or less energy, as a result of which an electron can receive any energy from zero to some maximum value. Hence, during beta decay, beta particles of the same radionuclide have different energies, from zero to some maximum value characteristic of the decay of a given radionuclide. By the energy of beta radiation, it is practically impossible to identify a radionuclide.

Some radionuclides can decay simultaneously in two or three ways: through alpha and beta decays and through K-capture, a combination of three types of decays. In this case, the transformations are carried out in a strictly defined ratio. So, for example, the natural long-lived radioisotope potassium-40 (T 1/2 \u003d 1.4910 9 years), whose content in natural potassium is 0.0119%, undergoes electronic beta decay and K-capture:

(88% - electronic decay),

(12% - K-capture).

From the types of decays described above, it can be concluded that gamma decay in its “pure form” does not exist. Gamma radiation can only accompany various types of decays. When gamma radiation is emitted in the nucleus, neither the mass number nor its charge change. Consequently, the nature of the radionuclide does not change, but only the energy contained in the nucleus changes. Gamma radiation is emitted during the transition of nuclei from excited levels to lower levels, including the ground level. For example, during the decay of cesium-137, an excited barium-137 nucleus is formed. The transition from an excited to a stable state is accompanied by the emission of gamma quanta:

Since the lifetime of nuclei in excited states is very short (usually t10 -19 s), then during alpha and beta decays, a gamma quantum flies out almost simultaneously with a charged particle. Proceeding from this, the process of gamma radiation is not distinguished as an independent type of decay. By the energy of gamma radiation, as well as by the energy of alpha radiation, it is possible to identify the radionuclide.

internal conversion. The excited (as a result of one or another nuclear transformation) state of the nucleus of an atom indicates the presence of an excess of energy in it. An excited nucleus can pass into a state with a lower energy (normal state) not only by emitting a gamma-quantum or ejection of a particle, but also by internal conversion, or conversion with the formation of electron-positron pairs.

The phenomenon of internal conversion consists in the fact that the nucleus transfers the excitation energy to one of the electrons of the inner layers (K-, L- or M-layer), which, as a result, breaks out of the atom. Such electrons are called conversion electrons. Consequently, the emission of conversion electrons is due to the direct electromagnetic interaction of the nucleus with shell electrons. Conversion electrons have a line energy spectrum, in contrast to beta decay electrons, which give a continuous spectrum.

If the excitation energy exceeds 1.022 MeV, then the transition of the nucleus to the normal state can be accompanied by the emission of an electron-positron pair, followed by their annihilation. After the internal conversion has taken place, a "vacant" site of the ejected conversion electron appears in the electron shell of the atom. One of the electrons of more distant layers (from higher energy levels) performs a quantum transition to a "vacant" place with the emission of characteristic X-ray radiation.