Introduction

The history of human exploration of the Urals is centuries-old. Since ancient times, a few human tribes, settled mainly along the banks of the rivers, began to develop the foot of the Ural Mountains. The main stage in the development of the Urals can be called the time of the industrial boom in Russia. When, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, Tsar Peter, caring for the glory and greatness of Russia, presciently determined the direction of Russia's development, then the Ural storerooms shone before the eyes of new Russian industrialists with unprecedented strength.

The Strogonov industrialists are considered one of the first developers of the Ural wealth in history. In addition to factories and workshops, they left household buildings (a house, a chapel, the Transfiguration Cathedral) on their ordinary estate Usolye-on-Kama, which today are considered the cultural heritage of the industrial past of the Ural Territory.

The next stage in the development of the Urals also belongs to the ancient dynasty of industrialists Demidovs. Among the remaining industrial monuments built on the territory of the Demidovs' patrimony are the remains of blast furnaces of the famous Nevyanovsky plant, dams, the famous Nevyanovskaya leaning tower, the master's house, the "Tsar-blast furnace", the building of which has survived to this day.

In place of industrial developments, cities began to appear in the Urals. One of the first built in the 18th century were the so-called "cities - factories": Nevyansk, Nizhny Tagil, Barancha, Kushva, Zlatoust, Alapaevsk and others. These cities, according to the description of Russian writers of that time, were buried in countless branches of the Ural Mountains among dense forests. High mountains, clear water, impenetrable forest surround these human settlements, creating an atmosphere of freshness and solemnity, despite the constantly smoking chimneys of factory workers.

Interestingly, being one of the oldest regions of metallurgical production on the planet, the Urals supply non-ferrous and ferrous metals not only to Russia, but also to Western Asia, and later contributed to the development of machine production in a number of European countries and even America. The Urals played an important role in the domestic wars of the 18th-20th centuries. During the First World War and especially the Second, the Urals became the forge of Russia's military power, the main arsenal of the Red Army. In the Urals, during the Second World War, the Soviet nuclear and rocket industry began to be created. The first hail installations under the affectionate name "Katyusha" also come from the Urals. In the Urals, there was also a network of scientific laboratories for the development of new types of weapons.

This paper describes the features of the history of the development of the Urals by Russian people.

The history of the development of the Urals

Intensive development of the Urals began in the critical historical epoch of the 17th-18th centuries, which opened the beginning of the "imperial civilization" (A. Flier), or a new time in the history of the Russian state. The special place of the Urals in this period is determined by the fact that this frontier region became the historical zone of the first Russian experience in the formation of a new “Russianness” (P.N. Savitsky’s term), as a synthesis of the efforts of two cultures: the new - state-Western and the old - “soil” and "frontier" at the same time.

The 17th century in the history of the development of the Urals can be considered as a period of mass "free" peasant colonization, associated mainly with the agrarian development of the region. Over the course of a century, an old-timer Russian population formed here, reproducing the features of traditional culture in a variant of the Russian North in a new habitat. During this period, the "grassroots" element was the leader of the colonization movement. The state barely had time to make its own administrative adjustments to this fleeting process.

In the XVIII century. The Urals, like no other region of the country, experienced all the innovations and costs of "Europeanization", as a result of which the type of specific "Ural" subculture was determined. The mining industry has become its basic element. The construction of more than 170 factories per century, the production of pig iron from 0.6 million poods at the beginning of the century to 7.8 million poods by its end, the conquest of the international metal market - all this was the undoubted result of industrial progress. But the industrial phenomenon of Russian Europeanization became possible not only as a result of the active borrowing of Western technologies, but also the creation of a specific system for organizing the mining industry based on feudal local principles and coercion. The free people's colonization is being replaced by the forced resettlement of tens of hundreds of serfs to the Urals, as well as the transformation of the descendants of free settlers from state peasants into "affiliated" ones, who were forced to perform "factory" duties. By the end of the XVIII century. there were more than 200 thousand people. In the Perm province, the most "mining" in nature, "assigned" at that time accounted for over 70% of the state peasants.

By the middle of the XIX century. out of a heterogeneous mass of dependent people, a specific class group is formed - the “mining population”. It was the social substratum that determined the cultural image of the mining Urals with its professional and everyday traditions.

The nature of this young Russian class can be considered intermediate in relation to the classical social patterns - peasants and workers. The forcible detachment of a mass of artisans from their usual peasant habitat determined their marginal condition and created a long-term explosive social atmosphere in the Ural region. The permanent manifestation of various forms of social protest has become a characteristic feature of the "Ural" culture.

The economic and economic base of the Ural phenomenon was formed by the mining and district system of industry. The main element of this system - the mining district - represented a diversified economy that functioned on the principle of self-sufficiency. The mining complex provided itself with raw materials, fuel, energy resources and all the necessary infrastructure, creating an uninterrupted closed production cycle. The "natural" nature of the mining industry was based on the monopoly right of the plant owners to all the natural resources of the district, which eliminated competition for their production. “Naturality”, “isolation”, “local structure of industry” (V.D. Belov, V.V. Adamov), orientation of production to the state order, weak market ties were the natural features of this phenomenon. Organizational and administrative transformations of the first half of the 19th century. “improved” this system, turning the mining Urals into a “state within a state” (V.D. Belov). From the modern point of view, the “original structure” of the Ural industry must be associated with the transitional nature of the Russian economy in the Modern Age. Such an approach (for example, by T.K. Guskova) seems to be fruitful, since it interprets this system as an evolutionary stage from a traditional society to an industrial one.

Established in the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. the Ural mining culture retained its features even by the beginning of the 20th century. The Ural mining settlement preserved the atmosphere of a peasant, by nature, social and family life, which was facilitated by the fact that the artisans had their own houses, vegetable gardens, land allotments, and livestock farming. The craftsmen preserved the historical memory of the paternalistic foundations of the mining system, which was expressed in the vitality of "obligatory relations". Their social requirements are characterized by an orientation towards patronage from factories and the state. They were distinguished from other groups of Russian workers by low professionalism and low wages. According to I.Kh. Ozerova, Ural worker of the early 20th century. psychologically was aimed at the equalizing principle of wages. Having got used to the current level of factory earnings, if it increased, he irrationally spent money, embarking on a spree. He was not inclined to change his usual working specialty to another, even if it was financially profitable. Cultural influences on the life of the mining environment were extremely scarce, due to the peculiarities of the social structure of the mining Urals, the remoteness of factory settlements from cultural centers. The irrational features of the social psychology of the Ural craftsman and other characteristics of his social appearance confirm the version that he belongs to a transitional type of culture.

Thus, the "Ural mining" subculture typologically adjoins transitional intercivilizational phenomena. The Urals most expressively demonstrated their features, which allows us to consider this region as a kind of "classic" of transitional states of modernizing societies.

The Urals has long been known as a natural border between Europe and Asia. In ancient Greek and Roman sources, and then in a number of later European sources, up to the middle of the 16th century, the Urals were called the Riphean, or Hyperborean mountains. Under this name, these mountains were also depicted on ancient geographical maps, starting with the world map of the famous Alexandrian scientist Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century AD). For a long time, starting from the first chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years" dating back to the 11th century AD - the Russians called the Ural Mountains "Belt Stone", "Siberian", or "Big Stone", or "Earth Belt". By the end of the 16th century, the Russians were already well aware of the territory of their country, including the territory of the Urals.

On the first detailed map of the Muscovite state - the “Big Drawing”, compiled in the first version, apparently in 1570, the Urals, called “Big Stone”, was depicted as a powerful mountain belt, from which numerous rivers originate. Only from the thirties of the XVIII century the name "Ural Mountains" was introduced into literature for the first time. This name was introduced into science by talented researchers of the nature of the Urals - V.N. Tatishchev and P.I. Rychkov. The accumulation of knowledge about the nature of the Urals, its riches was facilitated by the settlement of the region by Russians, the development of agriculture, mining, and trade here. However, this knowledge did not go beyond the scope of private observations in individual industries, mainly related to the use of the natural resources of the region.

A systematic study of natural conditions was carried out by the works of scientists and travelers who visited the Urals at different times and carried out research work here. The first of the Russian geographers began to study the Urals V.N. Tatishchev. It was the largest scientist of the middle of the XVIII century. He led the search for minerals, cartographic work, collected a herbarium, studied the nature and population of the Urals. In the matter of studying the nature of the Middle Urals, including the nature of the Sverdlovsk region, Academician I.I. Lepekhin. In 1769-1771 I.I. Lepekhin, as the head of one of the detachments of the Academic Expedition, visited many regions and factories of the Southern and Middle Urals, studied the structure of the surface (especially karst landforms), collected rocks and a herbarium, discovered a number of minerals (copper ores, coal in Bashkiria), observed life and customs of the local population, mainly Bashkirs. A significant part of Lepekhin's route passed through the Middle Urals.

He visited Yekaterinburg and the factories closest to it - Verkh-Isetsky, Revdinsky and others. From Yekaterinburg, Lepekhin went to Kungur, where he examined and described the Kungur ice cave. After a trip to the Southern Urals, Lepekhin in the autumn of 1770 again went through Yekaterinburg to the eastern and northern parts of the modern territory of the Sverdlovsk region, visiting Turinsk, Irbit, Nizhny Tagil and Verkhoturye. Lepekhin climbed Konzhakovsky Kamen, where he found deposits of copper ore, described here the vertical zonality of the vegetation cover.

At the same time, another detachment of the Academic Expedition was working in the Urals under the leadership of Academician P.S. Pallas. He also visited some areas of our region. In the summer of 1770, traveling through the Iset province, he examined many factories and mines in the Southern and Middle Urals, in particular the iron mines of the Vysokaya and Grace mountains, as well as the Kachkanar massif. On its northern peak - Mount Magnitnaya - Pallas discovered ores of magnetic iron ore. The son of a prominent geographer and connoisseur of the nature of the Southern Urals, P.I. Rychkova - N.P. Rychkov studied the nature of the western slopes of the Middle and Southern Urals.

His route also covered the southwestern part of the modern territory of the Sverdlovsk region: in 1771, N. Rychkov traveled from Perm to Kungur, and from there through Yekaterinburg to Orenburg. The first information about the nature of the northern part of our region dates back to the beginning of the 19th century. In 1826, the head of the Theological Plants, F. Berger, reported information about the mountains of the Northern Urals, including Denezhkin Stone. In 1829, the well-known German geographer and scientist Alexander Gumbolti, a companion of the mineralogist Gustav Rose, visited the Urals on his way to the Altai. Their path passed from Perm through Kungur to Yekaterinburg, where they examined the immediate vicinity of the city - Lake Shartash, Berezovsky gold mines, Shabrovsky and Talc mines, Uktus, the village of Elizabeth. From Yekaterinburg, the travelers made a trip to the north, to Nizhny Tagil, to Mount Grace to inspect factories and mines, then their route crossed Bogoslovsk (now the city of Karpinsk). From here, through Alapaevsk and Yekaterinburg, the travelers headed to Tyumen and further east.

In 1830-39. the extreme north of the Sverdlovsk region (between the Chistop ridge and the top of Denezhkino Kamen) was studied by the North Ural expedition of the Department of Mining and Salt Affairs, first under the guidance of mining master M.I. Protasov, then mining engineers N.I. Strazhevsky and V.G. Pestereva. This part of the Urals, previously unexplored by almost no one, was first described and mapped. In 1838, Professor of Moscow University G.E. Shchurovsky, whose trip resulted in the first comprehensive description of the physical geography of the Middle and Northern Urals. In 1847-1850. The Russian Geographical Society organized a major expedition to the Northern Urals. It was named the North Ural Expedition of the Russian Geographical Society. The expedition was led by Professor of Mineralogy of St. Petersburg University E.K. Hoffmann. On the way back from Cherdyn in 1850 E.K. Hoffmann rode up the Vishera, crossed the Ural Range at its headwaters and, moving south, reached a large peak - Denezhkin Kamen, after which he arrived from Nadezhdinsk, through Nizhny Tagil, to Yekaterinburg. In 1855 E.K. Hoffmann again visited the Middle (near Yekaterinburg, Mount Kachkanar) and the Northern Urals (Konzhakovsky Stone). In 1872, the botanist N.V. Sorokin, a full member of the Kazan Society of Natural Science Lovers, climbed to the top of Denezhkin Kamen and collected a herbarium there.

In 1874-76. the high-mountainous part of the Sverdlovsk region (the massif of Chistop, Denezhkin Kamen, Konzhakovsky, Kosvinsky, Sukhogorsky Stones and Mount Kachkanar) was visited by the famous botanist P.N. Krylov, who collected very valuable material on the vegetation cover of the high mountains of the Northern and Middle Urals. Then, in 1877, another botanist and ethnographer, N.I. Kuznetsov - studied the vegetation cover and population of the far north of the territory of the Sverdlovsk region and climbed the Chistop massif and other mountains.

In the seventies mountains of the 19th century, the Ural Society of Natural Science Lovers was founded in Yekaterinburg, whose tasks included a comprehensive study of the nature of the Urals. The society has collected large collections of rocks and minerals, a herbarium, as well as zoological, especially entomological, archaeological, ethnographic and other collections. Now most of them are stored in the Sverdlovsk Regional Museum of Local Lore. A significant role in the study of the nature of the Sverdlovsk region was played by prominent figures of the Ural Society of Natural Science Lovers - O.E. Clair, N.K. Chupin, P.V. Syuzev, A.A. Cherdantsev, I.Ya. Krivoshchekov and a number of others. Cartographer and local historian I.Ya. Krivoshchekov compiled many maps that included the territory of the Sverdlovsk region, for example: "Map of the Perm province" (1887), "Map of the Yekaterinburg district of the Perm province" (1908), "Map of the Verkhotursk district" (1910).

Each card was accompanied by an explanatory text. In the seventies of the 19th century, the well-known geologist A.P. Karpinsky. From 1894 to 1899, E.S. Fedorov, who created a major work on the geology of the Bogoslovsky district and a wonderful geological museum in the Turin mines (now the city of Krasnoturinsk), which contains a rich collection of rocks in the amount of more than 80,000 copies.

At the very end of the 19th century, the famous geologist F.Yu. Levinson-Lessing. In 1898 and 1899, he conducted geological surveys of Denezhkin Kamen and the neighboring mountains in order to search for platinum and gold. After the Great October Socialist Revolution, the study of the nature of the Urals began to be carried out more systematically. Many expeditions were complex in nature. The subsoil of the Urals, including within the Sverdlovsk region, as well as other elements of nature were studied in particular detail: relief, climate, water, soil, vegetation and wildlife. A number of summary and special works on the geography of the Urals and the region appeared. A major role in the study of the nature of the north of the Sverdlovsk region was played by the Ural Complex Expedition of the USSR Academy of Sciences, which continued its work for a number of years, starting in 1939, as well as some expeditions of the Ural Department (now a branch) of the Geographical Society. At present, the Ural branch of the Geographical Society of the USSR, as well as a number of other scientific institutions and societies, and higher educational institutions play an important role in the study of the nature of the Sverdlovsk region.

Primitive communal system in the Urals

In the Urals, the formation of a primitive formation coincided with the development of its entire territory up to the Arctic Circle. The features of the historical process of the region were determined by a number of factors. The same rates and level of development of the productive forces of the population of the Stone Age, associated with the ubiquitous distribution of hunting and fishing, with the development of metal and the formation of a manufacturing economy, are replaced by various forms of economy and disparate rates of its development in three large natural zones of the Urals: taiga, forest-steppe and steppe. A complex cultural and ethnic history was predetermined by the location of the Urals on the border of Europe and Asia. Convenient waterways contributed to the mutual contacts of the peoples of the two parts of the world; steppe and forest-steppe from ancient times were areas of constant migration processes, the waves of which reached the taiga massifs. Developing according to their internal laws in the general flow of historical events in Eastern Europe, Western Siberia and Central Asia, the population of the Urals - the ancestors of the Udmurts, Komi, Mansi, Khanty, Bashkirs created a rich and unique culture in the primitive era.

(100 thousand years - 4 thousand years BC) The settlement of our country by man began about 600 thousand years ago. The oldest sites were discovered in the Caucasus, in the Kuban region, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, Moldova, Central Asia, and South Kazakhstan. The advance of the glacier to the middle Dnieper slowed down the settlement of the southern regions and even forced the ancient man to leave some of the already developed territories. However, during the subsequent interglacial about 100 thousand years BC. e. favorable conditions arose again for the advancement of man to Central Asia, Kazakhstan, the Crimea, the Russian Plain, the Volga region and the Urals.

The initial settlement of the Urals by man

The settlement of the Urals by man was a long and complex process. It occurred at different times and from different territories and was characterized by discontinuity. Inhabited places were either abandoned or reclaimed. This was largely due to a change in the geographical environment: during the epoch of glaciation, glacial, mountain and water-glacial barriers arose, in interglacial epochs - water barriers. The oldest monuments in the Urals date back to the Mousterian era of the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic). They are still single and are found throughout the Ural Mountains - from the South to the Subpolar Urals. The Mysovaya site is known on the western shore of Lake Karabalykty, 40 km from the city of Magnitogorsk. The lake through the nearby lakes Sabakty and Bannoe and the Yangelka river, which flows into the river. The Urals is associated with the Caspian Sea, which may have contributed to the early penetration of man here. For dating the complex to the Mousterian time, it is important that the finds were located at the base of glacial deposits. Most of the items are finished tools made of various types of flint and jasper. Among them are points on an elongated flake, several side-scraper tools, a series of bifaces (tools worked on both sides), as well as cores for chipping off flakes - cores and core-shaped pieces. An archaic hand ax (chopping) was also found, which differs from other tools in its larger size and primitive processing technique. In 1939, in the lower reaches of the river. Chusovaya in the Cave Log tract, several flakes and a typical Mousterian tool were found - a hand-held point with double-sided upholstery. The bones of a mammoth, a rhino, an elephant and a bull were found on the monuments. Pollen samples taken in the adjacent simultaneous peat bog gave a significant percentage of broad-leaved trees (linden, oak, hornbeam, hazel), which indicates a warmer climate here in antiquity. In recent years, a number of sites of the Cave Log type have been discovered in the Permian Cis-Urals: the End of the Mountains in the lower reaches of the Chusovaya and Sosnovka III on the middle Kama. Particular attention is drawn to the newly discovered sites on the Kama reservoir - Ganichata I and II, located in eroded sediments of the third floodplain terrace of the Kama.

About 500 objects made of grayish-yellowish quartzite of the archaic splitting technique were collected at the site of Ganichat I. Cores of various stages of processing, massive side-scrapers on split quartzite pebbles and flakes, and choppings were found. The plate technique is completely absent. At the site of Ganichat II, about 1,000 items were found that differ in composition from the Ganichat I complex. Most of the items were also made of yellowish-grayish quartzite, but there are objects from greenish and dark gray quartzite and dark siliceous schist. The set of tools is more expressive: side-scrapers on flakes, chopping tools, a chop-like item, flakes with champlevé retouching. There are various types of plates in the inventory. Monuments similar in character were also found in the basin of the river. Chusovoi (the location of Yelniki II and the lower layer of the Big Deaf Cave. The ancient population mined raw materials for the production of tools in the area of ​​a powerful deposit of quartzite sandstone near the village of Baranyata, where chippers from large pebbles, flakes, and chips were found. The Pleistocene fauna is accompanied by finds - mammoth bones, horses, We can talk about the discovery in the Urals of a new layer of Early Paleolithic monuments with a pebble quartzite industry. then along the western slope of the Ural Mountains (through the locality of Yelniki II, Big Deaf Cave, Ganichata I-II) to the upper Kama region. The second route of human penetration into the Urals should be connected, apparently, with the Caucasian-European center. near Volgograd) to the regions of the Middle and Upper Kama region (Sosnovka III, Cave Log , End of the Mountains). Judging by the nature of the materials of the Kama region, these two flows of settlement date back to different times. The Mousterian era in the Urals is still poorly understood. But there are materials that characterize the labor activity of a person of this time. The main tools of labor were pointed and side-scrapers, besides them, the Neanderthal used other types of tools (scrapers, points, flakes with marginal retouching, etc.). Regardless of the shape and size of the blanks (flakes), the tools were given a preconceived shape by trimming and retouching. Secondary processing techniques testify to the flexibility of the Neanderthal hand. The study of the Mousterian monuments on the territory of our country makes it possible to characterize some common features of the way of life of the Neanderthals. The most important result of the social progress of the era was the ability to artificially make fire, build dwellings, and make clothes. All this not only expanded the possibilities of human settlement in the North, but also allowed them to stay in the already developed territories when a new cold snap came. Mousterian man hunted large and herd animals: mammoths, rhinos, deer; In addition to hunting, ancient people were engaged in gathering. Due to the imperfection of the tools, hunting for large animals could be successful only with the ability to act in an organized close-knit group. Collective forms of hunting, joint labor in the construction of housing, intentional burials are evidence of the complex life of Neanderthals. Its social form of association and organization was the early tribal community.

Rice. 2. Paleolithic Stone and Bone Products Mysovaya Stoyanka

1 - pointed; 2 - scraper; 3 - biface; 6 - chopped-chopping. Parking Cave Log (4-5): 4- hand axe; 5 - flake. Byzovaya parking lot (7-10, 13): 7, 9 - scrapers; 8 - scraper; 10 - leaf-shaped point; 13 - point. Talitsky site (11,12, 14): 11, 12 - side-scrapers; 14 - bone point with flint inserts. Garin locality (15-20): 15 - knife; 16 - adze; 17 - scraper; 18-20 - sections. Location Shikaevka (21-28): 21, 22, 24 - knives; 23 - scraper; 25 - plate; 27 - knife-cutter; 28 - knife-cutter

The natural conditions of the late Paleolithic era (40 thousand years ago - the VIII millennium BC) did not prevent further human settlement in the Urals. In its last advance, the glacier spread only to the Bollypezemelskaya tundra, the Caspian Sea did not go beyond the borders of the Caspian lowland. The climate was cold and humid, and at the end of the ice age - sharply continental. Reindeer and bulls lived in the periglacial zone, to the south - mammoths, woolly rhinos, wild horses. There were many other smaller animals, as well as birds. Monuments of the Late Paleolithic in the Urals are more numerous and diverse than in the previous period. In the Southern Urals, part of the sites are located in caves. On the western slope, such sites were found in Klyuchevaya and Buranovskaya caves. In the cultural layer, there are remains of fires - carbonaceous hearth layers and accumulations of animal bones: woolly rhinoceros, primitive bison, noble and reindeer, horse, roe deer, saiga, etc. Some of the bones are crushed, some have traces of processing. Among the finds are several flint blades and flakes. In other caves (Smirnovskaya, Grebneva, Ust-Katavskaya I and II, Kochkari I and II, Sukhodolnaya), the remains of hearths and accumulations of crushed animal bones were also found. Several items made of red-green jasper are known from the Zotinsky grotto. Interesting results were obtained from the excavations of the multi-layer site of Ilmurzino in Bashkiria, where man, apparently, lived continuously from the end of the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic (the era of the middle stone). Split bones of ancient animals and flint inventory in the form of flakes, plates and cores were found in Smelovskaya II cave on the eastern slope of the Southern Urals. Noting the archaism of this complex, O. N. Bader refers it to the beginning of the Late Paleolithic and finds analogies in the Paleolithic complexes of Tajikistan. In the Southern Trans-Urals, at the Shikaevka site, the remains of two mammoth skeletons were found, lying on an area of ​​70 square meters. m. Stone tools made of green-red jasper were found among the bones, some of which belong to geometric inserts-microliths. The time of cultural remains is determined by the XIII millennium BC. e. V. T. Petrin believes that this was a place for butchering animal carcasses. A significant archaeological monument of the Southern Urals of the Late Paleolithic is the Kapova Cave (Shulgan-Tash) on the river. White. In the upper floor of the cave, two groups of images were discovered - drawings of mammoths, rhinos, horses, made in red ocher on a rock. Animals are depicted in profile, in a pose walking in one direction (to the left). The drawings are made in the form of contours or silhouettes with densely shaded contours. They are rendered on a different scale and, according to O. N. Bader, do not constitute a composition. In the lower floor, next to similar images of horses, there are geometric figures. This circumstance, as well as similar combinations in the caves of the Franco-Cantabrian circle, suggest their synchronism. Groups of drawings of the Paleolithic period and the remains of the sanctuary were also discovered in the Ignatievskaya cave (Yamazy-tash) on the banks of the river. Sim. There is no doubt that the drawings of the Kapova and Ignatiyevskaya caves are similar in plot to the engraved images of mammoths from Malta and the fine plastic art of the monuments of the Don basin. It can be explained by the importance of the mammoth in the economic life of the population of the three regions. O. N. Bader found the closest parallels not only in the content of the drawings, but also in topography, as well as in the style of images of the Kapova Cave in the Paleolithic painting of the south of France. According to the author, the drawings found in the Urals are evidence that, in accordance with the laws of social development, at the same stage of the historical process, similar phenomena of social and cultural life arose in very remote areas. In the Middle Urals, Paleolithic sites are known on both of its slopes. The most widely studied Paleolithic monument of the Middle Urals is the site named after M.V. Talitsky on the river. Chusovoy near the city of Perm. The excavations paint a picture of a temporary hunting camp visited for no more than three summer seasons. Traces of several hearths have been preserved, it is assumed the presence of light dwellings of the ground type. In some places the cultural layer is colored with red ocher. Bones of a reindeer, a wild horse, a mammoth, a rhino, a roe deer, an arctic fox, a hare and other animals were found in it, several thousand flakes, plates, cores, core-like pieces, scrapers, side-scrapers, scrapers, piercings, chisels, chopping tools made of flint, siliceous schist, quartzite sandstone, and occasionally crystal and jasper were also used (Fig. 2). Among the bone artifacts is a zhopya tip with inserted flint blades, a carefully crafted but broken needle, and two beads made of thin tubular bones. In addition to the Talitsky site, several more sites were found in the echo region in the early 1980s, of which the grottoes of Bliznetsov and Stolbovaya are the richest in finds from the site of the foothill part of the Western Urals. In addition to these cave sites of stone products and the remains of the Pleistocene fauna, more than a dozen Upper Paleolithic sites have been recorded on the banks of the Kama and Botkin reservoirs: Gornaya Talitsa, Drachevskoye, Ryazanovsky Log, Yagodnoe I, etc. On the eastern slope in the Bear-Stone grotto, only clusters of bones and one flake were found, in the Bezymyanny grotto, in addition to animal bones, flint cores and plates, bone products were found, as well as a unique find - an image of a predatory animal, made from a thin plate of a mammoth tusk in the style flat sculpture.

Plan-scheme of the Ignatievskaya cave

1 - location of blocks with traces of chips; 2 - location of images. The plan was drawn up by V. T. Petrin and V. N. Shirokov.

The only Paleolithic monument in the Northern Trans-Urals is the Garinskaya site, located at almost 60°N. sh. It is connected with the so-called cemetery of mammoth bones, which is eroded by the river. Sosvoy for many years. Here, bones of a bear, saiga, horse, and jasper items were also found: cores, flakes, plates, incisors, a scraper, a scraper, a chisel, points, and a large chopping tool 6.8 cm long (Fig. 2). The camp was located at a sharp bend in Sosva, where the current of the river washed the carcasses of dead (mostly young) animals. Apparently, a primitive man came here to use skins, bones, and possibly meat. Several Paleolithic sites are also known in the Northern Urals. One of them is located in the Bear Cave, above 62°N. The main object of hunting for the inhabitants of the cave was a reindeer, as well as a mammoth, a bear, an arctic fox, a horse, a musk musk ox, a hare. The site ranks first among other caves in the Urals in terms of the number of flint artifacts (over 700). For their manufacture, the inhabitants of the cave used local rocks of flint. The spacious and dry Bear Cave was a convenient place for a long-term settlement. Apparently, the area where the camp was located had a special attraction for primitive hunters. Here, at the edge of a steeply plunging plateau, it was possible to drive a driven hunt. Parking Byzovaya is located on the bank of the river. Pechory is slightly higher than 65 ° N. sh. The remains of a ground dwelling built from large mammoth bones were found here. Mammoth bones make up 99% of all faunal remains, the rest of the bones belong to the woolly rhinoceros, wild horse, reindeer, wolf, bear and musk musk ox. All tools and blanks (cores, plates, bifaces, scrapers, piercers, knives, flakes, chippers) are made of local stone (Fig. 2). The inventory of the Byzovaya site differs sharply from the complexes of the Bear Cave and the Talitsky site. It has a genetic relationship with the finds of the lower layer of the Kostenki I site of the Central Russian Plain and Sungir. So, in the Late Paleolithic, ancient man settled throughout the Urals up to the Arctic Circle. The question of where the migrations came from remains controversial. An analysis of materials from the monuments indicates that there were at least two ways for man to advance to the Urals. Traces of the first route, judging by the inventory of the Byzovaya and Krutaya Gora sites, run from the southwest through the Russian Plain. The presence of items from the South Ural jasper on most of the Ural sites suggests a migration wave from Central Asia to the South Urals, and from there along the eastern slope of the ridge to the Northern Trans-Urals. blanks of the same type for the manufacture of specialized tools: scrapers, chisels, knives, staples, piercers, etc. The quality of the tools and their efficiency increased significantly, and the material was used more economically. Bone processing is developing greatly. Hunting for large animals remained the main source of life. Both driven hunting and exits were used. animal graveyard. There is a specialization of hunting. Thus, the inhabitants of the Byzovsky camp hunted mainly mammoths, and the inhabitants of the Bear Cave hunted reindeer. The presence of long-term sites with traces of outbreaks and production. stone and bone tools (Bear's Cave, etc.), traces of insulated dwellings indicate that in the Late Paleolithic, a settled way of life arises and gradually develops, a household is formed and forms of social life are improved. In the Late Paleolithic era, the process of anthropogenesis is completed, the formation of a modern type of man (homo sapiens) takes place, and the main races are formed in Europe and Asia. In the Urals, since the Late Paleolithic, there have been constant contacts between the Eastern European, Central Asian and Siberian populations. This process found its expression in the formation of the Ural (mixed) anthropological type and in the addition of cultural features characteristic of the contact zones. Thus, stone and bone products, dwellings of the Late Paleolithic era have analogies both in the monuments of Eastern Europe and Central Asia.

Socio-economic development of the Urals in the XVII century.

From the 17th century, according to the definition of V. I. Lenin, a new period of Russian history begins, which “is characterized by a truly actual merger of all ... regions, lands and principalities into one whole. This merger ... was caused by the increasing exchange between the regions, the gradually growing commodity circulation, the concentration of small local markets into one all-Russian market. At that time, in the depths of feudal relations, the first sprouts of capitalist relations were born, which with difficulty made their way in the conditions of the strengthening and further development of serfdom. These processes developed differently in different territories of the Russian state. Socio-economic development of the Urals in the XVII century. took place in the conditions of ongoing colonization, which took on a massive character. New phenomena in the economy and public life manifested themselves here more noticeably than in the center. Salt-making and metallurgy continue to develop and industrial enterprises of the manufactory type reappear, the handicraft develops into small-scale production. The social division of labor is deepening and the economic ties between local markets and individual regions are strengthening, which are gradually being drawn into the emerging all-Russian market. The property stratification of the peasantry and townspeople begins to develop into a social one.

The development of the Urals in the XVII century.

In the 17th century the development of the Urals continued, which, after the elimination of the military danger from the south and east, became massive. The advance of the Russian population to the northern regions of the Urals was held back by unfavorable conditions for the development of agriculture. In the southern regions of the Urals, the Russians met with resistance from the Bashkir population, who defended their rights to the steppe spaces as natural pastures for the development of nomadic cattle breeding. The main areas of mass Russian colonization are the undeveloped or poorly developed fertile lands of the forest and forest-steppe Middle Urals. The local agricultural population was generally friendly to the Russian peasants and, together with them, developed new arable land. The small commercial and pastoral population fell under the influence of the Russian agricultural culture and moved to settled life. Spontaneous peasant colonization remains the main form of colonization. The increase in the rate of resettlement of peasants from the northern counties of Pomorye to the Urals was associated with an increase in the social stratification of the peasantry (landlessness and the ruin of its commercial and usurious capital), the spread of serfdom in these areas (the seizure of part of black lands by the palace department, boyars, landowners and monasteries. Most of the Pomeranian Peasants were resettled legally, released by their "worlds" - communities, having permission in their hands - special documents (vacation, travel, road, "feeding memory"). The growth of serfdom in the central and Volga districts of Russia also led to the ebb of the peasantry from these areas to the outskirts The introduction of the Council Code of 1649, mass searches for fugitives in different parts of the country pushed the peasants to distant migrations, including to the Urals, where it was difficult to find them, and the tsarist administration, search for the fugitive and did not have enough strength to check him out eating. At the beginning of the XVII century. the government maintained benefits for the first settlers in poorly developed areas. However, as the spontaneous mass movement of peasants to the Urals grew, it also refused these small benefits. The resettlement of peasants in the Urals was influenced by the repressions of the tsarist government during the suppression of popular movements. Thus, the influx of population from the Volga districts increased sharply after the defeat of the Peasant War under the leadership of S. T. Razin. The beginning of the persecution of the Old Believers led to the appearance of the first schismatic sketes in the Urals. One of the reasons for resettlement to the Urals was also natural disasters in different parts of the country: droughts, severe frosts, prolonged rains and floods, leading to crop failures, lack of food, death of livestock and game animals. The result was hunger. The most difficult were the hungry years at the beginning of the century (1600-1603), in the early 30s and 40s and at the end of the century (1696-1698). This caused migration from areas most affected by famine to areas less affected by it. In the second half of the XVII century. in the Urals, searches for fugitives began. Often they were preceded by a population census in order to attract all the peasants to the tax. There is a movement of the population from counties in which investigations and censuses are carried out, to counties not yet covered by them. The growth of taxes and the arbitrariness of the tsarist and patrimonial administration in collecting them also pushed for the resettlement of peasants within the region. So, in 1671, the peasants of the Cherdynsky district complained that “from those incessant Siver (Siberian) yam vacations, and from grain reserves, and from the ship’s business and new surplus shooting money, and from grain shortages, we became an immeasurable burden ... and leaving house and arable land wandered apart in vain ”2. In 1697, “Many hard-working peasants of Cherdyn district scattered apart” because of the excesses of Stroganov’s clerks who penetrated the black-soil lands. The migration of non-Russian peoples was influenced by the actions of local authorities, the cruel measures of exacting yasak. The working masses of different nationalities were looking for a way out in flight to new lands. In 1612, the Vishera Vogulichi left for the Verkhoturye district. In 1622, the Chusovoy Vogulichi complained that M. Stroganov sent his clerks to take away their furs - “and they have nothing to pay asak from their force, and the Tatars and Vogulichi wander separately.” From arbitrariness in the collection of yasak in 1648. Tatars from the Verkhotursk district fled to Ufimsky, and in 1658 the Vogulichi of the Chusovskaya settlement "wanted to wander apart to other places because of the devastation caused by the Tobolsk servile people." During the 1678 census of the yasak people of the Kuygur district, "Cheremis and Chuvash and Ostyaks fled to other cities from that obrok." In 1680, the Mari of the Kungur district, “leaving their yurts, dispersed apart” after imposing them with “streltsy money”. National movements influenced the migration of the population. So, during the uprising of 1662-1664, raised by the feudal elite of the Bashkirs and the Muslim clergy, Russian peasants from Kungur, Osinsky and the southern part of the Verkhotursky counties moved to other counties of the Urals. When the uprising was suppressed by government troops, the Bashkirs, in turn, were removed from their homes and left for new lands. A certain milestone in the Russian colonization of the Urals in the XVII century. was the formation of a new - Kungur chernososhnoy county on the black earth lands of the Sylvensko-Irensky river region. In 1648, from the estates of the Stroganovs, Pyskorsky and Solikamsky Ascension monasteries and the possessions of the Solikamsk townspeople of the Eliseevs and Surovtsevs on the river. 1222 people were “brought out” to the state peasants in Sylve here. Peasants from the Solikamsky, Cherdynsky, Kaigorodsky districts and Novonikolskaya settlement, as well as from Solvychegodsky, Ustyugsky and Vazsky counties of Pomorie began to move to Sylva. The rate of settlement of the Kungur district in the XVII century. were the highest in the Urals. For 55 years (1648-1703) the number of households here increased by 12.2 times. In addition to the Russian population, Tatars, Bashkirs, Maris, Chuvashs and Udmurts lived here, making up about D of the population of the county. For 80 years (1624-1704) the non-Russian population also increased almost 12 times. Most of them were engaged in agriculture, raising Kungur arable land together with the Russians. Fertile lands in the vicinity of Novonikolskaya Sloboda (the future Osinsky district) were quickly settled. From the end of the XVI to the beginning of the XVIII century. the number of households in the settlement and the villages adjacent to it increased almost 30 times9. The development of the previously emerged districts of the Urals continued. In the Cherdyn uyezd, whose territory was reduced after the transfer of the lands of the Invensky, Obvinsky, and Kosva districts to the Solikamsky uyezd in 1640, the number of households doubled over 100 years (1579-1679) i0. It became the center of settlement in other counties of the Urals and Siberia, like the large, remote Kaigorodsky county, the outflow of the population from which exceeded its inflow. The Solikamsk district was successfully settled, mainly due to the development of fertile streams. For 32 years (1647-1679) the peasant population along Inva, Obva and Kosva increased by more than 3 times. At the beginning of the XVIII century. (1702) there were 617 settlements and 14 thousand male souls. Settlement of the Stroganov estates in the first half of the 17th century. also progressed rapidly. For 45 years (1579-1624) the number of households in them increased by 4 times. In the second half of the century, the pace decreased significantly due to the strengthening of serf oppression in the estates. In 1700-1702. The Stroganovs were given the fertile streamlands of the Solikamsk district and lands along the Kos and Lolog rivers from the Cherdyn district, inhabited mainly by Komi-Permyaks. Gradually, an old-timer Russian population emerged, born and raised in the Urals. By the end of the XVII century. it already prevailed in Ponuratye and amounted to about half of the population of the Trans-Urals. The main part of the settlers goes beyond the ridge - to the eastern slope of the Urals and to Siberia. In the first half of the XVII century. on the eastern slope, the fertile lands of the southern part of the Verkhotursky district up to the river were most quickly developed. Pyshmy. About one and a half dozen large settlements and churchyards were founded here. Most of them were fortified with prisons and inhabited by white-located Cossacks, who carried out military service, were endowed with land, received a salary and were exempt from tax. Slobodas arose on the initiative of wealthy peasants - Slobodas, who called on "eager people" to develop arable land. The villagers themselves became representatives of the local administration. The peasant population grew rapidly in the settlements, some of them numbered 200-300 households. In the second half of the XVII century. the southern border of the Russian lands advanced to the Iset and Miass rivers. More than 20 new settlements appear here (Kataysky prison, Shadrinskaya, Kamyshlovskaya, etc.). Russian villages are growing rapidly in their vicinity. For 56 years (1624-1680) the number of households in the vast Verkhotursk district increased by more than 7 times and. Settlers from the northern counties of Pomorie prevailed, and by the end of the 17th century. about a third of them were the peasants of the Urals. The population density was much less than in the Urals. The Pelymsky district with its infertile soils was slowly populated. At the end of the XVII century. the total number of the peasant population in the Urals was at least 200 thousand people. The population density in previously developed counties is increasing. According to the 1678 census, in the Kaigorod district, “profitable households and people who were not newcomers - the peasants of the same Zyuzda volost, children were separated from their fathers, brothers from brothers, nephews from uncles, sons-in-law from father-in-law” 12. The peasants of the Stroganov estates moved to the lower Kama and eastern slope of the Urals. In the Verkhotursk district, they move from settlements with "the sovereign's tithe arable land" to settlements where natural and especially cash dues prevailed (Krasnopolskaya, Ayatskaya, Chusovskaya, etc.). The peasants were resettled in whole groups of 25-50 people in the settlement. Communities are formed on a national basis. Komi-Zyryans settled in Aramashevskaya and Nitsinskaya settlements, Komi-Permyaks settled in Chusovskaya, in the district of Ayatskaya settlement a Mari village appeared - Cheremisskaya. r 17 c. - The Urals becomes the base of the spontaneous peasant colonization of Siberia. In 1678, 34.5% of all peasants who left the estates of the Stroganovs went to Siberia, 12.2% - from Kaigorodsky, 3.6% - from Cherdynsky district 13. Rivers remain the main ways of resettlement. In the 17th century small rivers and tributaries of large ones are quickly developed. The old Kazan road from Ufa and Sylva to the upper reaches of the Iset, which ran from Kazan to Sarapul, Okhansk and through Kungur to Aramilskaya settlement, is being revived. The direct road from Tura to the middle reaches of the Neiva and Nica is widely used. In the 17th century the posad colonization of the Urals becomes noticeable. The reasons for the resettlement of townspeople were the intensification of feudal exploitation in the towns, the development of property stratification into a social one, which in cities manifested itself more sharply than in the countryside, and created an excess of labor. Increasing competition pushed to new lands not only the urban poor, but also the middle strata of the suburbs. The main part of the settlers came from the settlements of northern Pomorye. The increase in the township tax as a result of the "township building" in 1649-1652. caused an outflow of population from cities to the outskirts. The resettlement was also influenced by government repressions during the suppression of urban uprisings, famine years, which were more pronounced in the city than in the countryside. So, since 1647, “from the Pomeranian cities ... from the settlements ... the townspeople descended to Siberia ... from their burdensome foals: from grain shortages and from poverty, with their wives and children.” The reasons for the internal movement of the townspeople within the Urals were the depletion of natural resources (for example, salt brines near Cherdyn), the reduction in trade due to changes in transport routes and the administrative status of some cities (for example, the transfer of the center of Perm the Great from Cherdyn to Solikamsk, the reduction in Solikamsk trade in connection with the rise of Kungur on the new route to Siberia), the relative overpopulation of old cities. The dense building of cities with wooden buildings often led to their burning out during large fires and to the outflow of the population. The pace of resettlement of the townspeople was slower in comparison with the peasant colonization. In the second half of the XVII century. a new form of colonization is emerging - industrial, associated with the construction of factory settlements at enterprises. The township population in the Urals grew faster than in the Trans-Urals. In the cities beyond the Urals, service people still made up a significant part of the population. Just like in the village, by the end of the XVII century. in the Ural cities, an old-timer population was formed, which significantly prevailed over the new settlers. They grew most rapidly in the 17th century. new cities and old ones that have emerged in areas rich in natural resources. The population of Kungur for 73 years (1649-1722), despite repeated devastation from the Bashkir raids, increased by more than 5 times, Solikamsk for 131 years (1579-1710) - 15 times. The population of the salt settlement Novoye Usolye for 55 years (1624-1679) increased by more than 10 times 14. The population of the Ural cities grew both due to the exiles and due to the influx of non-Russian population: Komi-Zyryans, Karelians, Maris, Tatars, Lithuanians, as well as service people - captured Poles and Mansi (Vogulichs) who switched to Russian service. In 1678, Komi-Zyryans in Cherdyn accounted for 26.4% of all settlers, and in 1680 non-Russian settlers in Verkhoturye - 26.2%. In the 17th century the monastic colonization of the Urals continued. The government encouraged the activities of the monasteries, but was not interested in excessively increasing their wealth. Small monasteries - "deserts" are built by peasants and townspeople, who hoped to evade the growing feudal oppression with the help of class privileges. Most of the new monasteries were created by pre-existing monasteries as their branches. For the first time in the Urals, colonies of large Russian monasteries of the Center, the North and the Volga region (Trinity-Sergnev, Voskresensky, New Jerusalem, Savvino-Starozhevsky. Arkhangelsky Veliky Ustyug) appear. The Tobolsk Metropolitan House developed a vigorous activity, creating several suburbs in the Verkhoturye district, which belonged to the head of the Siberian church, Archbishop Cyprian. Among the new monasteries, the largest were such trans-Ural monasteries as Nevyansky Bogoyavlensky, Rafailov, Dalmatovsky, which had stone fortifications to protect against the Bashkirs, whose lands he seized. Despite a significant reduction in land holdings and dependent peasants, during the creation of the Kungur district, such Kama monasteries as Pyskorsky and Solikamsky Ascension continued to develop. In the monastic estates during the XVII century. peasants were resettled from the northern, central and Volga districts of the country. There were also internal movements, mainly from the northern monasteries to the southern ones, from the Urals to the Trans-Urals. By the end of the XVII century. there is a significant outflow of the working population of the monasteries to the black-soil lands and factories. During the church reform of Peter I, a significant part of the peasants was brought into taxation, many of them left the monastery lands, some monasteries (Nevyansky Epiphany) were closed. In 1710, 77 peasants were taken out of the patrimony of the Pyskorsky monastery as a tax, 23 fled, 17 voluntarily left, 9 were taken as soldiers and for the construction of St. Petersburg15. The scale of land development during the monastic colonization was more than modest.

Copper ores on the Vye River became known as early as the end of the 17th century. In 1721, a copper smelter was built here. True, copper smelting did not succeed for a long time Demidov, because copper ore was mixed with iron ore. They also found malachite pieces for sure.

We find the first evidence of Tagil malachite from P. Pallas. Inspecting the old copper mines, which were almost abandoned by his arrival in 1770, he noted that "hefty copper ores were mined between the factory dwellings."

Photo by Vlad Kochurin

After the conquest of Siberia by Yermak, the entire Urals became Russian. Now travelers could safely make trips of any complexity and duration throughout the Urals from north to south. In 1666, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, a group of Russian officers (46 people!) Made the transition from Solikamsk to Verkhoturye along the Babinovskaya road. One of the officers (his name remains unknown) kept a travel diary, which is very interesting to read after almost 350 years.