Municipal budgetary educational institution

Petrovsky secondary school

143395, Moscow region, Naro-Fominsk municipal district,

With. Petrovskoe

Historical grammar. History of alternations.

Teacher Adamich Elena Viktorovna teacher of Russian language and literature

The content of the work

Introduction………………………………………………………… page 3

Chapter 1. History of the language…………….…………………………… page 4

Chapter 2. Alternations…………………………………………… page 4

Chapter 3

Chapter 4 eight

Conclusion……………………………………………………….page 9

Literature used……………………………………….page 10

Applications

Introduction

Many peoples believed that language and speech is a miracle given to us by the gods. The Russian writer A. I. Kuprin remarked: “Now he will enter, and the most ordinary and most incomprehensible thing in the world will happen between us: we will start talking. The guest, giving sounds of different heights and strengths, will express his thoughts, and I will listen to these sound vibrations of the air and guess what they mean ... "

I think that the most amazing thing is not that the gods gave us language, but that we create it ourselves - all the time, every day. Moreover, it is not academics who do this, but every person. Our language is not something frozen, dead. The Russian language lives: words become obsolete and appear, endings change, intonation changes, norms are polished, spelling is developing. Words in it, as in a living organism, are born, improved, and sometimes die. I wanted to explore some aspects of the life of the Russian language, explain to myself and my classmates how it develops. In the Russian language textbook for grade 5, authors T.A. Ladyzhenskaya, L.A. Trostentsova and others in the section “Morfemics. Spelling. The culture of speech ”is paragraphs 78 and 79, in which alternations are studied. (Appendix 1) I was very interested in this topic. I decided to study it more deeply. And I began with historical grammar, more precisely, with the history of some alternations. I put in front of goals:

trace the history of alternations;

find out when and why they arose.

To achieve these goals, I needed to solve the following tasks:

collect the necessary material;

identify historical changes in words;

explain modern orthograms (alternations) from the point of view of historical grammar.

I divided the whole work into several stages:

study of theoretical information about alternations in the Russian language;

word analysis;

systematization of the received information, formulation of the conclusion.

Chapter 1. History of language

The Russian language belongs to the Indo-European family, the East Slavic group, this also includes the Belarusian and Ukrainian languages. Linguistic scholars believe that the Slavic languages ​​go back to a common one, which is conditionally called the Proto-Slavic language. (Annex 2)

A special role in the development of these languages ​​was played by the emergence of writing and the first bookish language - Old Church Slavonic. It was the merit of Cyril and Methodius, who created the alphabet and translated Christian church books into Slavic. (Appendix 3) Rewriting, the scribes introduced features of their native language. Church Slavonic is the language of church texts. Living languages ​​interacted with it. He played a huge role in the development of the Russian literary language. V.V. Vinogradov noted: "To study the history of individual words, it is necessary to reproduce the contexts of their use in different periods of the history of the language."

Linguistic scholars claim that our ancient language sounded very beautiful: our ancestors practically sang, stretching or deliberately reducing some sounds. Now this ability of our language is lost.

Chapter 2

In the pre-literate period of the development of the Slavic languages ​​in the word, all syllables were open, that is, the syllable boundary was the vowel as the most sonorous, so it was possible to stretch the sounds. This is the law of the open syllable. The action of this law determined the development of the phonetic system and the formation of alternations in the Russian language of vowels and consonants. In paragraphs 78 and 79 of the Russian language textbook for grade 5, the authors T.A. Ladyzhenskaya, L.A. Trostentsova and others talk about such a phenomenon. Alternation is the replacement of one sound by another as part of a single morpheme. Only vowels can alternate with vowels, consonants with consonants. This happens under certain conditions:

in the formation of single-root words friend - friends - make friends g / / s / / f,

plant - grew a / / o

when changing the form of a word highlander - highlander, Caucasian - Caucasian (zero sound alternates with ez)

as a result of the action of the analogy, a new sound appears where it did not appear phonetically: take - take - collect

Alternating sounds are different morphemes and can occur in different morphemes, except for endings. Alternations are positional and historical. I have already noted that the alternations of sounds operate in a certain period of the language and are due to phonetic laws. If the laws cease to operate, and the alternations persist, then they are used in the language as a means for the formation of new words and are considered historical alternations. For example: carry - carry

Chapter 3. History of diphthongs

The action of an open syllable led to a change in diphthongs. Diphthongs are a combination of two vowels in one syllable, not separated by consonants. Consonants g, k, x changed in h, c, w before vowels b, and which are derived from diphthongs. So there were alternations g//z; sk//n; x//w. For example: friend - friends, air - airy, shine - shines.

So the history of diphthongs explains the alternation of the vowel s with a combination of sounds av in words repute and glory.

It turns out that the noun glory in modern Russian has the same meaning as in Old Russian. We actively use in our speech proverbs that arose during the period of oral folk art. For example: Good glory lies, and the thin one runs along the path. For an hour the mind will not become, for a century you will be known as a fool. As you live, so you will be known. The earth will not cover bad glory. Although the money is not a penny, but the glory is good. As he swam, so he was known.

In ancient times, the root -slav- broke up into two sounds before a vowel, and before a consonant contracted into one - s. Happened glory-a - to be heard. (to be heard, that is be famous).

But the most striking example of the development of alternations is the formation of non-vowel and full-vowel combinations in the language. Diphthongic combinations of vowels with sonorants changed if they were before consonants. There was a consensus. In the Proto-Slavic language it was:

⃰ ol → la, olo

⃰ about r → ra, oro

⃰ er → re, ere.

Dissonance prevailed in Church Slavonic - ra, la, re, a, in Old Russian - full agreement - oro, olo, here.

Church Slavonic

Old Russian

gate

gates

hail

city

shore

Coast

guardian

watchman

chapter

head

voice

tree

wood

We can note that these words were used almost identically in the language at that time. However, words with disagreement are still more bookish. (Appendix 4) At first they were used in lives, teachings, where ancient preachers, using, for example, the word “beach” - the edge of the earth near water, warned believers against mistakes. In modern Russian, there is also the word "breg", and it has retained a high poetic coloring and is used in poetic speech. I found examples in the fairy tales of A.S. Pushkin.

1. Here the prince opened his eyes;

Shaking the dreams of the night

And wondering in front of you

Sees it's a big city...

Mother and son go to the city.

Just stepped on the fence

deafening chime

Will spill in a noisy run,

And find themselves on the shore

In scales, like the heat of grief,

A.S. Pushkin "Ruslan and Lyudmila"

Near the seaside there is a green oak;

Golden chain on an oak tree:

And day and night the cat is a scientist

Everything goes around in circles...

Many of these paired correspondences are now in the language, but they differ in lexical meanings or stylistic characteristics.

For example: Kaliningrad - Zvenigorod, Volgograd - Novgorod, the Milky Way - dairy products, the voice of the people - a pleasant voice.

Chapter 4

The appearance of alternation with zero sound can be shown in the following examples. At the root of the word father - father in ancient times there was a reduced vowel b, which could be either in a strong or in a weak position. In the 12th century, in a strong position, it changed to e, and was lost in a weak one. So a runaway vowel appeared.

Reduction - the weakening of vowel sounds in an unstressed position. The position of unstressed vowels in the pre-stressed syllable differs from the position in the rest:

head - [head], giant - [v'l'ikan]

a→b, u→ b

Consider alternation: at the root of words book - bookstore there is also alternation g//f which is explained historically. For example, in the old Russian word book reduced b disappeared because he was in a weak position. A hard consonant G remained unchanged before a vowel a. In the word booklet hard consonant G before b relented and moved on and soft, but reduced b disappeared because he was in a weak position. But in the genitive plural book this b was in a strong position and changed into e(hence the modern books). Note that a soft hissing sound and solidified by the 14th century. Now it's [and]- solid, and here is also a stun [book]. That is why we check the spelling of a dubious consonant (spelling No. 3). Preserved fluent vowel e with suffix book - books.

Conclusion

In the lessons of the Russian language and literature, we often have to deal with such facts of the language, the explanation of which requires knowledge of historical grammar. An excursion into the history of the language, a comparison of language processes show that the modern norms of the language are the result of its development and improvement. After reviewing the history of some alternations, I explained the rules of modern spelling. Turning to the facts of historical grammar allows us to more consciously and firmly master the rules of the modern Russian language, understand the ways of its development, explain some phenomena in modern spelling, the origin of a particular word, and help write correctly. Finally, this is just interesting...

Used Books

Ladyzhenskaya T.A., Korovin M.T., Trostentsova L.A. and others. Russian language. Grade 5 – M.: Enlightenment, 2011.

Borkovsky V.I., Kuznetsov P.S. Historical grammar of the Russian language. - Chapter "History of alternations". - M .: Book house "Librokom", 2009.

Lopushanskaya S.P., Gorban O.A., Sheptukhina E.M. Pages of the history of the Russian language. – M.: Enlightenment, 2007.

Rosenthal D.E. Russian language. – M.: Bustard, 2000.

Linguistics. Encyclopedia for children. – M.: Avanta+, 1999.

Pushkin A.S. Fairy tales. - M .: Children's literature, 1977.

Lavrova S.A. Russian language. History pages. – M.: Bely Gorod, 2012.

Proverbs of the Russian people. Moscow. "Terra", 1996.

Attachment 1

Annex 2

The development of the Slavic languages ​​can be represented as follows:

Annex 3

A special role in the development of the Slavic language was played by the emergence of writing and the first bookish language, Old Church Slavonic. It was the merit of Cyril and Methodius, who created the alphabet and translated Christian church books into Slavic.

Appendix 4

A.S. Pushkin "The Tale of Tsar Saltan, of his glorious and mighty son Prince Gvidon Saltanovich and the beautiful Swan Princess":

1. Here the prince opened his eyes;

Shaking the dreams of the night

And wondering in front of you

Sees it's a big city...

Mother and son go to the city.

Just stepped on the fence

deafening chime

He rose from all sides ... (oro / / ra)

2. The guests came out on the shore;

Tsar Saltan invites them to visit ...

Will spill in a noisy run,

And find themselves on the shore

In scales, like the heat of grief,

Thirty-three heroes ... (re / / re)

Alternation - a regular measure of sounds within one morpheme.

There are alternations phonetic, or positional, and historical. Phonetic alternations are observed only in oral speech and are not reflected in writing, for example:

alternation g//k: [kruʹ G ъ] (circle) - [circle to ] (a circle);

alternation of e / / and e: [l̓esʹ] (forest) - [l̓i e saʹ] (forests);

// - alternation sign.

These alternations are fixed in phonetic transcription. They are explained by the laws of the modern phonetic system and are studied in phonetics.

Historical alternations were inherited from ancient epochs and are not explained by modern phonetic laws, although during the periods of their occurrence in previous epochs of the development of the language, these alternations were phonetically determined and can be explained from the point of view of the phonetics of that era, i.e. historically, for example:

alternation of k / / h in the words ru to a - ru h can be historically explained as follows: the sound [ h'] was formed here from backlingual * k in the Proto-Slavic era according to the phonetic law of the 1st palatalization influenced by the subsequent front vowel b, which was here in a weak position (before the vowel of the full formation) and was lost as a result of the fall of the reduced ones (XI-XII centuries);

alternation of y // s in words k at yu - k ov at; can be historically explained as follows: at goes back to diphthong * oṷ, which has changed to monophthong before a consonant in the Proto-Slavic era according to the phonetic law of an open syllable, a ov goes back to diphthong * oṷ which has changed into a free combination of sounds (o-v) before a vowel.

Over time, a number of historical alternations are morphologized, i.e. they begin to accompany the formation of words and word forms, for example:

alternation o//ø in word forms with about n - sleep explained phonetic law of falling reduced, which took place in Russian from the 11th-13th centuries; about appeared on the spot b in a strong position b ), ø appeared on the spot b in a weak position 〤 ): With b n〤 → sleep; from〤to → sleep. Having arisen as a phonetic phenomenon, this alternation turned into a morphological means of forming similar grammatical forms. So, by analogy with the word forms of sleep - sleep, where the fluency of vowels was phonetically determined, the fluency of vowels is noted, for example, in the word forms: ditch - ditch (he was originally a vowel of full formation [o]).

Alternation of sounds (allophones) and phonemes - their mutual replacement in the same morpheme in various cases of use, acting as the main or additional morphological indicator ( nose-it / carry-ti; could-y / can-eat), that is, it can be determined not only by phonetic, but also by word-formation or morphological reasons. Such alternations accompany the formation of words and their forms.

Alternants can differ quantitatively (length of sound) or qualitatively (method of formation, place of formation).

According to the nature of the alternation conditions, there are two types of them:

• phonetic (also called automatic alternations);
• non-phonetic - traditional, historical.

Phonetic alternations

Changes in sounds in the flow of speech, which are caused by modern phonetic processes. Such alternations are due to the phonetic patterns operating in the language, the change in sound is associated with the position of the sound, but does not change the composition of phonemes in the morpheme:

1) alternation of stressed and unstressed vowels: n (o) s - n (^) -hundredth - n (b) owl;

2) alternation of voiced and deaf consonants: moro (s), (frost) - frost (s) ny.

Phonetic alternations are always positional; they serve as material for determining the phonemic composition of a language.

Phonetic alternations are divided into positional and combinatorial.

1. Positional - alternations due to the place relative to the stress or word boundary. This type of phonetic alternation includes stunning and reduction.

2. Combinatorial - alternations due to the presence of other specific sounds in the environment of a given sound ( accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation).

Non-phonetic (historical) alternations

Alternants of historical alternations are independent phonemes, such alternations can be both positional and non-positional:

Positional (morphological) alternations take place during regular formation (in certain grammatical forms, for example, drive - drive, look - look) and word formation through certain morphemes. They are the object of study of morphonology. Alternations are different:

• by the nature of alternating phonemes (alternating vowels and consonants);
• by position in the morpheme (on the morpheme seam and inside the morpheme);
• on the basis of productivity - unproductivity.

Non-positional (grammatical) alternations are not determined by the position relative to a certain morpheme, but usually they themselves are a means of word formation (for example, dry - dry) or shaping. They act as internal inflections and belong to the sphere of grammar.

Historical alternations of sounds that are not determined by the phonetic position of the sound, which are a reflection of the phonetic processes that operated in earlier periods of the development of the Russian language. They are also called morphological alternations, since they accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms, although they themselves are not exponents of grammatical meanings, and traditional alternations, since they are preserved by virtue of tradition, not being conditioned either by semantic necessity or by the requirements of modern phonetic language systems.

Vowel alternation (in many cases these alternations have become literal):

e/o: I carry - wears, I carry - carries;

e / o / zero sound / and: dial - set - dial - dial;

e/zero sound: day - day, true - true;

o/a: cook - prepare;

o/zero sound: sleep - sleep, lies - lies, strong - strong;

o / zero sound / s: ambassador - send - send;

a(z) / m / im: reap - shake - shake, take - take - charge;

a(i) / n / im: reap - reap - reap, reap - reap - reap;

at / s: Kuyu - forge, please - please;

y / ev: spend the night - spend the night, doctor - heal;

yu / ev: spit - spit, mourn - grieve;

u / o / s: dry - to dry up - to dry up;

and / oh: beat - fight, drink - drink;

e/oh: sing - sing.

Consonant alternation:

g/f: shore - you protect, pearls - a pearl, strict - stricter;

b/h: bake - bake, flour - flour;

w/w: hearing - listen, peas - peas, dry - drier;

g / s / f: friend - friends - friendly;

k / c / h: face - face - personal;

s/f: carry - drive, smear - smear, low - lower;

zg / zzh (w): squeal - squeal;

zd / zzh (w): furrow - furrow;

s / w: wear - wear, dance - dance;

d/f: walk - walk, young - younger;

t/h: to want - I want, to bother - I'm busy;

sk / st / u: let - let - let go, thick - thicker;

b/bl: love - love, hesitate - hesitate;

p / pl: buy - buy, drip - drop;

in / ow: crush - crush, catch - catch;

f/fl: graph - graph;

m/ml: break - break, doze - doze;

d, t/s: I lead - lead, weave - weave;

k, g / h: attract - attract, help - help.

In many languages, the exponents of most morphemes have a variable phonemic composition.

Alternation (from lat. alterno–alternate)- paradigmatic relations between units of the same level of the language, which are able to replace each other at the same place in the structure of the language unit. Sound quantities involved in the alternation - alternatives.

In the language, alternations of sounds are distinguished, that is, their mutual replacement in the same places, in the same morphemes. It is important to distinguish between the types of alternations, since some of them belong to the field of phonetics, while others to the field of morphonology, and should, therefore, be studied by the corresponding sections of linguistics.

1) phonetic (live) alternations- these are changes in sounds in the speech stream, which are caused by modern phonetic processes. With phonetic (live) alternations, variants or variations of the same phoneme alternate, without changing the composition of phonemes in morphemes. These are the alternations of stressed and unstressed vowels in Russian, for example, water - water - water carrier, where [and] is a variant of the phoneme [o]. Or the alternation of voiced and deaf consonants: each other, where [k] is a variant of the phoneme [g]

a) positional- HF, due to the place of the sound relative to the stress or word boundary

b) combinatorial– HF, due to the presence of certain other sounds in the environment of a given sound

2) historical alternations- alternations that cannot be explained by modern phonetic conditions: friend - friends, hand - pen, monk - monastic. Historical alternations are reflected in writing in contrast to phonetic

1) morphological (positional)- HH appearing in certain grammatical formats before certain affixes is not due to phonetic position, and is not in itself an exponent of grammatical meaning. Such alternations are called historical because they are explained only historically, and not from modern language.

With morphological alternations alternate:

a) a vowel phoneme with zero, for example, sleep - sleep, stump - stump (the so-called fluent vowel)

b) one consonant phoneme with another consonant phoneme: [k] - [h], [g] - [g], [x] - [w], for example, hand - pen, leg - leg, fly - fly

c) two consonant phonemes with one consonant phoneme: sk-sch st-sch zg-zh zd-zh, for example, plane - area, simple - simplification, grumble - grumble, belated - later

2) grammatical alternations- IH, which independently express grammatical meanings and are associated with the formation of a new meaning. So, for example, alternations of paired [l] and [l], [n] and [n'], as well as alternations of “k-ch” and “x-sh” can distinguish between a short masculine adjective and a noun of the category of collectiveness, for example, goal - goal, tear - tear, wild - game, dry - dry. The alternation of "mrs" can distinguish between the imperfective and the perfective form of verbs, for example. avoid, resort, run away and avoid, run, run away.

17. Methods and techniques of experimental phonetics

1. self-observation without the help of tools:

Self-observation can have both muscular sense data and auditory data as an object. During self-observation, they use a mirror (to determine the position of the lips, mouth solution), a candle (to monitor the course of the air stream), a laryngoscope (a medical device used to examine the palate, uvula and larynx). All experiments are carried out repeatedly, since a certain training is necessary to fix muscle movements and auditory impressions. Despite its simplicity, this method has its drawbacks:

1) not all organs of speech can be examined

2) in order to explore the articulation of a sound, you need to repeat this sound many times

2. somatic methods (associated with the use of devices, instruments and apparatus):

1) palatography- registration of the place of contact of the tongue with the palatine vault during the pronunciation of various sound phonemes. For this purpose, an artificial palate is used, which is prepared on a model of the upper jaw from various materials: plastic, glass, wax, celluloid. The surface of the plate facing the tongue is covered with black varnish or powdered with an indifferent powder (talc, but not powdered sugar, which can cause hypersalivation), injected into the oral cavity of the subject and pressed against the sky.

The subject pronounces the proposed sound. In this case, the tongue touches the corresponding parts of the sky, leaving prints. Next, the plate is removed from the mouth and these prints are studied.

Photopalatography- obtaining photographs of the "artificial palate" with the obtained imprints of the tongue after palatography. For this purpose, an "artificial palate" is placed on the model of the upper jaw.

A photostatic imaging technique is used to reproduce identical images before the start of orthodontic treatment, during its process, after its completion and after speech therapy training. On a negatoscope, the scheme is redrawn on tracing paper. Then, schemes of identical palatograms are compared and the results are analyzed.

2) X-ray– registration of articulations using x-rays

Advantages of radiography:

• wide availability of the method and ease of research
• no special patient preparation required
• relatively low cost of research
• images can be used for consultation with another specialist or in another institution

Disadvantages of radiography:

• "frozenness" of the image - the complexity of assessing the function of the organ.
• the presence of ionizing radiation that can have a harmful effect on the organism under study

Also, this method can be attributed to X-ray photography, as a combination of microphotography and radiography.

3) microphotography- photographing the articulation of the organs located inside, using a miniature camera. Filming can also be attributed to this method, as an accompaniment of photography with synchronized sound recording.

4) tomography- a method of non-destructive layer-by-layer study of the internal structure of an object by means of its multiple transillumination in various intersecting directions, which allows shooting not through, but at a given depth.

3. electroacoustic methods:

These methods allow you to get visual sound schemes. There are many such methods, here are the main ones:

• kymography- this technique consists in direct fixation on a moving paper tape of the articulation movements of the larynx, mouth and nose with the help of scribes connected to what is in direct contact with the articulating organs of the subject. Cymography allows you to decompose the articulation of the speech apparatus into nasal, oral and laryngeal

• oscillography- allows you to turn the oscillatory movements of the air into electrical ones, which are subsequently transmitted to the oscilloscope, which converts the signal into digital form and represents it in the form of a zigzag line - an oscillogram

• spectrography- with this technique, the air jet is also converted into an electrical signal that passes through the filters of the spectrograph. This allows you to get a spectral picture of speech sounds.

Modern computer technology makes it possible to obtain a variety of acoustic characteristics of sounds, for example, information about the intensity, change in the basic tone in a word, phrase or larger segments of speech.

alternation- replacement of one sound by another, occurring in the same place of the same phoneme, but in different words or word forms (koz(z)a - goat(s)).

Alternation may be associated with a certain position of sounds in a word. Positional alternation called such an alternation that occurs in any position and knows no exceptions in a given language system (stunning at the end of a word: friend-druk, leg-nok; "fatally total".).

At phonetic (positional) alternations positions, i.e., the conditions for the appearance of a particular sound, phonetic - the beginning and end of a word or syllable, the proximity of other sounds, the position in a stressed or unstressed syllable, this is an alternation of sounds related to one morpheme.

Examples:

The alternation of sounds can be caused by the position of the beginning of the word, in dialects with incomplete okan "o" is replaced by "y" at the beginning of the word in the second pre-stressed syllable: clouds - ublaka, island - islands; operation, subjugation. The alternation may be related to the position of the sound in the syllable. So, in an undisguised unstressed syllable, the phoneme /o/ is realized by the sound "" (lake - azer). In a covered syllable, it appears after a solid consonant only in the first pre-stressed one, and in other unstressed syllables, after a solid consonant, ə is pronounced (in but in əzerk). Often the alternation is due to the position of one sound next to another (after the TV consonant “and” is replaced by “s” (game - play; knives, wide)). Before the deaf acc. voiced ones are replaced by deaf ones (knit - tie). Sounds can alternate depending on the position in relation to the stress (from above - navirhu).

But in the examples, a friend is friendly, paper is paper, this is not a phonetic alternation (the spelling “g” does not depend on the position of “n” after it (gon - drive, blink - blink)). Here is another positional conditioning: the alternation g/f knows no exceptions in the position before the suffix -n-. The position here is morphological, alternation - morphological positional(alternation in which the spelling depends on the morpheme). In borrowed words, too - catalog - catalog. With morph. alternations, not only the suffix, but also the ending can act as a special position (to destroy - I destroy, to drown - I drown, to poison - to persecute, to feed - I feed). There are no exceptions, and in loans. (graph - graph).

Positional alternations that know no exceptions - positionally conditioned(eyes - voice, girlfriend - friendly); aware of exceptions positionally fixed(bridge - bridge, sten - wall). Phonetic positionally conditioned - alternations of sounds related to one phoneme. Phonetic positionally attached can be an alternation of sounds related to one phoneme, and an alternation of phonemes (Kazan - Kazan; excl. June - June).

Non-positional alternations - alternations that have neither phonetic nor morphological conditionality; are associated only with specific words and are inexplicable in modern language (girlfriend - friends, dry up - dry up - dry up).

Historical alternations - alternations not determined by the phonetic position of the sound, which are a reflection of the phonetic processes that operated in earlier periods of the development of the Russian language. These are morphological (they accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms, although in themselves they are not exponents of grammatical meanings, and traditional alternations, since they are preserved by virtue of tradition, not being conditioned either by semantic necessity or by the requirements of the modern phonetic system of the language) and non-positional phoneme alternation. Some call morphological alternations historical.