USE. Story. BRIEFLY
Nicholas I (1825-1855)
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Nicholas I (1825-1855) |
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Domestic politics |
Foreign policy |
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1826 : 1. The 2nd branch of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery was formed. Target: law codification. Led by M.A. Balugyansky, assistant - M.M. Speransky. In 1830-32, 45 volumes of laws were created (since 1649), and in 1833 - 15 volumes of the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. |
Directions of the foreign policy of Nicholas I. 1. The desire to continue the hegemonic policy in Europe, the suppression of the revolutionary and liberation movements: – suppression of the Polish uprising 1830-1831 and repeal of the constitution in Poland 1815. – suppression of the Hungarian revolution 1849 Conclusion: Russia is the "gendarme of Europe". |
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Domestic politics |
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1826 : 2. A committee has been set up for organizing educational institutions (checking the statutes of educational institutions, uniform principles of education). 3. The 3rd department of the office was created, headed by A.H. Benckendorff(collected information about the mood of the population, secret supervision of the unreliable, the press, watched foreign nationals, etc.) 4. New censored "cast iron" charter. 1827: 1.3rd division attached corps of gendarmes. 2. Decree and circular prohibiting the admission of serfs to gymnasiums and universities 1828: A new, somewhat relaxed censorship charter. The Ministries of Education, Internal Affairs, Foreign Affairs, the Holy Synod received the right to censorship, and local censorship committees were created.
A new school charter was adopted, according to which three levels of the school were preserved, sharply differing in their composition of students 1833-1849- S.S. Uvarov- Minister of Public Education 1834 - approval of the official ideology of autocracy: " official nationalities» 1835: 1. A new university charter, the loss of part of their autonomy by universities (the university court was abolished, although the right to choose the rector, deans and professors remained, but the minister had the right not to approve them).
1837-1941 - At the initiative of Kiselyov - reform regarding the state peasants(establishment of schools, hospitals, veterinary stations in state villages, improvement of the life of peasants, raising the agrotechnical level of agriculture 1842-Decree on "obliged peasants”: the peasant, at the behest of the landowner, could receive personal freedom, allotment for use (not ownership), for which he was obliged, by agreement with the landowner, to perform duties (corvée and dues). 1839-1843- Monetary reform E.F. Kancrina. The basis was the silver ruble 1843-6th office department to manage the Transcaucasus Nov. 1 1851- Railroad traffic open .-Petersburg – Moscow. |
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Foreign policy |
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Directions of the foreign policy of Nicholas I 2. Expansion of the geopolitical space in the Caucasus: – Russian-Iranian war 1826-1828. – Caucasian war 1817-1864. 3. Struggle for the resolution of the Eastern question: The Eastern question is the rivalry of countries for influence in the Balkans and the Middle East due to the decline of the Ottoman Empire: - Russian-Turkish war 1828-1829. Andrianopol peace treaty(Russia + the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, Turkey paid 33 million rubles indemnity, the autonomy of Greece, the autonomy of Serbia, Moldova, Wallachia expanded) 1833- Unkar-Iskelesi treaty with Turkey - for 8 years, strengthened Russia's position in the Middle East (both countries pledged to support each other in case of military conflicts), but complicated relations with England, France, Austria. 1839- Russian assistance to Turkey in its conflict with Egypt. 1841- London Conference(Russia, England, France, Austria, Prussia). The Black Sea straits came under general control, Russia is practically deprived of independence in the Middle East. Eastern (Crimean) war 1853-1856 November 18, 1853- the victory of the Russian fleet under the command of P.S. Nazimov in the battle of Sinop. |
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PERSONALITIES M.A. Balugyansky- Russian statesman, senator, privy councillor. In 1826-1847 he was the head of the 2nd department of the Chancellery, the closest collaborator of M. Speransky in the preparation of the code of laws. A.H. Benkendorf- count, general. Participated in the suppression and uprising of the Decembrists, was a member of the Commission of Inquiry. Since 1826 he was the chief of the gendarmes and the head of the 3rd department. V.I.Istomin - rear admiral, participant in the war with Turkey in 1828-1829, the battle of Sinop in 1853, died during the defense of Sevastopol. E.F Kankrin-- statesman. From 1823 - Minister of Finance. In 1839-1843 he carried out a financial reform, which led to the strengthening of the ruble and the stabilization of the financial system. On his initiative, industrial exhibitions began to be arranged in Russia. P.D. Kiselev- statesman, from 1835 a permanent member of all secret committees on the peasant question. In 1837-1841, he carried out a reform of the management of state peasants. P.S. Nakhimov- Admiral, defeated the Turkish fleet in the battle of Sinop, died during the defense of Sevastopol in 1855 K.V.Nesselrode- Minister of Foreign Affairs until 1856, M.M. Speransky- He was a member of the commission for the compilation of codes of laws. In 1838 - Chairman of the Department of Laws of the State Council. E.I.Totleben- engineer-general, in the Crimean War led engineering work in the defense of Sevastopol. S.S. Uvarov- statesman, minister of public education in 1833-1849, put forward the idea of "official nationality" |
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TERMS « theory official nationalities» 1834 - author Uvarov- Minister of Public Education. Its three components: BUT) autocracy- the only possible form of government for Russia B) orthodoxy- deep religiosity of the Russian people AT) nationality- the spiritual connection of the people with the monarch. "Obliged Peasants"- former serfs who switched to contractual relations with landowners on the basis of decree 1842. They received personal freedom, put on land for corvée or dues. But they received this right only at the request of the landowners. State peasants- a special estate of the peasantry in 18th-19th century They were considered personally free, but attached to the land (before the reform of 1861). They lived on state lands on the rights of use and paid taxes to the state treasury. They could make deals, own property. They were allowed to trade, open factories and factories. Financial reform: 1839-1843 Minister of Finance E.Kankrin: Stabilization of the financial system The introduction of the silver backing of the ruble - the free exchange of banknotes for silver coins. |
Additional Information
Scheme of state administration of Russia under Nicholas I
EMPEROR
Governing Senate
His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery
State Council
Committee of Ministers
Holy Synod
Ministries:
military, maritime, foreign affairs, interior, commerce,
Finance, justice, public education.
Territorial division: provinces-counties.
The main task of the reign: to preserve and strengthen the existing order. Device country by type army and it was perfect for him:
Strict centralization, i.e. subservience to one center
Complete unity of command at all levels
Unconditional submission of the lower to the higher
Contradictions in the policy of the king:
Constant struggle against the revolutionary movement, persecution of everything advanced and progressive in the country.
An attempt to carry out activities that would eradicate the shortcomings of the existing system and solve the most pressing problems.
His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery (increasing role):
1 sec.- prepared papers for reports to the emperor
2nd.- created in 1826 for the codification of laws (headed by Balugyansky, assistant - Speransky). Created:
In 1830 - 45 volumes of the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire (laws from 1649-1825)
1833 - "The Code of Laws of the Russian Empire" in 15 volumes - the current legislation was included.
3d.- Corps of gendarmes as an organization watered. detective at 26 led by Benckendorff.
4 dep.- created in 1828 to manage educational institutions, departments of Empress Maria Feodorovna and charitable organizations
5 department.- created in 1836 to reform the state peasants
6 dep.- in 1842 - to address issues of governance of Transcaucasia.
The main directions of domestic policy.
1.Strengthening of the central government and the militarization of the state.
2.Fight against revolutionary sentiments:
3. Financial reform: 1839-1843
4. The solution of the peasant question
Reform of the state village P. Kiseleva (1837-1841)
Goals:
Raise the welfare of the peasants
Make peasants good taxpayers
Show landowners an example of management
The introduction of peasant self-government. Election by peasants of officials of rural administration (foremen, sotsky, tenth)
Allocating land to land-poor peasants
Streamlining taxation
Construction of roads, increase in the number of schools and medical centers.
How was it done:
Activities of secret committees on the peasant question
Development and implementation of measures to alleviate the situation of the peasants
1842 - decree "On obligated peasants": the introduction of the right of landlords to voluntarily end the personal serfdom of peasants and provide them with land plots in exchange for the preservation of peasant duties.
BUT the landowners ignored these activities.
- Inventory reform of 1847-1848:
It was held in a number of provinces of Right-Bank Ukraine and affected the interests of landlords and their serfs
Essence:“inventories” were compiled - descriptions of landlord estates with accurate fixation of allotments and duties of peasants in order to limit them (the landowners again ignored).
Emperor of Russia Nicholas I
Emperor Nicholas I ruled Russia from 1825 to 1855. His work is controversial. On the one hand, he was an opponent of the liberal reforms that were the goal of the Decembrist movement, he implanted a conservative and bureaucratic mode of action in Russia, created new repressive state bodies, tightened censorship, and abolished the freedoms of universities. On the other hand, under Nicholas under the leadership of M. Speransky, work was completed on the drafting of a new legislative code, the Ministry of State Property was created, whose activities were aimed at changing the situation of state peasants, secret commissions developed projects for the abolition of serfdom, there was an increase in industry, with the bureaucracy and the nobility, a new class of people began to take shape - the intelligentsia. At the time of Nicholas, Russian literature reached its peak: Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Nekrasov, Tyutchev, GoncharovThe years of the reign of Nicholas I 1825 - 1855
Nicholas set himself the task of not changing anything, not introducing anything new in the foundations, but only maintaining the existing order, filling in the gaps, repairing the dilapidated state of affairs with the help of practical legislation, and doing all this without any participation of society, even with the suppression of social independence, by government means alone; but he did not remove from the queue those burning questions that had been raised in the previous reign, and it seems that he understood their burning even more than his predecessor. Thus, a conservative and bureaucratic mode of action is the characteristic of the new reign; to support the existing with the help of officials - this is another way to designate this character. (V. O. Klyuchevsky "Course of Russian History")
Brief biography of Nicholas I
- 1796, June 25 - the birthday of Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich, the future Emperor Nicholas I.
- 1802 - the beginning of systematic education
Nikolai was brought up somehow, not at all according to the program of Rousseau, like the older brothers Alexander and Konstantin. Prepared himself for a very modest military career; he was not initiated into questions of higher politics, they did not give him participation in serious state affairs. Until the age of 18, he did not even have certain official occupations at all; only this year he was appointed director of the engineering corps and they gave him one guards brigade to command, therefore, two regiments
- 1814, February 22 - Acquaintance with the Prussian Princess Charlotte.
- 1816, May 9 - August 26 - an educational journey through Russia.
- 1816, September 13 - 1817, April 27 - educational trip to Europe.
- 1817, July 1 - marriage with Princess Charlotte (at baptism into Orthodoxy named Alexandra Feodorovna).
- 1818, April 17 - the birth of the first-born Alexander (future emperor)
- 1819, July 13 - Alexander I informed Nicholas that the throne would eventually pass to him due to Constantine's unwillingness to reign
- 1819, August 18 - the birth of daughter Maria
- 1822, September 11 - the birth of daughter Olga
- 1823, August 16 - secret manifesto of Alexander I, declaring Nicholas the heir to the throne
- 1825, June 24 - the birth of daughter Alexandra
- November 27, 1825 - Nicholas received news of the death of Alexander I in Taganrog on November 19
- December 12, 1825 - Nicholas signed the Manifesto on his accession to the throne
- 1825, December 14 - in St. Petersburg
- 1826, August 22 - coronation in Moscow
- 1827, September 21 - the birth of his son Konstantin
- 1829, May 12 - coronation in Warsaw as a Polish constitutional monarch
- 1830, August - the beginning of the cholera epidemic in Central Russia
- 1830, September 29 - Nicholas arrived in cholera Moscow
- 1831, June 23 - Nicholas calmed the cholera riot on Sennaya Square in St. Petersburg
in the summer of 1831 in St. Petersburg, at the height of the cholera epidemic, rumors appeared among the townspeople that the disease was brought by foreign doctors who spread the infection in order to plague the Russian people. This madness reached its climax when a huge excited crowd turned up on Sennaya Square, where a temporary cholera hospital stood.
Bursting inside, people smashed glass in windows, broke furniture, expelled hospital servants and beat local doctors to death. There is a legend that the crowd was calmed down by Nikolai, who reproached her with the words “shame on the Russian people, forgetting the faith of their fathers, to imitate the riot of the French and Poles”
- 1831, August 8 - the birth of the son of Nikolai
- 1832, October 25 - the birth of son Michael
- 1843, September 8 - the birth of the first grandson of Nikolai Alexandrovich, the future heir to the throne.
- 1844, July 29 - death of Alexandra's beloved daughter
- 1855, February 18 - death of Emperor Nicholas I in the Winter Palace
Domestic policy of Nicholas I. Briefly
- In domestic policy, Nikolai was guided by the idea of “arranging private public relations so that they could later build a new state order” (Klyuchevsky). His main concern was the creation of a bureaucratic apparatus, which would become the basis of the throne, as opposed to the nobility, which after December 14, 1825 lost confidence. As a result, the number of bureaucrats increased many times, as well as the number of clerical affairs.
At the beginning of his reign, the emperor was horrified when he learned that he had carried out 2,800,000 cases in all offices of justice alone. In 1842, the Minister of Justice submitted a report to the sovereign, which stated that in all official places of the empire, another 33 million cases had not been cleared, which were set out on at least 33 million written sheets. (Klyuchevsky)
Himself managing the most important matters, entering into their consideration, the emperor created His Majesty's Own Chancellery, with five departments, reflecting the range of affairs that the Emperor directly wanted to manage.
The first department prepared papers for a report to the emperor and monitored the execution of the highest orders; the second department was engaged in the codification of laws and was under control until his death in 1839; the third department was entrusted with the affairs of the high police under the control of the chief of gendarmes; the fourth department managed charitable educational institutions, the fifth department was created to prepare a new order of management and state property
Working for several years, this committee worked out projects for the transformation of both central and provincial institutions, prepared a draft of a new law on estates, which was supposed to improve the life of serfs. The Estates Act was submitted to the State Council and approved by it, but was not made public due to the fact that the revolutionary movements of 1830 in the West inspired fear of any reform. In the course of time, only a few measures from the drafts of the "Committee of December 6th, 1826" were implemented in the form of separate laws. But on the whole, the committee's work remained without any success, and the reform projected by it did not
Under Nicholas I, cadet corps and military and naval academies, the Construction School in St. Petersburg, and the Land Survey Institute in Moscow were established; several women's institutes. the Main Pedagogical Institute for the preparation of teachers was resumed. Boarding houses with a gymnasium course for the sons of nobles were founded. The position of men's gymnasiums was improved
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Orthodoxy - without love for the faith of the ancestors, the people will perish
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Autocracy - The main condition for the political existence of Russia
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Folkness - preservation of the inviolability of folk traditions
According to him, the management of universities passed to the trustees of educational districts subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education. The Council of Professors lost its independence in educational and scientific affairs. Rectors and deans began to be elected not annually, but for a four-year term. Rectors continued to be approved by the emperor, and deans by the minister; professor - trustee
Under the influence of the Ministry, “chambers” of state property began to operate in the provinces. They were in charge of state lands, forests and other property; they also watched over the state peasants. These peasants were arranged in special rural societies (which turned out to be almost 6,000); a volost was composed of several such rural communities. Both rural societies and volosts enjoyed self-government, had their own “gatherings”, elected “heads” and “foremen” to manage volost and rural affairs, and special judges for court.
The self-government of state peasants subsequently served as a model for privately owned peasants when they were freed from serfdom. But Kiselev did not limit himself to concerns about the self-government of the peasants. The Ministry of State Property took a number of measures to improve the economic life of the peasantry subordinate to it: the peasants were taught the best ways of farming, they were provided with grain in lean years; landless were given land; started schools; gave tax benefits, etc.
— introduced a fixed exchange rate of the silver ruble
— the circulation of endless banknotes that appeared in Russia from nowhere was destroyed
— created a gold reserve of the treasury, which did not exist before
— the exchange rate of the ruble has become stable, the ruble has become a hard currency throughout Europe,
- So, in the reign of Nicholas were produced:
— arrangement of offices of "His Majesty's Own Chancellery";
— publication of the Code of Laws;
— financial reform
— measures to improve the life of the peasants
— public education measures
Foreign policy of Nicholas I
Two directions of diplomacy of Nicholas I: the decomposition of Turkey for the sake of Russia inheriting the straits and its possessions in the Balkans; fight against any manifestations of revolutionism in Europe
The foreign policy of Nicholas I, like any policy, was characterized by unscrupulousness. On the one hand, the emperor strictly adhered to the provisions of legitimism, in everything and always supporting the official authorities of states against dissidents: he severed relations with France after the revolution of 1830, severely suppressed the Polish liberation uprising, took the side of Austria in its affairs with rebellious Hungary
In 1833, an agreement was reached between Russia, Austria and Prussia, which entailed the incessant intervention of Russia in the affairs of Europe with the aim of "supporting power wherever it exists, strengthening it where it weakens, and defending it where it is openly attacked »
On the other hand, when it seemed profitable, Nicholas unleashed a war against Turkey, protecting the Greek rebels, although he considered them rebels.
Russian wars during the reign of Nicholas I
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War with Persia (1826-1828)
It ended with the Turkmanchay peace treaty, which confirmed the terms of the Gulistan peace treaty of 1813 (the accession of Georgia, Dagestan to Russia) and fixed the transition to Russia of part of the Caspian coast and Eastern Armenia
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War with Turkey (1828-1829)
It ended with the Peace of Adrianople, according to which Russia passed most of the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the Danube Delta, the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti, Imeretia, Mingrelia, Guria, the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates, Moldavia and Wallachia, Serbia was granted autonomy in the presence of Russian troops there
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Suppression of the Polish uprising (1830-1831)
As a result, the rights of the Kingdom of Poland were significantly curtailed, the Kingdom of Poland became an inseparable part of the Russian state. The previously existing elements of Polish statehood were abolished (the Sejm, a separate Polish army, etc.)
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Khiva campaign (1838-1840)
An attack by a detachment of the Separate Orenburg Corps of the Russian Army on the Khiva Khanate in order to stop the Khiva raids on Russian lands, the release of Russian prisoners in the Khiva Khanate, ensuring safe trade and exploration of the Aral Sea. The trip ended in failure
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2nd Khiva campaign (1847-1848)
Russia continued to pursue a policy of advancing deep into Central Asia. In 1847-1848, a detachment of Colonel Erofeev occupied the Khiva fortifications of Dzhak-Khodzha and Khodzha-Niaz.
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War with Hungary (1849)
Military intervention in the Austro-Hungarian conflict. The suppression of the Hungarian liberation movement by the army of General Paskevich. Hungary remained part of the Austrian Empire
In politics, as in all social life, not moving forward means being thrown back.
Lenin Vladimir Ilyich
The internal policy of Nicholas 1, who ruled the Russian Empire from 1825 to 1855, was distinguished by the fact that the emperor raised the role of the state in public life, and also personally tried to delve into all the problems of his country. It is important to note that Nicholas was the third son of Paul 1, so no one really considered him as a Russian ruler and no one prepared him for power. The fate of a military man was prepared for him. Nevertheless, power went to Nicholas the First, whose domestic policy, especially at the initial stage, was very much like an army dictatorship. The young emperor tried to surround himself with submissive, executive people who could be subjugated to his own will. If we describe in a few words the main directions of the foreign policy of Emperor Nicholas 1, then here they are:
- Strengthening autocracy.
- Expansion of the state apparatus. In fact, it was during this era that a gigantic bureaucracy was created.
- Fight against all dissenters. During the reign of Nicholas 1, there was an active struggle with all public and political associations that dared to express their dissatisfaction with the current government.
Strengthening the role of the state
The first years of the reign of Nicholas 1 were marked by the fact that the emperor, unlike his predecessors, sought to independently delve into all the problems of the country. He delved into not only the key problems, but also studied the less important aspects of the life of the country. To solve these problems, the ruler expanded, and very significantly, the powers of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery. In fact, it is this state body that has now begun to play a fundamental role in the life of Russia. If in previous years all domestic policy was built on the basis of the work of the Cabinet of Ministers, now it was the Office that played the key role.
Moreover, the emperor sought to increase the role of this Chancellery. So, in 1826, the second department of the Chancellery was created, headed by Speransky. He was returned by the emperor from exile. The role of the second branch was to create a single set of state laws. It is important to note that before Nicholas 1, no one managed to do this. Nevertheless, already in 1832, 45 volumes of laws of the Russian Empire were published. All of them were developed with the direct participation of Speransky. In 1833, a complete set of current laws of the Russian Empire was published.
Speaking about strengthening the role of the state as the most important part of the domestic policy of Nicholas 1, it is important to note that the strengthening of the autocracy was carried out in 4 main areas:
- Creation of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery. We talked about it above.
- Creation of special Committees. All created Committees were personally subordinate to the emperor and were responsible for solving various state issues.
- Creation of the "Theory of official nationality". You can read more about this theory in the relevant section of our website, for now I just want to note that it was a theory of creating a new ideology for the population.
- Creation of complete control over the social and political life of the country. Any organization could be closed and destroyed on the mere suspicion of disagreeing with the current policy.
In 1826 a secret committee was formed. It was headed by Kochubey. The main task of this committee was the creation and development of key reforms of public administration in Russia. Despite the importance of this problem, Kochubey failed to solve it.
A very important feature of the domestic policy of that period is the gigantic expansion of the bureaucracy. Judge for yourself. At the time of the death of Alexander 1, there were 15,000 officials in Russia. By the end of the reign of Nicholas 1, there were already 90,000 of them. Such a gigantic expansion of the bureaucracy (by 6 times!) led to the fact that it became impossible for the state to exercise control over the activities of each of its officials. Therefore, very often for ordinary people the decision of a petty official was much more important than the decision of the Ministers or even the Emperor.
Reliance on the nobility
In an effort to strengthen his own power, Nicholas 1 decided to rely on the nobility. This was mainly expressed in the fact that the young emperor was very worried that during the years of the reign of his predecessors, many noble families were very much impoverished. This was especially significant during the reign of Alexander 1. The domestic policy of Nicholas 1 of that time was largely based on building the foundations of state administration, relying on the nobility. Therefore, major steps were taken in order to improve the financial situation of the noble families, thereby arousing in them the desire to protect the incumbent monarch. The following steps were taken to implement this plan:
- When inheriting noble property, which includes at least 400 peasant households, it was forbidden to divide this property.
- Beginning in 1828, secondary and higher education in the Russian Empire became available exclusively to children from noble families.
These steps were aimed at raising the role and authority of the nobility in the life of the state. That is why we can say that the policy of Nicholas 1 within the country was carried out largely in the interests of the rich estates, on which the emperor decided to rely in his work.
Solution of the peasant question
By the beginning of the reign of Nicholas 1, no one in Russia denied the fact that the life of ordinary peasants needed to be improved. The solution of the peasant question has been brewing for a long time, but no one has seriously dealt with it. In 1837 - 1841, a peasant reform was carried out, which affected exclusively the state peasants. This reform was headed by General Kiselyov, who at the time of the reform was a member of the State Council and Minister of State Property. As a result of these reforms, the peasants were allowed to create their own self-government, schools and hospitals began to be built in the villages. An important point of this reform concerned the introduction of "public arable land". It was introduced in order to protect the peasants from lean years. But on such arable lands the peasants worked together, they also used the results of their work together. However, one should not think that such innovations were also positively received in society. Many of the reforms of the Russian emperors were distinguished by their illogicality and lack of thoughtfulness. In particular, in most cases, peasants were forcibly forced to grow potatoes in public fields. As a result, in 1842 a number of potato riots swept the country.
The main stages in the solution of the peasant question
I don't want to die and not solve... the Krastyan question...
Nikolay 1 Pavlovich
Kiselyov's peasant reform should be assessed objectively, as changes that did not change the life of the peasants for the better. Moreover, it should be said that this reform introduced huge differences between the state and serfs. But as for improving the life of serfs, and even more so attempts to emancipate them, here Kiselev and Nicholas 1 were of the opinion that Russia was not ready for this. In particular, this was argued by the fact that the abolition of serfdom could lead to serious complications with the nobility. And we have already said that the domestic policy of the Emperor of the Russian Empire Nicholas 1 was largely based on the nobility.
However, some steps were taken to improve the life of serfs:
- The landlords were endowed with the right to free the serfs, granting them land for their own use. In fairness, we note that no one has used this right.
- In 1847, a law was passed, according to which the peasant had the right to redeem his freedom if the landowner put him up for sale for debts.
These changes did not make any significant changes in the life of the peasants. Serfdom both existed and remained to exist, and those advantages that were formally realized on paper were not implemented in practice.
Fight against revolutionaries inside the country
One of the main directions of the domestic policy of Nicholas 1 was to fight the revolution. At the same time, the emperor tried to destroy the revolution and the revolutionaries in any of their manifestations. For these purposes, the activity of the political police was completely reorganized. To help her in 1826, the 3rd department of the royal office was created. Very interesting is the wording that describes the task of this office - control over the mood of the minds. In the same year, 1826, strict censorial control over all organs of the press was visible. Modern historians often refer to this censorship as cast iron.
Therefore, we can safely say that the internal policy of Nicholas 1 was carried out exclusively in the interests of the nobility and in the fight against the revolution. All reforms and all transformations within the country during the reign of this emperor were carried out exclusively for these purposes. It is the strengthening of the power of the nobility and the fight against the revolution that explain all the political processes that were carried out in the Russian Empire during the reign of Nicholas 1.
Materials for preparing for the exam on the topic "Russian Empire under NicholasI(1825-1855)"
Explanatory text for the block
The black-and-white booth is a traditional symbol of Nicholas's reign. On the sides are the conditional figures of a soldier and an official (the reliance of the Nikolaev regime on the armed forces and the bureaucracy).
Domestic policy. The reign of Nicholas I began with the Decembrist uprising (December 14, 1825), which, however, was defeated (1). Repression fell upon the Decembrists, five leaders were executed, hundreds were exiled to Siberia and the Caucasus (2). After the uprising, the emperor strengthened the repressive organs, at the head of which stood the III Department of the Imperial Chancellery with the corps of gendarmes attached to it (3). Censorship was drastically tightened.
The general reactionary nature of Nicholas I's policy did not rule out reforms in certain areas. In the field of management, the most important reform was the codification of legislation, carried out by a group of lawyers led by M.M. Speransky. In 1832, a 15-volume Code of Laws of the Russian Empire appeared, which included all the laws in force (4).
The opposition was represented by liberal and revolutionary circles, which were subjected to repression by the authorities. The most significant was the circle of Petrashevites (named after the leader M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky), in 1849, brutally crushed by the authorities (5). The activities of the opposition were much more significant not in the sphere of practical politics, but in the sphere of ideology (see the Culture section).
Foreign policy. The main directions of Russia's foreign policy under Nicholas I were the southern (the problem of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, which went down in history as the Eastern Question, the strengthening of Russia's positions in the Balkans and the Transcaucasus) and the western (the fight against revolutionary movements in Europe, the desire to prevent the creation of a broad anti-Russian coalition of Western powers).
In 1826-1828. Russia fought with Iran and received Eastern Armenia (the current Republic of Armenia) according to the Turkmenchay peace (6). In 1828-1829. there was a Russian-Turkish war, caused by the desire of Russia to support the Greek uprising against the Turks. By Greece became independent to the world of Adrianople, Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia became autonomous, and Russia received the mouth of the Danube and the Black Sea coast from Anapa to Poti. These wars have strengthened the authority of Russia in the world.
At the same time, throughout the reign of Nicholas I, the Caucasian War continued (8). The confrontation of the highlanders of Russia took a religious form and began to take place under the slogan of ghazavat (holy war between Muslims and infidels). The struggle was led by imams (religious leaders). Imam Shamil created an imamat (theocratic state) in Chechnya and Dagestan and for a long time successfully resisted the tsarist troops. Only in 1859 (that is, after the death of Nicholas I) was he taken prisoner, and hostilities in the western Caucasus continued until 1864.
In Europe, Russia pursued a consistent policy of combating the revolutionary movement (the revolutionaries stigmatized tsarism as the "gendarme of Europe"). Nicholas I intended to send troops to suppress the revolution in France in 1830, but they were needed to suppress the national liberation uprising in Poland (9). In 1849, Russian troops, at the request of the Austrians, crushed the revolution in Hungary (10).
In the middle of the XIX century. Nicholas I came up with a program for the division of Turkish possessions (he called the Ottoman Empire "the sick man of Europe"). However, these intentions of Russia opposition to England, France and Austria. As a result, the Crimean War, which began in 1853 as an ordinary Russian-Turkish war, also became a war between Russia and England and France (11). During the war, the military-technical backwardness of Russia affected, and she was defeated.
Economy. The main new phenomenon of economic life began in the 1830s. industrial revolution (transition from manual to machine labor) (12). The revolution manifested itself not only in industry, but also in transport (the construction of the first railways, the appearance of steamboats). The successful financial reform carried out in 1839-1843 also contributed to the development of the economy. Minister of Finance E.F. Kankrin (13). However, in general, the economy of Russia during this period developed slowly due to the preservation of serfdom.
Public relations. The main problem is the liberation of the peasants. Nicholas I understood the harm of serfdom and the danger of its further preservation, but, fearing the discontent of the nobles, did not dare to take serious actions. The matter was limited to the creation of secret committees and discussion of the problem in a narrow circle of officials (14).
At the same time, the government, wanting to set an example for solving the peasant issue, carried out a reform of the management of state peasants (known as the reform of P.D. perversions.
Culture. The main phenomena are the formation of new ideological currents and the transition to critical realism in the sphere of artistic culture.
The ideological justification for the policy of Nicholas I was the so-called theory of official nationality, developed by the Minister of Education, Count S.S. Uvarov ("Orthodoxy - autocracy - nationality") (16). The theorists of this direction justified the unacceptability of foreign influences for Russia. In 1836 P.Ya. Chaadaev, who sharply questioned the greatness of the past, present and future of Russia (17). In the intellectual environment about letters, fierce disputes broke out and two main points of view were formed - Westernism (the problem of Russia is lagging behind Western countries due to unfavorable circumstances) (18) and Slavophilism (the problem of Russia is a distortion of the natural development of Russia due to immoderate borrowing from the West) (19) . Later, a revolutionary-democratic trend emerged from Westernism, whose leaders (Herzen and others) began to develop the idea of Russia's "leap" into socialism through the peasant community (20).
AT In the field of education, state control over educational institutions increased, and the autonomy of universities was abolished (21).
The largest Russian scientist of this period is N.N. Lobachevsky, creator of non-Euclidean geometry (22).
In artistic culture, there was a gradual transition from sentimentalism and romanticism to critical realism (Fedotov in painting, Glinka in music, Schepkin and Ostrovsky in the theater, Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev and others in literature) (23). Under conditions of censorship, literature and literary criticism (Belinsky) played an important social role and caused heated debate (24).
The development of architecture had its own specifics, where the Russian-Byzantine style was established (K.A. Ton, Cathedral of Christ the Savior) (25).
TRAINING
1. Working with chronology
Fill the table.
|
No. p / p |
Event |
the date |
|
Decembrist uprising in St. Petersburg (exact date) | ||
|
Uprising of the Chernihiv Regiment | ||
|
The activities of the Petrashevites | ||
|
Caucasian war | ||
|
Crimean War | ||
|
Capture of Shamil (date is out of period) | ||
|
The suppression of the uprising in Hungary by the Russian army | ||
|
Polish uprising | ||
|
Publication of the first "Philosophical Letter" P.Ya. Chaadaeva | ||
|
Russo-Persian War | ||
|
Russo-Turkish War | ||
|
Trial and reprisal against the Decembrists |
2. Work with personalities
Fill the table. (The right column indicates the minimum number of facts you need to know.)
|
historical figure |
Who is(s)? |
What did you do? What happened to him? |
|
A.N. Ostrovsky | ||
|
A.S. Menshikov | ||
|
OH. Benkendorf | ||
|
Aksakov, Kireevsky, Khomyakov | ||
|
Alyabiev, Varlamov, Glinka | ||
|
Bellingshausen and Lazarev | ||
|
Bryullov, Kiprensky, Ivanov, Venetsianov, Fedotov | ||
|
Bulgarin, Grech, Puppeteer | ||
|
V.G. Belinsky | ||
|
Voronikhin, Zakharov, Rossi, Montferrand, Beauvais, Tone | ||
|
Herzen and Ogarev | ||
|
Granovsky, Botkin, Kavelin | ||
|
E.F. Kankrin | ||
|
Karamzin, Solovyov, Pogodin | ||
|
Kornilov and Istomin | ||
|
Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky | ||
|
M.A. Miloradovich | ||
|
M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky | ||
|
MM. Speransky | ||
|
Mochalov, Shchepkin | ||
|
N.I. Lobachevsky | ||
|
P.D. Kiselev | ||
|
P.S. Nakhimov | ||
|
P.Ya. Chaadaev | ||
|
Pestel, Ryleev, Muraviev-Apostol, Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Kakhovsky | ||
|
S.P. Trubetskoy | ||
|
EX. Uvarov | ||
3. Working with the table
Fill in the table “Main currents of social thought under NicholasI».
4. Working with the map
Find on the map:
1) territorial acquisitions of Russia under Nicholas I (Armenia, the mouth of the Danube, the coast from Anapa to Sochi);
2) Chechnya, Dagestan, Circassia;
3) Danubian principalities;
4) Sevastopol, Kars, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
5. Working with concepts
Define the terms.
1. Industrial revolution - ______________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
2. Bourgeoisie - ____________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________
3. The proletariat - __________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________
4. Ghazavat - ______________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________
5. Muridism - _______________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________
6. Imamat -_______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________
6. Working with sources
What socio-political views did the authors of the documents, from which the excerpts are given, adhere to?
1. “In the midst of the rapid decline of religious and civil institutions in Europe, with the widespread spread of destructive concepts, in view of the sad phenomena that surrounded us on all sides, it was necessary to strengthen the fatherland on solid foundations on which the prosperity, strength and life of the people are based; find the principles that make up the distinctive character of Russia and belong exclusively to her; to gather together the sacred remains of her people and on them to strengthen the anchor of our salvation.
_________________________________________
2. “With the establishment of a representative order in Russia, Europe would get to know Russia better ... The introduction of representative government, for which the ground is so undoubtedly and so thoroughly prepared, promising Russia new happiness, new life, new vigor, new strength for prosperity as necessary as it is beneficial, - promises for the educated world a new charm [of Russia], incomparably better than the old one.
___________________________________________
3. “Autocracy is the main condition for the political existence of Russia. The Russian colossus rests on it, as on the cornerstone of its greatness. This truth is felt by the innumerable majority of Your Majesty's subjects: they feel it in full measure, although they are placed at different levels of civil life and differ in education and in their relationship to the government. The saving conviction that Russia lives and is guarded by the spirit of autocracy, strong, philanthropic, enlightened, must permeate public education and develop with it.
4 . “All evil comes primarily from the oppressive system of our government, oppressive regarding freedom of opinion, moral freedom, because there are no political freedom and claims in Russia ... May the ancient alliance of the government with the people, the state with the land, be restored on the solid foundation of true indigenous Russians began. The government - unlimited freedom of government, exclusively belonging to it, the people - complete freedom of life, both external and internal, which is guarded by the government. Government - the right to act and, therefore, the law; people - the right of opinion and, consequently, of speech. Here is a Russian civil device! This is the only true civil order!” _______________________________________________
5. “The spirit of the communal system has long penetrated into all areas of the people's life in Russia. Each city, in its own way, was a community; it gathered general gatherings, which decided the next issues by a majority of votes ... In the face of Europe, whose strength has been exhausted in the struggle for a long life, a people who are just starting to live come forward. He has retained only one fortress, which has remained impregnable for centuries - his land community, and because of this he is closer to the social revolution ... "
7. Working with the judgment of a historian
Read an excerpt from the work of the historian M. Polievktov and try to explain Why did the author come to this conclusion?
“Just as for Nicholas I the conservative program took on a dynastic character, so society learned to identify this order with the idea of statehood in general and brought up in itself a purely negative attitude towards the state principle. Disconnected from practical activity, society lost its real ground in its programs, but it also lost its real ground and the government, locking itself into bureaucratic paperwork. Both the government and society in the reign of Nicholas lost their sense of life.
CONTROL TASKS
Level A tasks
When completing the tasks of this part for each task, choose the correct answer, the only one of the four proposed, and circle it.
1. Which series of dates reflects Russia's major naval victories?
1) 1827, 1853 3) 1834, 1849
2) 1830, 1844 4) 1849, 1855
2. The domestic policy of Nicholas I is characterized
1) decisive action to prepare for the abolition of serfdom
2) censorship oppression, persecution of opponents of the existing system
3) lack of reforms in the public administration system
4) the abolition of the privileges of the Russian Orthodox Church
3. The defeat of the Decembrist uprising led to
1) the temporary decline of the revolutionary movement in Russia
2) the transition of the government to a policy of mass terror
3) mass emigration of figures of Russian culture
4) deprivation of the nobility of part of the privileges
4. The foreign policy of Nicholas I is characterized
1) the creation of a strong tripartite alliance of Russia, England and France
2) the desire to divide and subjugate the Austrian Empire
3) the fight against the revolutionary movement in Europe
4) large territorial acquisitions in Central Asia
5. Peace of Adrianople handed over to Russia
1) Moldavia and Wallachia 3) Western Georgia
2) islands at the mouth of the Danube 4) Bessarabia
6. Kireevsky, Aksakov - this is
1) revolutionary democrats 3) Slavophiles
2) Westerners 4) Petrashevists
7. Westernism is characterized
1) a positive attitude towards Russia during the reign of Nicholas I
2) the idea that Russia has its own, original path of development
3) calls for revolution and the overthrow of the autocracy
4) a positive assessment of the reforms of Peter I
8. The main support of Shamil was the territory
1) Circassia
2) Kabardy
3) Dagestan
9. The industrial revolution is
1) the mass exodus of peasants to the cities and their work in industrial enterprises
2) accelerated growth of industry and trade
3) the beginning of the use of machines in production
4) the emergence of large enterprises
10. Read an excerpt from the memoirs and indicate the year to which they refer.
“I heard a drumbeat, the meaning of which I then, as I did not serve in military service, did not accept. “This is the end of everything!” ... But then, I saw that the guns, aimed, were suddenly all raised barrels up. My heart was immediately relieved, as if a stone that had squeezed it tightly fell off! Then they began to untie those tied ... and brought them back to their former places on the scaffold. Some kind of carriage arrived, an officer came out - the adjutant wing - and brought some paper, filed immediately for reading. It proclaimed to us the granting of life by the sovereign emperor and, in return for the death penalty, to each, according to guilt, a special punishment.
1) 1826 3) 1849
2) 1836 4) 1853
11. A.I. Herzen was the first to suggest that (b)
1) the backwardness of Russia in comparison with Western countries
2) the possibilities of Russia's path to socialism through the community
3) the need to convene a new Zemsky Sobor
4) the harmfulness of Peter's reforms
12. Westernism and Slavophilism were united by a similar attitude towards
1) the policy of Nicholas I 3) the countries of the West
2) pre-Petrine Russia 4) the reforms of Peter I
13. Under Nicholas I, a ministry appeared in Russia
1) on the affairs of serfs 3) internal affairs
2) state property 4) finance
14. The Turkmenchay peace was concluded in
1) 1828 3) 1849
2) 1829 4) 1856
15. Bellingshausen and Lazarev directed
1) the first Russian round-the-world expedition
2) the Russian fleet in the battle of Sinop
3) the expedition that discovered Antarctica
4) the defense of Sevastopol
16. Which of the following countries entered the Crimean War against Russia on the side of the Ottoman Empire?
A) Sardinian kingdom
B) Austrian Empire
B) Great Britain
D) Prussia
D) France
Specify the correct answer.
1) ABD 3) AED
2) ADE 4) VGE
17. Read an extract from the diplomatic dispatch of the Russian envoy and indicate the date of the events in question.
“I have just received and communicated to Prince Schwarzenberg a dispatch dated March 25 regarding his request for the concentration of our significant forces in the most threatened points of the Galician border and for permission for these troops to enter Austrian territory and contribute to the rapid suppression of the rebellion.”
18. The reason why Nicholas I did not dare to free the serfs
1) conviction in the inability of the peasants to live without the power of the landowners
2) misunderstanding of the harm of serfdom for the economy and morality
3) unwillingness to carry out any transformations at all
4) fear of the resistance of the nobility
19. In 1836 P.Ya. Chaadaev
1) called for the creation of a secret revolutionary society
2) critically commented on the historical experience of Russia
3) demanded the release of peasants with land
4) spoke in print in defense of the Decembrists
20. He refers to the opposition circles during the reign of Nicholas I
1) circle "Emancipation of labor"
2) a circle of Cretan brothers
3) circle N.V. Stankevich
4) "society number 11"
Level B assignments
These tasks require an answer in the form of one or two words, a sequence of letters or numbers. .
and his wife, Maria Fedorovna. As soon as Nikolai Pavlovich was born (06/25/1796), his parents signed him up for military service. He became the chief of the Life Guards Cavalry Regiment, with the rank of colonel.
Three years later, the prince put on the uniform of his regiment for the first time. In May 1800, Nicholas I became the chief of the Izmailovsky regiment. In 1801, as a result of a palace coup, his father, Paul I, was killed.
The real passion of Nicholas I was military affairs. Passion for military affairs, apparently passed on from his father, and at the gene level.
Soldiers and cannons were the favorite toys of the Grand Duke, for which, together with his brother Mikhail, he spent a lot of time. To the sciences, unlike his brother, he did not gravitate.
On July 13, 1817, the marriage of Nicholas I and the Prussian princess Charlotte took place. In Orthodoxy, Charlotte was named Alexandra Feodorovna. By the way, the marriage took place on the birthday of his wife.
The joint life of the royal couple was happy. After the wedding, he became an inspector general in charge of engineering.
Nicholas I never prepared himself as the heir to the Russian throne. He was only the third child of Paul I. It so happened that Alexander I had no children.
In this case, the throne passed to the younger brother of Alexander, and the elder brother of Nicholas - Constantine. But, Konstantin was not eager to take responsibility on his shoulders and became the Russian emperor.
Alexander I wanted to make Nicholas his heir. This has long been a mystery to Russian society. In November, Alexander I died unexpectedly, and Nikolai Pavlovich was to ascend the throne.
It so happened that on the day the Russian society took the oath to the new emperor, it happened. Thankfully it all ended well. The uprising was crushed, and Nicholas I became emperor. After the tragic events on the Senate Square, he exclaimed - "I am the Emperor, but at what cost."
The policy of Nicholas I had brightly inspired conservative features. Quite often, historians accuse Nicholas I of excessive conservatism and strictness. But how could the emperor behave differently after the Decembrist uprising? It was this event that largely set the course for domestic politics during his reign.
Domestic politics
The most important issue of the domestic policy of Nicholas I is the peasant question. He believed that every effort should be made to alleviate the situation of the peasants. During his reign, many legislative acts were issued to make life easier for the peasantry.
In conditions of the strictest secrecy, as many as 11 committees worked, which tried to think over solutions to the peasant question. The emperor returned Mikhail Speransky to active state activity and instructed him to streamline the legislation of the Russian Empire.
Speransky brilliantly coped with the task by preparing the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire for 1648-1826 and the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. Finance Minister Kankrin carried out a progressive monetary reform, which brought the country's economy back to life.
Most of all, historians criticize Nicholas I for the activities of the 3rd branch of the Imperial Chancellery. This body had a supervisory function. The Russian Empire was divided into gendarmerie districts, which were in charge of generals who had a large staff under their command.
The third branch was engaged in the investigation of political affairs, closely monitored censorship, as well as the activities of officials of various ranks.
Foreign policy
The foreign policy of Nicholas I became a continuation of the policy of Alexander I. He sought to maintain peace in Europe, while being guided by the interests of Russia, to develop vigorous activity on the eastern borders of the empire.
During his reign, talented diplomats appeared in Russia, knocking out favorable conditions for cooperation from “our partners”. There were constant diplomatic battles for influence in the world.
Russian diplomats won many such battles. In July 1826, the Russian army fought in Iran. In February 1828, peace was signed, thanks to the efforts of Griboyedov, the Nakhichevan and Erivan khanates retreated to Russia, and the empire also acquired the exclusive right to have a navy in the Caspian Sea.
During the reign of Nicholas I, Russia was at war with the mountain peoples. There was also a successful war with Turkey, which showed the world military talent. The next Russian-Turkish war turned into a real disaster for Russia. After, in which the Russian ships under the command of Nakhimov won a stunning victory.
England and France, fearing the strengthening of Russia, entered the war on the side of Turkey. The Crimean War began. Participation in the Crimean War showed the problems that existed in Russian society. First of all, it is technological backwardness. was a good and timely lesson that marked the beginning of a new development in Russia.
Results
Nicholas I died on February 18, 1855. The reign of this monarch can be assessed in different ways. Despite the strengthening of control and the suppression of dissent, Russia greatly increased its territory, won many diplomatic disputes.
A monetary reform was carried out in the country, which ensured economic development, the oppression on the peasantry was weakened. All these indulgences have largely become the basis for the future.
