Post-war peace settlement in Europe. Post-war peace settlement in Europe

The first big and urgent problem after the war, which required an immediate solution, was the signing of peace treaties with the former European allies of the fascist. Germany -. Italy,. Bulgaria. Rum. Muni. Hungary. Finland. The main provisions of the future peace treaties were outlined already. Yaltinskaya and. Potsdam conferences. However, already in September-October 1945, serious contradictions appeared between the victorious states, which were exacerbated by the formation of two courses in international politics. The USSR tried, and quite successfully, to consolidate its influence in the countries. Central and. Southeast i. Europe,. West - do not allow this. Based on principles. Atlantic charter. The West demanded that the peoples of these countries be given the right to choose their own path of development. Soviet. The Union sought to tie these countries to itself, to turn it into a springboard for the further advancement of socialism.

The issue of a peaceful settlement with former allies. Germany were decided in sessions. Council of Foreign Ministers (CMFA) (autumn 1945 - first half of 1946) and on. Paris Peace Conference (July 29 - October 16, 1946). In the process of developing peace articles, serious disagreements were discovered. USA and. England tried to consider peace treaties in close connection with internal changes in the indicated countries (the establishment of a regime of parliamentary democracy, etc.). This also applied to the composition of governments. To prevent a communist dictatorship,. England and. The United States defended the principles of creating coalition governments on a rich party basis through free elections. To control the electoral process, in particular c. Bulgaria and. Romania, the creation of inspection teams was proposed. Soviet. The union, true to the policy of communization (communization should be understood as the planting of a communist dictatorship - left-wing radical totalitarianism), advocated not linking peace treaties with the internal political development of countries. Central and. Southeast. Europe. The parties managed to reach a compromise. The first post-war years were characterized by mutual concessions to the composition of governments. Bulgaria and. Representatives of "other democratic groups" entered Romania. The Western delegations, unfortunately, did not realize then that the "concession" on the part of the communist leaders was a forced, temporary manoeuvre, a manoeuvre.

Issues of territorial order were also solved with great difficulty. Western powers supported territorial claims. Greece to. Bulgaria and. Albania. Soviet. The Union supported its socialist and personal protégés. An acute struggle unfolded around the status of the city. Trieste with surrounding area. Soviet. The Union supported the French project, and. Trieste became a free territory under the auspices. UN (according to the 1954 agreement, the city of Trieste was ceded to Italy, and the territory to the east of it - to Yugoslavia).

The Italian colonies became the object of sharp clashes. Somalia,. Libya,. Eritrea. England wanted to bring them under its control. The United States sought to establish its military bases there. France was inclined to ensure that they were for the Alishites. Italy, but under control. UN. U. Stalin appeared his "African plans"At a meeting of foreign ministers. Molotov from the filing. Stalin spoke about the emergence of c. Libya nationally-call. Olne movement and the need to help him from the outside. Moscow. USSR, said. Molotov, is ready to build a naval base there, to take the area under his control. Representative. Great Britain. Bevin became ill from these statements, he even had to call a doctor and give him a reproach and an injection.

The fate of the Italian colonies was finally decided only in the early 50s. Somalia - since 1950 p,. Libya - since 1951 proclaimed independent states, as well. Eritrea became a province in 1952. Ethiopia

Sharp disputes were also caused by economic questions of the contract. The United States defended the point "on equal opportunities" and the payment of reparations in dollars, objectively oriented these countries towards economic and trade relations with. The United States insisted on full compensation for the nationalized property of foreign companies. Soviet. The union insisted on compensation for 1/3 of all nationalized property. Here, too, a compromise was reached (they agreed on 2/3 of the entire cost of the vartost).

The former allies carefully, taking into account the capabilities of the vanquished, approached the determination of the amounts of reparation payments. Italy was ordered to pay. Yugoslavia $125 million. Greece - 105,. USSR - 100,. Ethiopia - 25,. Albania - 5 million dollars. Romania and. Hungary must pay. USSR for 300 million dollars, etc. Later. Soviet. The Union refused a large part of the reparations from. Hungary,. Romania,. Bulgaria and. Finlandinland.

The peace treaties signed on February 10, 1947, entered into force on September 15 of the same year. They recorded certain territorial changes. Northern. Transylvania transferred. Romania, and borders. Hungary is defined by them as they were on January 1, 1938. South. Dobruja is assigned to. Bulgaria, according to the Romanian-Bulgarian agreement of 7 September

R. The Italo-French border changed in favor. France, Italian - Yugoslav - in favor. Yugoslavia. K. Yugoslavia withdrew. Istria and part. Julian. Extreme. Dodecanese islands from. Italy handed over December. Retsii. The Soviet-Finnish border was established as of January 1

R. Peace treaty with Finland also confirmed belonging. Soviet. Union of the region. Petsamo (Pechenga) and transfer. USSR leased for a period of 50 years to the area. Porkkala Udd to create a naval force. RSC base. Italy also lost its rights to former colonies.

Signing of peace treaties with former allies. Germany should be seen as an important step in the European post-war settlement policy. The very practice of discussing and working out a compromise way of home peace treaties could become a model for solving other European and world problems. However, in the process of growing confrontation and deepening of confrontation, the acquired practice was very soon forgotten. However, the peace treaties became a positive fact of post-war European politics. They did not in any way infringe on the sovereignty of a number of countries, and most of the problems associated with a peaceful settlement were resolved fairly on the whole. It is difficult to reproach the Western powers for failing to defend democratic development. Romania,. Bulgaria,. Hungary. In this delicate issue, the Western delegations at the peace talks proceeded from the fact that this is an internal affair of the peoples of these regions.

History abstract

Post-war settlement and revolutionary events in Europe.

Performed:

Yanina A.O.

Checked:

Zalinyaev V.E.

Moscow 2003

Beginning of a peace settlement.

During the First World War, 8 million people died. The same number remained disabled for the rest of their lives. The end of the war did not bring long-awaited peace to the peoples of the world. For several more years, hotbeds of conflict arose in Europe and other parts of the world, revolutions and uprisings broke out. The end of the war did not mean the resolution of political conflicts. Europe, weakened by a long war, has ceased to be the main center of world politics. Representatives of the Western European powers did not come up with any peace initiatives - they were put forward by the United States of America and Soviet Russia.

Shortly after the end of hostilities, the post-war settlement process began. A peace conference was convened, in which the Entente countries and their allies took part. It opened on January 18, 1919. in the mirror hall of the Palace of Versailles, on the same day and in the same place where, in 1871, after the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war, the creation of the German Empire was proclaimed. This was yet another humiliation for the German delegation representing the defeated side. The conference was chaired by an ardent opponent of Germany, French Prime Minister J. Clemenceau. He and other representatives of the victorious powers - US President W. Wilson, British Prime Ministers D. Lloyd George and Italian Prime Ministers in Orlando - resolved all the most important issues. However, the military weakness of Italy, which manifested itself during the war, reduced its international prestige. During the conference, the representatives of the USA, Great Britain and France took little account of the interests of this country and made decisions in an even narrower circle.

America, which entered the war later than the other great powers, managed not only to maintain its military and economic potential, but also received huge profits from the war. Until 1917, when the US joined the Entente, it successfully traded with all the warring parties and became the largest international creditor. Wishing to consolidate his country's foreign policy successes, President Wilson put forward a program for a peaceful settlement, which American diplomacy stubbornly defended during the peace talks. Such activity was in itself unusual, since before the Americans adhered to a policy of isolationism. It consisted in the desire to avoid participation in the affairs of the "old continent" - Europe. The United States distanced itself from the colonial policy of the European powers, from their coalitions and conflicts. This position made it possible for Americans to look in the eyes of the inhabitants of many countries as supporters of freedom and opponents of colonialism. Thanks to all this, the American president was able to initiate an armistice between Germany and its allies and the Entente.

The peace conference at Versailles was reduced mainly to the development by the victorious countries of the conditions for concluding peace with Germany. The French insistently demanded to punish the defeated enemy. The British also wished to prevent the restoration of German military power. The European powers and Japan expected to divide the colonies of defeated Germany. These plans did not find support from the American delegation, which believed that the excessive weakening and humiliation of Germany could lead to new conflicts in Europe. The Americans also insisted on granting greater independence to the colonies of the European powers, considering them as potential markets for industrial products. The Americans proposed to make a new international organization, the League of Nations, the instrument of preserving peace, the charter of which, in their opinion, was to be included in the text of the peace treaty.

Conclusion of peace treaties.

Despite the contradictions that arose between the winners, they managed to agree on the text of the peace treaty. The German delegation did not participate in this work. She was informed of the contents of the document before its signing, which took place at Versailles on June 28, 1919. Difficult and humiliating conditions were imposed on the vanquished. According to the Treaty of Versailles, Germany returned Alsace and Lorraine to France; the coal-rich Saar region was transferred to the management of the commission of the League of Nations for a period of 15 years; the left bank of the Rhine River was occupied by the allied forces for 15 years; Germany transferred Poznan to the restored Poland, as well as certain regions of Pomerania, West and East Prussia (while most of the western Polish lands remained with Germany); Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a "free city" and placed under the control of the League of Nations. Germany was losing all her colonies. Until 1921 the Germans had to pay reparations - 20 billion marks in gold.

1. What are the reasons for the collapse of the Anti-Hitler coalition?

1. The conflict of ideologies of the West and the USSR.

2. Determining the fate of countries liberated from fascism, resolving a number of territorial issues

3. The planting of communism in the liberated countries.

2. What were the main decisions on a peaceful settlement adopted at the international conferences of the three powers?

Tehran Conference - the right was assigned to the Soviet Union as an indemnity to annex part of East Prussia after the victory; on the question of the incorporation of the Baltic republics into the Soviet Union, a plebiscite should take place at the appropriate moment, but not under any form of international control; F. Roosevelt proposed dividing Germany into 5 states.

The Crimean Conference - the conference adopted the Declaration on a Liberated Europe, in which the Allies declared that the goal of their policy in Europe was to destroy Nazism and Fascism and to assist the peoples of Europe in establishing democratic institutions of their own choice. The conference also adopted the important decision to convene the founding conference of the United Nations on April 25, 1945, in San Francisco, with the aim of creating a world organization for the maintenance of international peace and security.

Potsdam Conference - political and economic principles were agreed to be applied to Germany in the initial period (demilitarization, democratization, denazification, decartelization). The questions of reparations, the bringing to justice of the main war criminals, the expulsion of Germans from Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary, the former Italian colonies, etc., were resolved in principle.

3. What contradictions between the former allies prevented the conclusion of peace treaties with Germany and Japan?

1. The creation of the FRG and the GDR and the confrontation between the USA and the USSR delayed the conclusion of an agreement with Germany.

2. The conclusion of a peace treaty with Austria was also delayed. The reason was the confrontation between the two superpowers. The USSR sought to ensure that Austria remained neutral and assumed the obligation not to join military-political blocs. These demands, including the inadmissibility of the Anschluss, that is, the absorption of Austria by Germany, were included in the peace treaty and the Austrian constitution. In 1955, the conflict ended with the signing of a peace treaty.

3. The contradictions between the USSR and the USA on the issue of the post-war structure of Japan turned out to be very sharp. The United States took the path of preparing a separate peace treaty without the participation of the USSR and a number of other interested countries, including the People's Republic of China, which was formed in October 1949. In September 1951, a conference was held in San Francisco to conclude a peace treaty with Japan. The organizers of the conference did not listen to the amendments and additions made by the USSR delegation and a number of other participants. The USSR sought clear formulations on issues of territorial settlement, the adoption of an article on the withdrawal of foreign troops from Japan, etc. However, the amendments and additions of the USSR and other participants in the conference were not taken into account. The USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia refused to join the treaty. Thus, the question of a peace treaty between the Soviet Union and Japan remained unresolved.

4. What goals formed the basis of the United Nations? What was the main principle that distinguished it from the pre-war League of Nations?

The goals of this organization are formulated in the UN Charter: the maintenance of international peace and security, the suppression of acts of aggression, the settlement of international disputes by peaceful means, the development of friendly relations between nations, the implementation of international cooperation in resolving problems of an economic, social and humanitarian nature, the promotion and development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction of sex, race, language or religion.

From the League of Nations, the UN was distinguished by the principle of unanimity of 5 permanent members when deciding on the suppression of aggression and the maintenance of peace.

5. Why was a new legal term "crimes against humanity" formulated at the Nuremberg trials of major war criminals?

The Charter of the International Military Tribunal was drawn up by representatives of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition on August 8, 1945 in London. Article 6 of the Statute defined the crimes within the jurisdiction of the tribunal. These included: crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity, namely: murder, extermination, enslavement, exile and other atrocities committed against the civilian population before or during the war, or persecution for political, racial or religious reasons in for the purpose of or in connection with any crime subject to the jurisdiction of the Tribunal, whether or not those acts were in violation of the internal law of the country in which they were committed. Article 6 of the Charter of the International Military Tribunal.

Of the defendants at the Nuremberg Trials, 16 people were found guilty of crimes against humanity: Bormann, Goering, Sauckel, Seyss-Inquart, Jodl, Kaltenbrunner, Keitel, Neurath, Ribbentrop, Rosenberg, Frank, Frick, Funk, von Schirach, Speer and Streicher.

War crimes and crimes against humanity have no statute of limitations.

This term was introduced because of the policy of the German authorities in the occupied territories and in relation to other nations.

"COLD WAR". MILITARY-POLITICAL BLOCKS

1. What are the main features of the Cold War?

Signs of the Cold War:

The split of the world into two systems

Superpower rivalry in all regions of the world (local conflicts)

Arms race (militarism in politics and thinking)

The threat of the use of nuclear weapons (peak - Caribbean crisis)

Formation of military-political blocs (NATO 1946, ATS 1955)

2. What role did the creation of nuclear weapons play in international relations?

The creation of nuclear weapons exacerbated relations between the US and the USSR. The USSR began to create its own nuclear weapons. To a certain extent, the presence of nuclear weapons as weapons of mass destruction was a deterrent to preventing direct military conflicts between the two superpowers.

3. Which countries are included in NATO and the Warsaw Pact? On what lines did the split of the world and Europe occur? Show on the map.

In 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created. Initially, 12 states joined NATO: the USA, Great Britain, France, Italy, Canada, Iceland, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal, since 1952 - Greece and Turkey, since 1955 - Germany, since 1982 .- Spain, since 1999 - Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, since 2004 - Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania.

In 1955, a military-political union appeared under the leadership of the USSR - the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD). The Warsaw Pact of 1955 was signed by Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland, Romania, the USSR, Czechoslovakia and Albania (in 1962 Albania refused to participate in the Warsaw Pact). (In 1991, the ATS was dissolved.)

The border between the two camps, as the split of the world into two irreconcilable socio-economic systems was then called, passed in Europe through the territory of Germany along the line of the western and eastern occupation zones, in the Far East along the 38th parallel in Korea and in Southeast Asia in Vietnam , where since 1946 French troops have waged war against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

4. Explain the goals of the Truman and Eisenhower Doctrines and the Marshall Plan.

The Truman Doctrine: the policy of "containment" against the USSR throughout the world. It was aimed at revising the system of international relations formed under Roosevelt. The Truman Doctrine was aimed at the struggle of the United States and its supporters for the political and economic unipolarity of the world.

Eisenhower Doctrine: Any country can request economic or military assistance from the United States if it is under military aggression from another state.

The Marshall Plan for rendering assistance to the countries of Western Europe, which came into effect in April 1948, was intended to strengthen the foundations of capitalism in Europe. The USSR and the socialist countries refused this assistance.

Theme 1.1 Post-war peace settlement in Europe

Goals: To give an idea of the post-war structure of the world.

Plan

1. Interests of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France in Europe and the world after the war. Development of a coordinated policy of the Allied Powers in Germany.

The USA and the USSR created their own spheres of influence, securing them with military-political blocs - NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Although the United States and the USSR never entered into a direct military confrontation, their rivalry for influence often led to outbreaks of local armed conflicts around the world.

Churchill in March 1946 in Fulton in the United States made a speech regarding the USSR, and stated that relations between the USSR on the one hand and the United States and Great Britain on the other hand should be based on the military superiority of English-speaking countries. Churchill first of all decided to strengthen relations with the United States, since they had a monopoly on nuclear weapons. This statement aggravated the confrontation between the USSR and the West.

In 1949, the NATO military-political bloc was formed, which included the United States and most of the countries of Western Europe.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO, the North Atlantic Alliance is the world's largest military-political bloc, uniting most of the countries of Europe, the United States and Canada. Founded April 4, 1949 in the USA. One of NATO's stated goals is to provide deterrence or defense against any form of aggression against the territory of any NATO member state.

NATO Goals:

· be the basis of stability in the Euro-Atlantic region;

· serve as a forum for consultations on security issues;

· to deter and protect against any threat of aggression against any of the NATO member states;

· promote effective conflict prevention and actively participate in crisis management;

· to promote the development of all-round partnership, cooperation and dialogue with other countries of the Euro-Atlantic region.

The composition of the northern coalition included: North Korea and its armed forces; Chinese army; The USSR, which also did not officially participate in the war, but largely took over its financing, and also sent Air Force units and numerous military advisers and specialists to the Korean Peninsula

From the South, South Korea, the United States, Great Britain and a number of other countries took part in the war as part of the UN peacekeeping forces.

Consequences of the war.

The Korean War was the first armed conflict of the Cold War and was the forerunner of many subsequent conflicts. She created a model of local war, when two superpowers fight in a limited area without the use of nuclear weapons. The Korean War added fuel to the fire of the Cold War, which at that time was more associated with the confrontation between the USSR and some European countries.

1. "Cold War" is:

1) The system of repressions created in the USSR during the years of Stalinism

2) One of the military operations during World War II

3) The system of relations established by the m. socialist and capitalist countries after the Second World War

4) An attempt by the Western powers to isolate our country after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

2. The period of the "cold war" refers to the years:

3. UN created:

4. Which of the American presidents started the "containment policy" of the USSR?

1) Herbert Hoover

2) Franklin Roosevelt

3) Harry Truman

4) Dwight Eisenhower

5. In 1945, only:

3) France

4) Germany.

6. The system of international relations, characterized by a balance of approximately equal forces of rival great powers, was called:

1) monopolar;

2) global;

3) bipolar;

4) international

7. The Truman Doctrine, announced in 1947, boiled down to:

A. creation of a military-political union of Western countries under the auspices of the United States

B. renunciation of the production of nuclear weapons

B. the creation of military bases near the borders of the USSR

G. strengthening friendly relations with the USSR

D. support for internal opposition in European countries

E. renunciation of economic relations with the countries of socialism

8. Effective assistance to the DPRK in the Korean War () was provided by:

2) USSR and China

3) PRC and Hungary

4) Poland and the USSR.

9. In what year did the UN troops land in Korea?

Questions and tasks:

1. Define the Cold War

2. Formulate the main goals of NATO.

3. What are the consequences of the Cold War?

Used Books:

1. History. (Textbook for colleges), etc. 2007.

2. http://ru. wikipedia. org

Topic 1.3. Third World countries: the collapse of colonialism and
struggle against backwardness.

Goals: Find out the reasons for the collapse of the colonial system

Plan:

1. The growth of the anti-colonial movement.

2. The formation of new independent states as a result of the collapse of colonial empires. The influence of the Cold War on the liberation movements.

3. Difficulties in overcoming backwardness.

One of the distinguishing featuresXX century- the elimination of the colonial system and the emergence of dozens of new independent states.

The creation of new states on the site of former colonies is the result of the victory of national liberation movements, which in a number of countries had a peaceful character. Their main achievement was the transfer of state power from the hands of the apparatus of the colonial powers to the hands of the national forces of the former colonies.

A number of factors contributed to hastening the collapse of colonialism in the post-war years:

1. Extreme aggravation of contradictions between colonies and mother countries;

2. The growing international influence of the successes of socialist construction in the USSR;

3. The balance of forces in the world arena changing in favor of socialism;

4. Weakening of the positions of capitalism as a result of the Second World War

5. Deepening his general crisis.

6. Education, formation and successful development of the world system;

The crisis of the colonial system began after the First World War.

Already in the in a number of countries in Asia and the Arab East (Indonesia, India, Iran, Iraq, etc.) powerful popular uprisings took place.

In most colonies, the leadership of the liberation movement was taken over by the national bourgeoisie, and sometimes by a few intelligentsia, who created their own political organizations, which led the struggle for political independence. In India, back in 1885. The National Congress Party was formed in Indonesia in 1927 the National Party was born in Tunisia in 1934 a left-wing nationalist party was formed New Dustur.

The victory of the Soviet Union in World War II:

Influenced the search for ways to develop third world countries,

And the search for models of their post-war device.

China has already 1957 departs from the pro-Soviet policy and independently strives for hegemony over the third world.

In the 1970s, the Communist Party of Vietnam began to gradually shift to Chinese positions, and with the collapse of the Soviet Union, the "Chinese model of socialism" was established in the economic sphere of the country.

Mongolia moved to the construction of the Soviet model in the post-war period and in 1962 joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, an international economic organization of the socialist countries under the leadership of the USSR.

The second stage of became the final in the political collapse of colonialism.

Belgium granted independence to the Congo (Zaire), although the riots that escalated into a civil war hampered the process of granting independence. The tragedy of the Congo (Zaire) did not stop the process of the liberation of Africa.

March 1960 England granted independence to Nigeria, the largest country in terms of population.

In March 1962, France had to stop the war in Algeria and recognize its independence. After the overthrow of the dictatorship of a totalitarian type in Portugal, its colonies - Mozambique and Angola - became independent.

In the 1960s alone, 44 former colonial possessions gained independence. With the liquidation of the Portuguese colonies in 1975, there was a complete collapse of the colonial system. The post-colonial development of the Third World countries began.

Leaving the colonies, the former metropolitan countries sought to maintain their influence there in one way or another.

Western countries are beginning to use more camouflaged methods of exploiting the newly liberated countries.

Various forms of neo-colonialism are emerging.

At the second stage of the collapse of the colonial system, the restructuring of international relations between the capitalist world and the liberated countries began.

Creation in 1957, according to the Rome Accords, of the European Economic Community (now the EU) and the accession to it as associated states of all the colonial possessions of the EEC member countries reflected the desire of the West to use the collective forms and methods of neo-colonial policy.

In 1958, permanent bodies of the Afro-Asian solidarity movement were established. The final organizational movement took place in April 1960 at a conference in Xnakri (Guinea), when the charter was adopted and the main goals of this movement were formulated, one of which was to accelerate the liberation of peoples and ensure their economic, social and cultural development. The growth of solidarity among the peoples of the Afro-Asian continent became one of the reasons for the elimination of colonial possessions on the Asian and African continent and ensured the transition of the collapse of the colonial system to its last phase. However, in the future, with the elimination of colonialism, the role of the Afro-Asiatic solidarity movement was constantly decreasing.

Thus, the upsurge of the national liberation movement during the Second World War, favorable international conditions for it, and the prevailing after the defeat of fascism, led to the collapse of the colonial system of imperialism in its classical forms. The anti-imperialist struggle of the peoples who have liberated themselves from colonialism is an important force that, together with the world socialist community, the international workers' and communist movement, is making a great contribution to the revolutionary renewal of the planet.

Questions and tasks:

1. Formulate the main factors that contributed to the acceleration of the collapse of colonialism?

2. What are the main forms of neo-colonialism?

3. What is the main distinguishing feature of the XX century.

Used Books:

2. World history. Textbook for high schools. , (2009)

3. http://ru. wikipedia. org

Topic 1.4 Dictatorships in the Muslim East

Goals: To form an idea of the dictatorial regimes in the East.

Plan:

1. When and why did dictatorial regimes begin to take shape? Why are they aggressive?

2. Why Islam was the basis of dictatorial regimes.

3. In which countries have such regimes developed?

Dictatorship (Latin dictatura) is a form of government in which all the fullness of state power belongs to only one political position - the ruler (dictator), the ruling party, the ruling group of persons, the ruling union or the ruling social class.

The Egyptian constitution of 1923 formally declared it an independent state and a constitutional monarchy. In fact, the regime of British military occupation was maintained in the country. In 1951, the Egyptian parliament agreed to unilaterally cancel the Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936, which caused the introduction of British troops into the country and a deep political crisis. In this situation, in 1952, the patriotic military organization "Free Officers" led by Gamal Abdel Nasser carried out a coup d'état. All power was concentrated in its hands by the Council for the Leadership of the Revolution.

Stages of the liberation revolution in Egypt.

From 1952 to the beginning of the 60s. in Egypt, the first stage of the national liberation revolution was carried out, accompanied by the adoption of the law on agrarian reform (1952), the abolition of the old constitution (1952), the liquidation of the monarchy and the adoption of the republican constitution (1956). After the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company and the ensuing aggression of England, France and Israel (1956), a law was issued on the “Egyptization” of foreign banks and firms.

From the middle of 1961 the second stage of the revolution began. During this period, measures were taken to nationalize banks and enterprises, carry out the second agrarian reform, and introduce state planning. The Charter of National Action, adopted in July 1962, rejected the capitalist path of development, and the Provisional Constitution of 1964 proclaimed Egypt a "socialist democratic republic."

L. Johnson, who replaced John F. Kennedy, who tragically died in November 1963, embarked on the implementation of social reforms, which came to be known as the "great society" program. Its central link was the "war on poverty", aimed at improving the situation of the poorest segments of the US population. According to statistics in 1964, there were 36.4 million poor people in the country, which amounted to about 20% of the population, that is, people whose real incomes were below the "poverty level."

Of the federal programs, an important place belonged to the program of pre-school education for the children of the poor.

Health insurance for the elderly was introduced, and families with incomes below the "poverty line" became eligible for preferential conditions for medical care through special federal subsidies to the states.

History abstract

on the topic:

Post-war settlement and revolutionary events in Europe.

Performed:

Yanina A.O.

Checked:

Zalinyaev V.E.

Moscow 2003

Beginning of a peace settlement.

Conclusion of peace treaties.

Following the Treaty of Versailles, treaties were signed with Germany's former allies - Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Turkey - which constituted a system of international agreements. However, the world did not become fairer after their conclusion. The weakening of Germany, which was made responsible for starting the war, was the source of new conflicts.

The American Congress, dominated by isolationist opponents of Wilson, refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, which included the charter of the League of Nation. Therefore, later the United States signed a separate treaty with Germany.

Despite the fact that Russia actively participated in the war, it was not represented at the world conference. The Entente powers did not recognize the Bolshevik government, which concluded a separate peace treaty with Germany in Brest. At the same time, they supported the anti-Soviet forces and recognized Admiral A.V. Kolchak as the supreme ruler of Russia. The Entente also recognized the national non-Bolshevik governments that emerged on the territory of the former Russian Empire. Such a policy contributed to the expansion of the scale of the civil war in Russia and the aggravation of international relations after the end of the First World War.

Revolutionary process in Europe

The consequence of the World War was the widespread dissemination of socialist ideas. Many people in different countries embarked on the path of struggle to change the state and social system. The world revolutionary movement, initiated by the revolution in Russia, became the most important factor in social processes in the 20th century. In March 1919, the Third Communist International (Comintern) was organized in Moscow. It was supposed to contribute to the practical implementation of the position of Marxist theory on the world character of the socialist revolution. The Bolsheviks who led the Comintern coordinated the activities of the communist parties created in different countries of the world.

In the Western European states, the positions of the Social Democrats were still strong. They believed that the working people could achieve their goals by democratic means, without the use of revolutionary violence. The socialist social democratic parties recreated their international association - the Socialist International (Socintern). Extremely hostile relations developed between them and the communists.

A striking example of the conflict between the Social Democrats and the Communists were the events in Germany. The revolution that broke out there in November 1918 was primarily caused by defeat in the war. The collapse of the economy, famine, failures at the front led to an uprising of soldiers and workers. Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated, and power was in the hands of the Social Democrats. The communists were dissatisfied with the moderate policy of the new government. They demanded a deepening of the revolution, its transformation into a socialist one, the transfer of power to the Soviets. In January 1919, the Communists raised an uprising in Berlin with the aim of overthrowing the government of the Social Democrat F. Ebert. The speech was suppressed, and the communist leaders K. Liebknecht and R. Luxembourg were killed. But the revolutionary movement in Germany did not die out. In April 1919, the Bavarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed, which, however, lasted only a few weeks.

In the summer of 1919, in the city of Weimar, the Constituent Assembly adopted the German constitution, which established a republican democratic system. She was supposed to stabilize the situation in the country. However, the attempts of the far right and the far left to seize power did not stop.

Another country where a powerful revolutionary movement unfolded was Hungary. In October 1918, as a result of the collapse of Austria-Hungary, which had been defeated in the war, it was proclaimed an independent state. A government oriented towards the Entente came to power. In the spring of 1919 a political crisis erupted. The Entente powers demanded that Hungary sign a peace treaty, according to which the country's territory was significantly reduced. Under these conditions, the former government resigned, and the new government was formed by the Social Democrats and Communists.

March 21, 1919 The formation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed. Social transformations began in the country, similar to those that took place in Soviet Russia: banks and industrial enterprises were nationalized, landowners' lands were expropriated. The Red Army was created, which fought with the troops of the Entente and its allies - Romania and Czechoslovakia, who sought to force the Hungarian government to recognize the terms of the peace treaty. In August 1919 the Hungarian Soviet Republic fell. The nationalist dictatorship of Admiral M. Horthy was established in the country. Hungary signed a peace treaty on the terms of the Entente.

A new revolutionary upsurge in Europe occurred in the 1920s. In October 1923, the German communists, led by E. Thalmann, with the support of the Comintern, organized an uprising of workers in Hamburg. It was brutally suppressed. The performance of the communists in Bulgaria in 1923 also ended in failure. The revolution that began in Russia did not acquire a worldwide character.

Portal for the student. Self-training

Moscow 2003

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