(German Johannes Gutenberg, between 1397 and 1400, Mainz - February 3, 1468, Mainz) - German inventor of printing.

Biography

Johannes Gutenberg was born between 1397 and 1400 as the son of the patrician and merchant Friel Gensfleisch (Gainsfleisch) and his wife, the daughter of the cloth merchant Elsa Wirich in the city of Mainz. He was the youngest of the children of Gensfleisch's second marriage in 1386; older than him were Frile's brother, Elsa's sister, and Patze's half-sister. Since the date of birth could not be precisely determined, the Gutenberg Society at the end of the 19th century decided to set it to 1400 in order to celebrate his 500th birthday in 1900.

Following the fashion of those times, in the 1520s, Johann Gensfleisch changed his surname to Gutenberg, after the name of the place where his parents lived, Hof zum Gutenberg. Between 1411 and 1420 the Gutenberg family had to withdraw from Mainz due to strife between patricians and burghers. In 1434, Gutenberg arrived in Strasbourg, where he spent most of his life polishing semi-precious stones (agate, onyx) and making mirrors. In 1438, Gutenberg, together with his student Andrei Dritzen (Andreas Dritzen) and others, formed a partnership for the manufacture of mirrors.

The activities of the partnership ended with the process that the heirs of Dritzen brought against Gutenberg and lost it (1439). Some expressions of the acts of the process gave rise to the conclusion that the partnership was already making experiments in the field of printing. 1440 is considered the year of the final invention of printing. This assumption is confirmed by documents extracted from the files of the Avignon notaries and made public in 1890 by Abbé Requin (Requin, "L'imprimerie à Avignon en 1444"). From these documents it can be seen that in 1444 and 1446 a certain Procopius Waldfogel entered into transactions with various persons whom he initiated into the secret of "artificial writing" for money and other benefits.

The invention of printing

Gutenberg's ingenious invention consisted in the fact that he began to produce metal movable raised letters, cut out in reverse, type lines from them and use a press to impress them on paper. He did not have enough funds to operate the invention.

Having moved to his native Mainz in 1448, Gutenberg in 1450 entered into an agreement with the Mainz businessman, apparently the usurer John Fust (Johann Fust), by virtue of which he lent him 800 guilders out of 6% and, in addition, undertook to issue 800 annually. guilders for the needs of production (paints, paper, etc.); the printing house, with all its accessories, was to be divided in half between Gutenberg and Fust. Gutenberg received the main capital, however, in parts. Fust completely avoided issuing working capital, and under an additional agreement of 1452, for a lump sum payment of 800 guilders, he was exempted from annual contributions.

With such limited means, and with neither experienced workers nor sophisticated tools, Gutenberg nevertheless achieved remarkable success. Until 1456, he cast at least 5 different fonts, printed the Latin grammar of Aelius Donatus (several sheets of it have come down to us and are stored in the National Library in Paris), several papal indulgences and, finally, two Bibles, 36-line and 42-line; the latter, known as the Mazarin bible, was published between 1453 and 1465. with high quality.

Gutenberg refused to pay his partner the interest, wishing to defer payment of it until the time when the enterprise began to generate income. Fust sued him, demanding payment of interest. The process ended with the oath of Fust, about which a protocol was drawn up, recorded by the notary Helmasberger on November 6, 1455; the original of this act, so important for Gutenberg's preservation of the name of the inventor of printing, was recently discovered by Karl Dziatzko in the library of the University of Göttingen (K. Dziatzko, "Sammlung bibliothekwissenschaftlicher Arbeiten" 1889 et seq.). By court order, the printing house with all its accessories passed to Fust, and Gutenberg had to start over again.

He entered into a company with Conrad Goumeri and in 1460 published the work of John de Balbi of Genoa (1286), "Catholicon" (Latin grammar with dictionary). In 1465 Elector Adolf took Gutenberg into his service, but he died on February 3, 1468; buried in Mainz, but his grave is unknown.

Gutenberg's invention has been attributed to different people at different times (see typography). Truth Finally Restored v. d. Linde ("Gutenberg", 1878), whose long-term research is confirmed by the latest finds in libraries and archives; for the latter, see Art. Bulgakov in "Bibliographic Notes" 1892, No. 1.

Gutenberg has monuments in Mainz, Strasbourg and Frankfurt am Main.

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For centuries, the knowledge contained in books was accessible to a few. Libraries were mostly owned by monasteries and kings. Each manuscript was unique, because it took a lot of time to make it. In the Middle Ages, monks often spent years transcribing a single manuscript. This continued until about 1450. With the invention of printing, it became possible to publish books relatively cheaply and in large quantities.

Mirror maker

Johann Gensfleisch, who later changed his surname to Gutenberg, was born in Mainz around 1400 (the exact date is unknown). It is noteworthy that much more information has been preserved about the history of the invention of printing than about the inventor himself. So, historians know almost nothing about the first half of Gutenberg's life. Only it is known for certain that young Johann attended a monastery school. He then trained under a goldsmith until his family moved to Strasbourg.

Here in 1434 he opened a factory where they made mirrors for pilgrims. They were very popular, because believers hoped with their help to catch a piece of God's holy spirit, which, in their opinion, lived in the temples they visited. In the Middle Ages, the trade in cult items brought a good income, so the Gutenberg business flourished.

Printed graphics

Engravings depicting saints were especially popular at that time. They were created using one of the first printing techniques - woodcuts, which appeared in Europe in the Middle Ages. It was used to replicate texts and images.

Cutting out blocks that fit the page was a laborious process. First, it was required to draw a mirror image of the page, then individual letters were cut out. Then the block was smeared with ink, and so that they were absorbed, it was covered with paper, which was rubbed with a bone tool.

At the beginning of the 15th century, there were more and more such engravings. Sometimes several pieces were bound into a book. All this gave impetus to increase the production of manuscripts. Moreover, at that time, not only monks, but also laymen were copyists of books.

Prerequisites for the invention of printing

By the 15th century there were about 80 universities in Western Europe. And the founding of new educational institutions only increased the demand for books. We needed more affordable and cheaper copies. All this created conditions for the search for new techniques for creating books. Gutenberg, along with other inventors, took part in them.

In 1438, in Strasbourg, he and Dritzen Andreas began experimenting with printing. As a result, Gutenberg figured out how to use movable letters (letters) to compose not only individual words, but entire pages. Moreover, he understood how to take them apart in order to then compose a new text from them. However, further experiments with printing required financial investments.

business deal

Between 1445 and 1448 Gutenberg returned to his native city, since he could not interest anyone in Strasbourg with his experiments. In Mainz he was more fortunate. He made a deal with Fust Johann, according to which the latter owned the capital in the common enterprise, and Gutenberg - the idea and tools. However, after 2 years, the inventor had to ask Fust again to lend him money. This time on the security of the entire workshop.

With a new loan, Gutenberg was able to devote himself entirely to the invention of printing. A brilliant idea came to him: to divide the text into components - punctuation marks, letters and ligatures, that is, their frequent combinations. All this was combined into blocks. Words and whole pages of text were typed in this way. Cast letters could be repeatedly used in different combinations.

How did the letters

An inverted letter was engraved on the end of a metal rod. She was dipped in softened copper, receiving an imprint in it. The result was a matrix, which is a form for the font, which was cast from lead. To make the letter-making process less time-consuming, Gutenberg came up with a hand-casting tool. The die itself could be used to produce an unlimited number of letters.

From these, the compositor compiled a page mirroring layout. It was smeared with printing ink - a mixture of egg white, varnish and soot. After these preparations, printing could begin. Gutenberg borrowed the principle of the machine tool from the wine press.

All this happened in 1450. The invention of printing is thus associated with this date. The first printed works of the German master were textbooks, papal decrees, official documents and indulgences.

legal battle

In the year of the invention of printing, the master set about a gigantic work - the publication of the Bible in Latin. Together with compositors, Gutenberg printed the first print run of 100,000 copies for more than two years. The book was printed in Gothic type, based on handwritten lettering. At the end, the artist decorated the Bible with colored drawings. Thus, the printed book was in no way inferior to the handwritten one in beauty. Not surprisingly, the first edition of the Bible sold out quickly. And Gutenberg's compatriots were stunned, because for the first time they saw so many identical books.

True, the inventor himself could not get rich thanks to the printing press. He did not even manage to finish printing the Bible, because his creditor, having estimated the future profit, demanded the return of the loan. This was followed by a legal battle that resulted in Gutenberg losing both his printing press and all of his finished copies of the Scriptures. Shortly after these events, Mainz was captured by enemy troops, and the inventor was expelled from the city. Only three years later he was allowed to return to work for the new archbishop. Gutenberg died in February 1468, and the invention of printing in the German city of Mainz has changed the world ever since.

Diffusion of new technology

Very soon, printing presses started operating in Basel, Bamberg and Cologne. For the 15th century, the invention of printing was a truly revolutionary event. In Venice, printers working for the publisher Aldo Manuzzi came up with a new font - antiqua. After a short time, it was already used everywhere.

Only 20 years have passed since the invention of printing, and the new technology is already firmly rooted in everyday life. A large number of books were published in huge editions for those times - about 1000 copies. As the printed word became more widely available, the literacy rate in Europe grew and the number of readers increased.

Mark on history

Martin Luther, whose name is associated with the Reformation movement, was an ardent admirer of Gutenberg. The invention of printing led him to the idea that it makes no sense for a layman to wait for a priest to retell what is written in the Bible, because now anyone can read it himself. Luther printed a huge circulation of his translation of the Holy Scriptures into German (half a million copies).

Secular authorities (the emperor and the free cities of the Holy Roman Empire) also used a new method of alerting the population. Therefore, one-page leaflets-pamphlets soon became the main means of conveying the latest news. For example, when the unusual positions of the planets were predicted in 1524, the pamphlets foreshadowed a second Flood.

In addition, the date of the invention of printing is directly related to another, no less important milestone in history. We are talking about the appearance of the first daily newspaper "Fresh News". It happened in 1650 in Leipzig. Despite all the improvements in printing that were made in the following centuries, it was Gutenberg who laid the foundation for the modern press world. His machine is considered one of the most important achievements of human civilization, and the date of the invention of printing is an epochal milestone in world history.

With his discovery, the creator of printing technology, Johannes Gutenberg, made a real revolution, thanks to which books and knowledge became accessible to the widest sections of the European population. His invention turned out to be one of the main symbols of the New Age.

Childhood

The exact date of birth of Johannes Gutenberg is unknown. Biographers of the inventor attribute it to approximately 1398. Johannes Gutenberg belonged to a family of wealthy citizens of Mainz, who, in the Roman manner, were called patricians. There is also practically no confirmed data about the boy's childhood. However, as the son of a wealthy family, he no doubt received a good urban education.

Medieval Mainz was torn apart by internal conflicts. The power in it belonged either to the patricians or to their opponents, the artisans. Armed clashes between different social strata were considered commonplace. One of them happened when Johannes Gutenberg was in his teens. The artisans attacked the quarter of the rich and ravaged their houses. The pogrom forced the Gutenberg family to emigrate to Strasbourg. Johann did not return to his native city for a long time, despite the fact that in 1430 the political pendulum swung in the opposite direction, and an amnesty was declared to all the fleeing patricians.

jeweler career

After many years of prosperity, the Gutenbergs had to adapt to new difficult living conditions. Johann's youth was spent in poverty. The lack of prosperity taught him to be independent and hard work. Traditionally, the patricians abhorred doing crafts, considering such an occupation ignoble. Johannes Gutenberg thought otherwise. He made acquaintances with skillful jewelers of Strasbourg and began to learn their business. Having received the appropriate education, the young man began working in a company that polished precious stones and made mirrors.

Gradually, Johannes Gutenberg became more and more famous and eminent master. He began to appear the first students. History has preserved the name of one of these apprentices - Andreas Dritzen. In 1435, Gutenberg entered into a contract with a student and created a joint venture with him. By this time, historians attribute the emergence of the idea of ​​printing, which fired up the Strasbourg jeweler. Throughout his life, he tried not to publicize the secrets of this art. That is why, even when concluding a contract with Dritzen, Gutenberg did not directly say that their company would print books. Another workshop for the production of mirrors was publicly created.

Creating letters

Johannes Gutenberg's revolutionary printing press did not appear overnight. First, he came up with the idea of ​​depicting letters on wooden posts and combining the resulting letters into a convenient set. Today, this idea seems simple and obvious. However, for the Middle Ages it was a great breakthrough.

In 1438, the Aachen fair, where the Gutenberg workshop sold most of its mirrors, was postponed for two years. The inventor took advantage of the resulting free time to continue working on his secret machine.

On the way to discovery

The epochal invention of printing by Johannes Gutenberg was somewhat delayed due to the death of his student and partner Andreas Dritzen. The workshop fell apart. Moreover, Dritzen's heirs sued Gutenberg. The protracted process distracted the inventor from his life's work. The court dealt with a property dispute. Andreas' heirs demanded part of the workshop. Therefore, in court papers there were references to the press, forms for letters, lead, etc. Nevertheless, Gutenberg managed to keep the secret of the not yet finished invention a secret.

In 1439 the jeweler won the lawsuit. After that, he single-handedly plunged into work on book-printing construction. By creating moveable typefaces, Gutenberg was able to move them around in countless combinations. The German indulged in a cherished idea in a working room in a suburban Strasbourg monastery on the banks of the Ile River, until he finally brought the prototype to a working version. Historians attribute this event to 1440.

Financial difficulties

Even after the invention of the letters and the prototype of the machine, Johannes Gutenberg's books printed using the new technology did not appear immediately. Experimenting, he worked with wooden molds. However, they were not suitable for regular work, as the images of letters quickly deteriorated.

To improve the machine, it was necessary to continue experiments with other materials. Such research cost a lot of money. Having abandoned mirrors and jewelry work, Johannes Gutenberg, in short, was left without serious funds. He set about looking for creditors, but in Strasbourg no one dared to invest in the invention of the inventor. The distrust of rich acquaintances was intensified by the fact that the father of printing did not reveal all the cards and did not tell in detail about his machine.

Collaboration with Fust

In 1445, Johannes Gutenberg, whose biography was again associated with Mainz, finally returned to his native city. Here he hoped for the help of his family. However, for five years the inventor did not advance in his main enterprise. The theoretical idea of ​​book printing was ready, but its implementation was delayed.

In 1450, Gutenberg still smiled luck. He met a wealthy businessman, Johann Fust. The businessman entered into an agreement with the inventor, according to which he gave him a loan of 800 guilders. The amount was disbursed in installments over several years. Thanks to Fust's capital, the father of printing finally perfected his technology.

With the loaned money, Gutenberg hired several workers, bought paper and paints, and rented a spacious room. But most importantly, he cast high-quality and reliable letters, which were based on an alloy of several metals. When the printing house began to work in full force, Fus, as its main owner, realizing the value of the unique technology, forbade the workers to tell anyone about the secrets of printing. The compositors swore this to the merchant, swearing an oath on the Gospel. Until that moment, books were copied in monasteries. Manually, they multiplied extremely slowly. The monks for a long time refused to believe that books could be printed using Gutenberg's invention without resorting to diabolical magic.

"Latin grammar" and indulgences

Taking a new loan from Fust (the old money was no longer enough), Johannes Gutenberg invented printing. The path to a stable working machine was a long one, but in the end the design was ready. The first book created using the new technology was Latin Grammar, authored by Aelius Donatus. Not a single complete copy has survived to our time. Only a few leaflets remained, stored in the Paris National Library.

Gutenberg's invention quickly found profitable applications. Pope Nicholas V, fearing the Turkish threat, declared a Crusade against the Turks and promised absolution to those who would donate money for the upcoming war. In 1453, the Ottomans captured Constantinople, and the Germans rushed to massively buy indulgences. It took a huge number of copies of this receipt. This is where Gutenberg came in. On his machine, indulgences were printed at a speed unthinkable for its time. Some copies of that edition have been preserved and today belong to museums.

Bible Gutenberg

Grammar and indulgences were for Gutenberg intelligence before the fight. His lifelong dream was to establish mass printing of the Bible. Preparation, typesetting of the book and other preliminary work took almost five years. The famous 42-line Bible appeared in 1455. It was published in the form of a two-volume folio (the first part contained 324 sheets, the second - 317 sheets).

The Bible was called the Gutenburg Bible. Capital letters were omitted. They were drawn by hand by a calligrapher. There was also no pagination that is familiar today. This is not surprising, because the printing press has just appeared. Johannes Gutenberg published this Bible on parchment and paper (parchment versions were more expensive). However, the books sold out quickly.

Final years and death

The printing house in which Gutenberg printed his Bible and other books that immortalized his name was closed due to debts to Fust. The inventor could not pay the interest due to the usurer and lost to him in court. Fust became the sole owner of the printing house. He sold books all over Europe and became fabulously rich.

Left with nothing, Gutenberg did not give up. With new partners, he opened another printing house. It published a new Latin grammar "Katolikon", as well as a book by the Dominican priest Johann Balba. In 1465, the publisher, as a chamberlain, entered the "eternal service" to the Archbishop of Mainz and Elector Adolf of Nassau. Since then, Gutenberg forgot about material hardships and was able to fully concentrate on his favorite business. By that time, the inventor was already an old man. He died in 1468, to his own happiness, seeing the beginning of the success of printing technology. Gutenberg was buried in Mainz, but his grave was buried in oblivion, and its location is unknown today.

The secret technology of the publisher could not remain secret forever. After the death of the master, his faithful disciples spread the most valuable knowledge throughout Germany, and from there to other countries. Already in modern times, the name of the founder of book printing caused disputes and doubts among historians. The version of Gutenberg triumphed only at the end of the 19th century, when his court papers and other documents were discovered, confirming that it was he who first created the printing press.

Evidence about Gutenberg's life is fragmentary; some stages of his life can only be guessed at. The contribution that the pioneer printer made to the development of the culture of Germany and Europe cannot be overestimated.

Childhood and youth of Gutenberg

Johannes Gutenberg was born between 1393 and 1403. Scientists conditionally consider the year of his birth to be 1400. The inventor's family belonged to an ancient noble family and lived in one of the largest and richest Rhine cities - Mainz. Gutenberg's parents Frile Gensfleisch and Else Wierich had four children. The Hensfleisch-Gutenberg family belonged to the urban patricians who were the political and economic elite of Mainz. In the earliest documents, Johannes Gutenberg is referred to as Henne Gensfleisch or Henne zur Laden.

Little is known about Gutenberg's childhood and youth. The youngest among several brothers and sisters, the boy apparently studied at a church school. This is evidenced by Gutenberg's extensive knowledge of Latin, which was useful to him for his subsequent publishing activities.

Strasbourg taught Gutenberg how to earn

In 1434 Gutenberg settled in Strasbourg. This city opened wide opportunities for enterprising people to earn money. Gutenberg's business activity suggests that he had an extraordinary ability to attract capital and qualified employees for his projects.

From 1437, Gutenberg was engaged in teaching wealthy citizens to polish precious stones. Some time later, Gutenberg founded a small pilgrimage mirror factory that produced pewter frames to which small convex mirrors were attached with brackets. Pilgrims pinned these devices to their headdresses, hoping with their help to catch the fertile and healing energy emanating from the holy relics and take some of it with them for relatives and friends. However, most likely, they did not mean real mirrors, but illustrated books of an instructive nature called “Mirrors”, which were very popular at that time.

But Gutenberg failed: the pilgrimage took place a few years later than planned, and the invested capital remained without movement for a long time. Another invention brought him more income. Gutenberg engraved the stamp used to print indulgences.

Invention of the printing press

In the late 40s of the 15th century, Gutenberg again settled in Mainz. The most important period in the life of Johannes Gutenberg passed here - it was in Mainz that he invented the method of printing with movable letters. Thanks to a relative, Gutenberg obtained a loan of 150 guilders (roughly equivalent to five years' wages for the average peasant) and used the money to set up a workshop.

The first books to emerge from the Gutenberg press were Latin grammar books. Later, Guttenberg planned to prepare a labor-intensive edition of the Bible and borrowed for this purpose from the big businessman Johann Fust, a huge amount for those times.

Loss printing houses

When the printing of the Bible was actually completed, disagreements arose between Gutenberg and Fust. Fust accused his partner of embezzlement and demanded the return of the debt with interest - more than two thousand guilders in total. With this money in Mainz it was possible to build up a whole street with stone houses. Gutenberg had to give away the workshop, along with the invention and half of the printed copies of the Bible.

Fust took over the printing press and successfully continued the work begun by the inventor. Gutenberg was left with another workshop, smaller and less technically capable. Since then, Johannes Gutenberg has taken on only small commissions that are neither technically nor aesthetically comparable to the first edition of the Bible.

After the loss of the workshop, Gutenberg's attitude towards his invention changed. If earlier he hid the technology from outsiders in every possible way, not wanting to share the benefit with anyone, then after the loss of the workshop, Gutenberg began to participate in various publishing projects. For example, he helped in the publication of the Bible in Bamberg.

last years of life

The turbulent political events in Mainz in the 1460s, the struggle between the old and new archbishops of the city led to the fact that Johannes Guttenberg, who supported the old archbishop, was expelled from his native city with the advent of the new one.

The inventor of printing settled in Eltville, where at first he lived in poverty. But in 1465, the new archbishop of Mainz, determined to restore justice, appointed Gutenberg his courtier and granted him a life annuity. The inventor received a court dress, plus 2180 liters of bread vodka and 2000 liters of wine, and was also exempt from paying taxes.

Three years later, at the end of January 1468, Johannes Gutenberg died and was buried in the church of St. Francis. Later, this church was destroyed, and since then the burial place of the first printer is unknown.

The German Johannes Gutenberg, whose biography is described in this article, had a tremendous impact on the whole world around him. His invention truly changed the course of history.

[show]Ancestors of Johannes Gutenberg

Since he was born and lived in the fifteenth century, very little information about him has been preserved. In those distant times, only prominent political and church figures were honored to be included in documentary sources. However, Johann was lucky. Contemporaries appreciated his work, information about him is found in various historical descriptions of that time.

It is known for certain that Johannes Gutenberg was born into a wealthy family of Friel Gensfleisch and Elsa Wirich. This happened around 1400.

His parents married in 1386. Mother came from a family of cloth merchants, so their union was considered unequal. From time immemorial, there has been a struggle in the city between the patricians (the upper strata of the burghers, the father's family) and the workshops (artisans, the mother's family). When the confrontation in Mainz escalated, the family had to leave, so as not to endanger the children.

In Mainz, the family had an estate named after their father, Gensfleisch, and the Gutenberghof farmstead.

Perhaps the inventor had a knighthood, although the origin of his mother and his own activities contradicted this. However, there is an ordinance signed by the French king Charles the Seventh, in which the name of Gutenberg appears.

Childhood and youth

A brief biography of Johann is not contained in any of the ancient sources. It can only be restored from fragmentary data. That is why reliable information about the first years of his life simply does not exist.

There are no records of his baptism. However, some researchers believe that his birthday is June 24, 1400 (the day. There is also no exact information about the place of his birth. It could be either Mainz or Strasbourg.

Johann was the youngest child in the family. The eldest son's name was Frile, there were also two girls - Elsa and Patze.

After leaving school, the young man studied handicraft, deciding to follow in the footsteps of his mother's ancestors. It is known that he achieved the highest skill and received the title of master, since he subsequently trained apprentices.

Life in Strasbourg

Johannes Gutenberg lived in Strasbourg from 1434. He was engaged in jewelry business, polished precious stones and produced mirrors. It was there that the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bcreating a machine that would print books was born in his head. In 1438, he even created an organization under the mysterious name "Enterprise with Art". The cover was the manufacture of mirrors. This partnership was organized jointly with his student Andreas Dritzen.

Around this time, Gutenberg and his team were on the verge of a brilliant discovery, but the death of a companion delayed the publication of his invention.

The invention of printing

The starting point of modern printing is considered to be 1440, although there are no printed documents, books and sources of that time. There is only circumstantial evidence that a certain Waldfogel has been selling the secret of "artificial writing" since 1444. It is believed that it was John Gutenberg himself. Thus, he tried to get funds for the further development of his machine. So far, it was only raised letters, made of metal and carved in its mirror image. In order for the inscription to appear on paper, it was necessary to use special paint and a press.

In 1448, the German returned to Mainz, where he made a deal with the usurer I. Fust, who paid him eight hundred guilders annually. The profit from the printing house was to be divided by percentage. But in the end, this arrangement began to work against Gutenberg. He stopped receiving the promised money for technical support, but still shared the profits.

Despite all the troubles, Johannes Gutenberg's machine by 1456 acquired several different fonts (five in total). At the same time, the first grammar of Aelius Donatus was printed, several official documents and, finally, two Bibles, which became historical monuments for printing.

The 42-line Gutenberg Bible, printed no later than 1455, is considered Johann's main work. It has survived to this day and is kept in the Mainz Museum.

For this book, the inventor created a special font, a variety. It turned out to be quite similar to a handwritten one and due to the many ligatures and abbreviations that were customarily used by scribes.

Since the existing colors were not suitable for printing, Gutenberg had to create his own. Due to the addition of copper, lead and sulfur, the text in the book turned out to be blue-black, with an unusual sheen, red ink was used for headings. To match two colors, one page had to be passed through the machine twice.

The book was published in a circulation of 180 copies, but few have survived to this day. The largest number is in Germany (twelve pieces). There was one copy of the first printed Bible in Russia, but after the revolution, the Soviet government sold it at an auction in London.

In the fifteenth century, this Bible was sold for 30 florins (3 grams of gold in one coin). Today, one page from the book is valued at $80,000. There are 1272 pages in the Bible.

Litigation

Johannes Gutenberg was twice called to trial. This happened for the first time in 1439, after the death of his friend and companion A. Dritzen. His children claimed that the machine was actually their father's invention.

Gutenberg easily won the case. And thanks to his materials, the researchers learned at what stage of readiness the invention was. The documents contained such words as "stamping", "printing", "press", "this work". This clearly indicated the readiness of the machine.

It is known for certain that the process stopped due to the lack of some of the details that Andreas had left. Johann had to restore them himself.

The second trial took place in 1455, when I. Fust sued the inventor for non-payment of interest. The court ruled that the printing house and all its components pass to the plaintiff. Johannes Gutenberg invented printing in 1440, and fifteen years later he had to start from scratch.

Last years

Having hardly survived the consequences of the trial, Gutenberg decided not to give up. He came to the company of K. Gumeri and published in 1460 the work of Johann Balba, as well as a Latin grammar with a dictionary.

In 1465 he entered the service of Elector Adolf.

At the age of 68, the printer died. He was buried in Mainz, but the location of his grave is currently unknown.

Distribution of printing

What Johannes Gutenberg became famous for attracted many. Everyone wants easy money. Therefore, many people appeared who pretended to be the inventors of printing in Europe.

Gutenberg's name was recorded in one of his documents by Peter Schaeffer, his apprentice. After the destruction of the first printing house, its workers dispersed throughout Europe, introducing new technologies in other countries. Johannes Gutenberg was listed as their teacher. Typography quickly spread in Hungary (A. Hess), Italy (Sweichnheim), and Spain. Ironically, none of Gutenberg's students went to France. Parisians independently invited German printers to work in their country.

The final point in the history of the creation of printing was put in his work by Anthony van der Lind in 1878.

Gutenberg studies

The personality of the European printing pioneer has always been popular. Researchers in many countries did not miss the opportunity to write any work about his biography or activities. Even during his lifetime, disputes began about the authorship of the invention and the place (Mainz or Strasbourg).

Some connoisseurs called Gutenberg an apprentice of Fust and Schaeffer. And despite the fact that Schaeffer himself called Johann the inventor of printing, these rumors did not subside for a long time.

Modern researchers call the main problem that in the first printed books there is no colophon, that is, a mark of authorship. By doing this, Gutenberg would be able to avoid a lot of problems and would not allow his legacy to vegetate.

A little more is known about the identity of the inventor, also because there is no personal correspondence, a reliable image. The amount of documentary evidence is insufficient.

Johannes Gutenberg invented unique typefaces, thanks to which it was possible to establish and confirm his legacy.

In Russia, interest in studying the life of a printing pioneer appeared only in the middle of the twentieth century. It was the 500th anniversary of the invention of printing. The first researcher was Vladimir Lyublinsky, a representative of the Leningrad scientific community.

In total, more than 3,000 scientific papers have been written and published in the world (including a brief biography of Gutenberg).

Memory

Unfortunately, no lifetime portraits of Johann have been preserved. The first engraving, dated 1584, was painted in Paris from a description of the inventor's appearance.

Mainz is considered not only the hometown of Johann, but also the place of invention. Therefore, there is a monument to Gutenberg, his museum (opened in 1901).

An asteroid and a crater on the Moon are named after him.