They refer specifically to the last stable 50th anniversary of the existence of pre-reform orthography.
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Thus, for the sound [f] there were two letters - “f” and “ѳ”, for the sound combination [y'e] and the designation of the sound [e], along with the softness of the consonant in front of it, there were also two letters - “e” and “ ѣ", and for the sound [and] - three letters - "and", "i" and "ѵ".
Rules for the use of abolished letters
Letter
It was used before vowels (including before “y”, which was considered a vowel: “kiy”, “murderer”), as well as in the word “world” with the meaning “universe”, to distinguish it from the word “peace” - the absence of war. According to folk etymology, "Vladimir" was also written, but Academician Grot was instructed to write "Vladimir". The only exceptions were compound words, the first part of which ended in “and”: “five-yard”, “seven-story”, “octagon”, “most terrible”, “from nowhere”, etc.
Letter
It was written at the end of words after consonants (including soft - doctor, ivy etc., but excluding "y", which was considered a vowel - May, howl etc.) and was not readable (as opposed to "ь" at the end of words, which softens consonant sounds), and also in some cases after prefixes before neotirovannyh vowels and "and", for example, in the word to examine. Occurs in the word supersensible. In the word narrow down The grotto ordered "b" not to be used. When writing words with a hyphen - in the usual common words "b" was preserved: due to, rear admiral, and when writing borrowed names, "ъ" before the hyphen could be omitted. (Omitting the "ъ" before the hyphen is Grot's wish.)
Letter
Poems with ѣ
White, pale, poor devil
Hungry ran away into the forest.
Leshim through the forest he ran,
I dined with horseradish
And for that bitter dinner
I made a vow to put on trouble.Look, brother, what a cage and a cage,
Sieve, grid, grid,
Remove the vezha and iron, -
That's how it should be written.Our eyelids and eyelashes
Protect the eyes of the pupils,
Eyelids squint for a whole century
At night, every person ...The wind broke the branches,
The German tied brooms,
Hung right at the exchange,
I sold it for two hryvnias in Vienna.Dnieper and Dniester, as everyone knows,
Two rivers in close proximity,
Divides the area of their Bug,
Cuts from north to south.Who is angry and savage there?
Strongly complain so dare?
We must peacefully resolve the dispute
And to convince each other...Bird's nests of sin to dawn,
It's a sin to waste bread in vain,
Laugh at the crippled sin,
To scoff at the crippled ...Prof. N. K. Kulman. Methodology of the Russian language. - 3rd ed. - St. Petersburg. : edition of Y. Bashmakov and Co., 1914. - S. 182.
The form the verb "to be" in the 3rd person singular it was written through the letter "" - in contrast to the verb "Pattern: Unicode" ("eat"). The spelling of the pair "Template: Unicode" - "all" had a similar semantic difference: the last word meant "everything".
To make it easier to learn the list of roots with "ѣ", special verses were invented (see sidebar).
Letter
It was used in words that came to Russian (or earlier to Church Slavonic) directly from the Greek language, instead of the Greek letter "θ" (theta). There were few commonly used words with this letter.
The letter ѳ is written only in cases where the sound [f] is preserved. If the sound is changed, then the letter is written differently. For example: rhyme and rhythm; Thomas and Tom... And other words that do not pronounce [f], but [t]: amethyst(amethystos), antipathy (antipatheia), thesis(thesis), thiophene(thiophen), etc. (Davydov P.I. Handbook of the old spelling of the Russian language. M., 2013. P. 94).
Letter
Used in the word m ѵ́ ro to distinguish it from the words world and world, and also, according to tradition, in a few more words of Greek origin instead of the letter upsilon (like m ѵ ro, these are mainly words referring to the church).
Spelling of individual morphemes (prefixes, case endings)
- Prefixes ending in -z (iz-, voz-, raz-, ros-, bottom-), before the next with, kept z: tell, discuss, reunite. Prefixes without-, through-, through- always had -z at the end: useless, bloodless, tactless, insomnia; over the top, over the top.
- In the feminine, instead of "they" they wrote (in some cases they pronounced) "he". (In other genders and when listing words of different genders - “they”).
- In the feminine gender, the words “one”, “one x”, “one m”, “one” were also used. (In other genera - “one”, “one”, “one”, “one”).
- The pronoun "her (her)" in modern Russian can mean three different forms:
- the pronoun “she” in the genitive case: in pre-reform spelling it was written (and in verse it could be pronounced) as “her (neya)”
- the pronoun "she" in the accusative case: in pre-reform spelling it was written as "her (her)"
- possessive pronoun (question whose?): in pre-reform orthography it was written as "her"
Foreign words are transferred according to the grammar rules of the language from which they are borrowed, if this is not contraryѣ read prosodic dѣ our laziness: Shlag-b ay m, and not a barrier-mind; L ya-ra, not Lu-ara (because au and oi in the words Schlagbaum, Loire are diphthongs); cat-ekhizis (κατ-ήχησις), mis- anthropo(μισ-άνθρωπος): not a monarch, gospel, katihi-zis, mi-zan-trope.
In the prosodic division of words, it is understood that the consonant between two vowels goes to the next syllable, for example, "monarch".
Subtleties of spelling
Writing and pronunciation
The combination of letters ъ and was pronounced as [ы]. (At the beginning of the 20th century, it ceased to be used, but is found in books published earlier). The combination of letters ie was sometimes pronounced as = e: Jehovah, Jerusalem (and [Jerusalim]), Yemen, yena. The combination of letters io was sometimes pronounced as = ё, yo: iot, major, region. The combination of letters іу was sometimes pronounced as ю: Template:Unicode Julian(but Judah- Judas). The indicated combinations of vowels with a letter i mostly found at the beginning of words. The difference in pronunciation before the revolution and now - is noticeable only in two cases - Jehovah and Jerusalem(however, the last word could be pronounced the same as now). Note: in modern Russian in a word yen the first two vowels are also pronounced as [је].
Doubling in writing
In the 19th century, double spelling was preserved in many foreign words. They wrote "literature" "officer", following the language of the original source.
Word abbreviations
When abbreviating words, dots were necessarily put: S. s.- state adviser, d.s. With.- Acting State Councilor, t. s.- secret adviser, d.t.s.- actual privy councilor M.V.D.- Ministry of the Interior, Uchen. Com.- Scientific Committee, Min. Nar. Etc.- Ministry of Public Education, Acc. Tot.- joint-stock company.
Superscripts
It was customary to put stress on the word "what", distinguishing the types of words. The stress denoted the pronoun "what" in the nominative or accusative case to distinguish it from the union "what" similar to it: - You know, what useful to you. You know, what you benefit from teaching. Also letters yo and th considered options e and and(respectively) with accents.
Punctuation
Dots were placed at the end of headings. The official Russian titles of the Imperial House were written with a capital letter, as well as appeals (titles): “Sovereign Emperor”, “Medal in memory of the coronation of Their Imperial Majesties”, “Highly Approved”, “Your Imperial Majesty”, “Your Honor” (in official documents, often all the letters of the words denoting the Emperor, including pronouns, were typed in capitals). Church titles (of bishops) in non-church documents and literature were usually written with a lowercase letter.
Changes in spelling during the 18th-20th centuries
18th-early 19th century
In the middle and in the second half of the 19th century, one can still find such spellings as previous, weaned. Academician Grot calls to replace them with denominative, previous. And at the beginning of the 20th century, you will no longer find forms in textbooks " previous».
However, not all of Groth's wishes were entrenched in practice. So, Grotto ordered to write hygiene and to go. But in practice met hygiene and hygiene, to go and go. (Word to go as a variant of the word go also found in Ushakov's dictionary).
There were spellings of words with the sound [j]: major and major, New York and New York, seriously and Seriously and many others.
There were a large number of words with spelling variants in pre-reform orthography. These are differences in the spelling of some individual words from the middle of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. As well as the difference between the spelling of some words of the beginning of the 20th century and modern ones.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the following words remained, different from modern spelling: go and to go, gallery and gallery, corridor, number, official. Now - go, gallery, the corridor, room, official.
Falling out of use
Although the decree on the transition to the reformed spelling was issued in December 1917 (with effect from January 1, old style, 1918), printing and office work in Soviet Russia were able to switch to the new spelling, basically, only in October 1918 (see .: Reform of Russian spelling in 1918).
Old orthography in modern Russia
During perestroika and in the early 1990s, numerous reprints of pre-revolutionary (sometimes émigré) literature published in the old orthography were printed in the USSR and Russia. In addition to individual texts and collections of publications, entire sites appeared on the Internet, entirely typed in the old spelling.
Elements of pre-reform spelling are used (often with errors) in advertising and on signs.
The ability to create texts and work with them according to the rules of the old spelling
There are a number of sites that allow you to type in the old spelling, print it out and save it.
Pre-reform Cyrillic characters are supported in the second version of Ilya Birman's Typographic Layout.
computer fonts
The following fonts support the old orthography:
Free- GNU Unifont
- old standard
- Palatino Linotype
Difficult-to-write letters were replaced with a civilian font. It is these letters with minor changes that we use now. A new civil alphabet was written.
But in 1918, another language reform was carried out, which changed the pre-revolutionary Russian language and transformed it into a modern one. What was this reform? What was the pre-revolutionary language in Russia? How did it differ from the modern one?
Features of the pre-revolutionary language
The pre-reform alphabet of the Russian language consisted of 35 letters, the modern one - 33.
The alphabet of the pre-revolutionary language included the letters "i" - "i", "fita" - "ѳ", "izhitsa" - "ѵ", "yat" - "ѣ", but there were no modern "y" and "e".
The letter "Izhitsa" was not officially abolished, nothing was said about it in the Decree on the Spelling Reform, it was not remembered, since it was practically no longer used.
Features of the pronunciation of the letters of the pre-reform Russian language
Initially, church names were used: “az”, “beeches”, “lead”, “verb” and so on. From the end of the 18th century, letters began to be called in the likeness of Latin ones, and by the end of the 19th century new names were formed that completely replaced the former ones. The new names of the letters practically coincided with the modern ones, but after the consonants in their name there was not “e” but “e”, for example “be”, “ve”, “ge” and so on, the exception was the letters “b” (er), "s" (er), "b" (er), "yati", "izhitsa" and "fits". The letter "and" was called "and octal", and "i" - "and decimal", this corresponded to their numerical value in the Church Slavonic alphabet.
The letters "e", "d" - were not included in the alphabet of the pre-revolutionary language only formally, but were used in the same way as now. The letter "y" was called "and with a short one."
As a result of the reform of the Russian alphabet, “yat”, “fita”, “izhitsa” and “er” (at the end of the word) were excluded from it. What are these letters and why were they removed from the pre-reform alphabet?
"Yat"
The letter is very similar to the symbol used by astronomers to mark the planet Saturn. The letter "h" and "e" were pronounced exactly the same, for example, "wind" and "evening", but in the word "wind" they wrote "yat", and in the word "evening" - "e". This caused great difficulties. The letter "yat" was considered the most terrible in the alphabet. Pupils mechanically memorized the rules for "yat", mistakes in writing this letter were considered the most rude. Since then, the expression “know well”, which meant “very well”, has developed.
"Izhitsa"
The letter "Izhitsa" in the alphabet of the pre-revolutionary language was very similar to the Roman numeral "five". To our ancestors, it resembled an inverted whip, therefore, in the common people there was an expression “prescribe Izhitsu”, which meant “give a strong scolding” or “flogged”. The letter also caused a lot of inconvenience and made life difficult for students, for example, three words:
- world - in the meaning of "universe";
- peace - "calm, silence";
- myrrh - fragrant substance.
It would seem that the words are pronounced the same, but they were written differently:
- in the first word they wrote “and with a dot” - world;
- in the second - "and" - the world;
- in the third - "Izhitsu" - mѵro.
There were many difficulties, many were confused in the rules for writing certain words. More Pushkin A.S. in 1818, he believed that Izhitsa should be abolished, but it was abolished only in 1918.
"Fita"
The modern letter “f” and the pre-revolutionary “fita - ѳ” were in different places in the alphabet, but they were pronounced exactly the same. For example, in the pre-revolutionary address directory, people with the surname Fedorov were not placed together, since some were written with the letter “f”, and others with “fita”. Why is that? Trediakovsky V. in 1748, in his article “A Conversation on Spelling”, explained this by the fact that you should not think at all about where you need to write “f”, and where “fitu”, it does not matter, since not everyone studied Latin and Greek, and without knowledge of these languages it is impossible to know the difference in these letters. So they wrote, to whom it will come into their heads, because anyway, few people understand how to do it right.
"Yer"
This is the so-called hard sign. It is now considered a very useful letter, separating the consonant of the prefix from the vowel (entrance, rise). And before the reform, a solid sign was written after solid consonants at the end of all words, for example, oak, rode, house. "Er" was called among the people "parasite", "loafer", "bloodsucker". In fact, the letter that was written at the end of almost every word devoured, according to scientists, 8% of paper and time. For example, Uspensky L. in the book “A Word about Words” wrote that in one edition of the book (in pre-revolutionary language) “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy. on 2080 pages there were about 115 thousand "er". If they were put together and printed in a row, they would take up more than 70 pages. And if you calculate that it took about 100 working days to type a novel, then for about 4 days a typist would type only this letter. And how much paper was spent on it? It's hard to say at all. "Er" was the most expensive letter in the world.
Pre-revolutionary language in modern Russia
The fashion for the pre-reform Russian language reappeared during the perestroika period and in the early 1990s. Then a lot of pre-revolutionary literature was printed, and it was published according to the rules of the old spelling. Websites began to appear on the Internet, completely typed in the old spelling, articles and publications began to be printed.
It has become fashionable to use elements of pre-reform spelling of words in advertising and on signs (and with errors).
Very often, "creative" designers of advertising signs followed a simple principle, without thinking about the rules of spelling, they simply added the letter "b" at the end of the word. This is how newfangled signboards appeared, on which in those days they could write “Izhitsa”, for example, for many years the Capital Savings Bank logo flaunted on all signs and advertising brochures, although the spelling “Capital Savings Bank” would be correct. And, unfortunately, there are many such examples.
Fashion is back, but literacy is not.
S. Vinitsky. INTRODUCTION TO PRE-REFORM SPELLING
A brief summary of the spelling rules changed by the 1917 reform, and a "guide" to help translate the text from the new spelling to the old one.
Introduction
Russian classical literature of the 19th century actually standardized spelling and abolished the archaic letters “psi”, “zelo”, “yus”, “ot”, etc. The alphabet used 35 letters: Az, Buki, Vedi, Verb, Good, Eat, Live, Earth, Izhe, I, Kako, People, Thought, Our, He, Peace, Rtsy, Word, Firmly, Uk, Fert, Kher, Tsy, Worm, Sha, Shcha, Er, Ery, Yer, Yat, E, Yu, I, Fita, Izhitsa (source: "God's Law"). The sound "yo" was replaced by the letter "e", as it is now.
The reform of 1917, announced by the Minister of Education of the Provisional Government, abolished "yat" (replacing it with "e"), "fita" (replacing it with "f"), "Izhitsu" and "decimal and" (i), replacing both with "and "("octal and"). (The replacement of the letter “e” with “e”, adopted in print with the old spelling, remained, i.e., the letter “e” was not introduced.) The silent hard sign (“er”) after the final consonants was also canceled. Forms of nouns and pronouns on "-ago", "-yago", "-yya" and some others were canceled.
The reform was received with hostility by many cultural figures and, in particular, the majority of émigré writers (for example, Aldanov, Bunin, Nabokov) and foreign publishing houses continued to print Russian-language books in the old spelling, some until the 1950s. I heard that M. Tsvetaeva categorically objected to the publication of her poems in the new spelling. However, the prominent Russian linguist I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, editor of the last (third) edition of Dahl's dictionary (comrade Wolf, 1903, reprinted in Paris, 1954), was apparently a supporter of the reform. In the preface and articles on the solid sign and "fit" Baudouin-de-Courtenay spoke of the uselessness of these letters.
The Bolsheviks, having seized power, supported the reform and actively promoted the new spelling as "more accessible to the people" and "breaking with the legacy of tsarism", and the old spelling began to be called "royal". This politicized the reform and, of course, did not contribute to the adoption of the new spelling by the Russian diaspora abroad. However, the second, more numerous wave of Russian emigration (1945) for the most part did not know the old spelling. In 1952, the Chekhov publishing house publishes Nabokov's novel The Gift in a new spelling.
After 1917, the language and spelling, of course, continued to change, naturally and gradually. For example, instead of “exploiter”, they began to write “exploiter”, they stopped writing hyphens in combinations like “that is”, “as it were”, “same”, etc. This article does not consider this further evolution of Russian spelling .Arguments for and against reform
The simplification of spelling speaks for the reform (one sound is transmitted by only one letter, non-functional hard signs and the decimal “and” are removed) and the abolition of the relatively rarely used letters “izhitsa” and “fita”, which had only historical significance. After the reform, "er" also became a rare letter and was excluded, for example, from typewriter keyboards - they began to replace it with a quote. Previously, the Roman numeral V was replaced with Izhitsa (this was done even in the publication of the Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in 1938), and the number I with the letter I, now instead of Roman numerals they began to print “U”, “1”, “P " and "Sh".
The abolition of "yatey" mixed up many previously distinct words in writing that contained "e" or "ё", and made the origin of many words less obvious. For example, the pairs of words “thing” and “prophetic”, “behavior” and “tell”, “sweep” and “note”, “return” and “fidelity” are not of the same root, which is easy to see in the old spelling by the presence of the letter “yat ' (in the second word of each pair), but not obvious in modern orthography. Ambiguities in the pairs of words “everything” - “everything”, “most” - “most”, “donkey” - “donkey”, “what” - “what”, etc. were resolved in writing in the old spelling, making it easier to read . The abolition of the forms of the pronouns "one", "one" (f. and cf. gender) and some other forms also impoverished the language.Summary of the differences between the old orthography and the new one
In order to correctly write a Russian word in the old spelling, you need to find out the origin and determine the root of this word. Depending on this, it may be necessary to replace some letters in the root, and sometimes also in prefixes and endings. Apparently, the most difficult is the spelling of the letter "yat" (hence the expression "know on yat").
Below I have tried to formulate the basic rules that I have empirically obtained, which can guide the transition to the old spelling from the new one. A complete list of spelling rules, in particular, roots with the letter "yat", can be found in Smirnovsky's textbook.General differences:
1. Solid characters are written after all final consonants, except for "й" and "ь". For example: “cloak”, “doctor”, but: “thing”, “furnace”.
2. The letter “and decimal” (“i”) is written instead of “and” in all cases when the “and” is followed by a vowel: “Russia”, “aviator”, with the exception of compound words like “five-altynny”, “seven-story” - the letter "and" is stored there. In all other cases, "and" is written, with the exception of the word "peace" (see below).Replacing letters in the roots of words:
2a. The letter "i" in the root is found only in the word "world". This word is written "peace" in the sense of "peace", but "peace" in the sense of "universe". The distinction is preserved in all derivative words, for example: “peaceful”, but “world”.
The letter "Izhitsa" is written instead of "and" in the roots of some church words, for example: myrrh, myrrh-bearing, synod, hypostasis, subdeacon, iparchia, singklit; sometimes they also wrote “symbol” through Izhitsa. (By the beginning of the 20th century, this letter was never used outside the church seal, even in these words.)
3. The letter “fita” is written in words of Greek origin in which the letter “theta” was written (can be checked by Latin transcription - “th”): arithmetic (arithmetica), mith (mythos), rhythme (rhythme), Theodore (Theodore) , "Theophanes" (Theophanus) - pay attention to the second "f", which is not replaced by "fita". In all other cases, "f" is written.
4. The letter "yat" is written instead of "e" in some words of native Russian origin (with a few exceptions), namely in a very limited set of roots. The set of these roots must be remembered. As a rule, all single-root and derivative words in such cases are also written through "yat". (Exception: "speech" is written with "yat", but derived verbs are written with "e", for example "to renounce".) The letter "yat" does not occur in noun and adjective suffixes, except for some verbal nouns with "-evation" and " -enie" (see below). To check spelling, they fundamentally use the following rule: “yat” does not occur in place of “e” in those words that, when changed, translate this “e” into “e” or “b” or omit it altogether. For example: “medovar” (honey), “calf” (heifer), “drink” (drink), “lion” (lion). "Yat" is also not written after hissing (with the exception of the form of the pronoun "what") and after "g", "k". Here is a (complete) list of roots containing "yat" (similar, but not cognate words that do not contain "yat" are also given for contrast):run-, bezh- (run, refugee, refuge, ...) but: beige (borrowing) bed- (trouble, b
ѣdny, victory, convince, lunch, ... but: snitch) bel- (white, squirrel, henbane, ...) but: belladonna (borrowing) bes, freak out, ... but: dunce (not the same root) bet- (promise, promise)
pale
vd- (“know” in the sense of “know”, but not in the sense of “lead”) and derivatives vzh-, vest-, etc. (know, conscience, witch, bride, polite, ignorant, fresh, prophetic, bear , ...) but: “I lead (by the hand)”, “Vestal” (Latin borrowing), “righteous” (“great-” is not a prefix here).
eyelid
century (eternal, man, increase, ...)
crown, marry, veno,
ver- (faith, true, probably, ...) but: twirl, return
weight- (hanging, hanging, ...)
vѣt- (branch, branch, ...) but: dilapidated, rags.
blow, fan, wind,
anger-
bay
nest
sin- (sinner, ...)
virgin
put on, put on, put on, put on, blanket,
grandfather
del- (case, divide, week, limit, highlight, action, deed, witness, ...)
del
det- (children, childish)
child
food
ѣest (eat), ѣla, ... - but: “is”, “is” (forms “to be”)
go, go, go out,
iron (iron, ...) but: gland (organ)
oppression, but: oppression
venture (entertainer, ...)
star (also plural: stars)
beast
yawn- (yawn)
zenith, but: zenith
snake
see
Indian
cripple, cripple,
cell, cell,
knee
krѣp- (fortress, ...)
cherish
lion- (left, ...) but: lion (beast)
climb, ladder
laziness
lep- (sculpt, absurd, blind, ...)
lѣs (but: fishing line)
years- (summer, decade, ...) but: fly
lekha
lѣch- (doctor, treat) but: lie down
copper
mel- (powder, or drawing chalk, but: fine, chalk (yard), mill)
men- (exchange, mena, ...)
measure- (measure, intention, example, ...)
mash-, mash- (knead, mix, sack, laugh, ...)
place-, place- (instead, substitute, tradesman, displacement, ... but: sweep)
month
met- (in the meaning of “notice”, but not in the meaning of “throw”): aptly, mark, ... but: recklessly
fur, bag
hesitate
shut up
opinion
bliss, gentle, bask,
bowels
nѣm- (mute, German, ...)
mute
(lunch, vow - from other roots)
ore- (hazel, ...)
liver
piebald
foam
stump
nurture
sing (singer, song, rooster, ...)
pѣsh-, pѣh- (foot, infantry, ...)
captivity
mold
baldness
log
fresh
spit
red-, cut-, cut- (rare, cut, ...)
radish
turnip (but: burdock)
eyelash
ret- (invent, acquire, meet, ...) but: ban
river-, river- (river, speech, adverbs, ... but not in verbs: to speak, condemn, ...)
resh- (hole, solve, sieve, lattice, ...)
fresh- (refresh, ...)
light-, candle-
ferocious
north
sev, seed, sow, scattered, ... (but: family, mince)
gray-haired
hay, canopy
canopy (fall)
sulfur, gray
sit down (sell, saddle, neighbor, ...)
set- (network, visit, ...)
complain
sec-, sec- (cut, hook, ...)
next- (consequence, track down, inheritance, ...)
blind
dare
laugh- (laugh, make fun of, ...)
snow-
advice-
spѣ- (success, hastily, armor)
wall (dungeon, shy, ...)
arrow-
fear
cart
tѣ- (undertaking)
body (but: “lay”, “bed”)
shadow (hue, ...)
close (to remove, ...)
dough
comfort
bread-, but: slurp
barn
crap
khѣr (old name for the letter X)
flower-, flower- (bloomed, flowering, ...)
tsevye, tsevka, tsevnitsa
tsѣd- (tsѣdit, filtered)
whole- (whole, kiss, ...)
price- (price, estimate, ...)
chain- (chain, cling, numb, ...)
"Yat" is written in names:Alexey
Vienna
Gleb
Dnipro
Dniester
Elisha
Eremey
Matvey
Neman
Rognida
Sergey
Fadey
april“Yat” is also written in the words: no, where, now, two, two hundred, twelve, everything, he, one, both, here, evil and in some other words, for example, in the church word “naked” (great). As an exception, yat is written instead of the sound “ё” in the words: stars, nests, saddles, mockery, smetka, bear, vshka, vdzhka, blossomed, found, yawned, put on, put on, imprinted, bend.
The words "rait" and "penny" can be written both through "e" and through "yat". The word "kher" was written through "yat" as the name of the Old Slavonic letter, but "e" was usually written in derivative words.Replacing attachments
5. The prefix "not-" in indefinite pronouns is written "not": "someone", "something", "some", "never" (meaning "once"), "several", but not in negative pronouns: “no one (to replace)”, “no place (to live)”, “no time” (to do smth.). There were also obsolete pronouns "nowhere" (meaning "somewhere"), etc. "Yat" is not used in other prefixes.
6. In the prefixes “without-”, “raz-”, “voz-”, “from-”, “z” is always written before “s”, and in the prefix “without”, “z” is also written before k, p, h, sh, u: “rebellion”, “restless”.Ending replacement
7. Verb endings “-et” are always written through “yat” (“boil”, “see”, “warm”, etc.), with the exception of verbs for “-measure”, “-sweep”, “-rub ". To check: if the past tense form does not contain a suffix (“died”, “ter”), then, therefore, we write “e” (“rub”), and if it ends in “-el”, then it is written “yat” ("see - saw"). Also, through “yat”, in these cases, the forms “-elo”, “-elo”, “-eet”, “-evshi”, “-evat”, etc. are written. -enie" contain "yat" only in the presence of the corresponding verb, for example: "see" - "vision", "smolder" - "smoldering", "warm" - "heating", but: "teaching", "plant", t There are no verbs "*take into account", "*grow". However, pay attention to the difference in spelling of the words "vision" (knowledge) and "knowledge" (driving).
8. In the endings of pronouns, nouns and adjectives of the dative and prepositional cases (and only them), “yat” is always written instead of the sound “-e”. For example: “to me” (to whom), “on a horse”, “on the water”, “about the sea”, but: “I went out into the field” (vin. p.), “clear field” (im. p.). It is also written yat in adverbs and prepositions formed from nouns with dative or prepositional cases: “alien”, “again”, “soon”, “mountain” (meaning “up”), “until”, “secretly”, “vtune ”,“ from the outside ”,“ tipsy ”, etc.
9. It is written "yat" in comparative degrees: "faster", "strongest", but not in endings with one "e": "more", "earlier".
10. The endings "-th" are replaced by "-ago" and "-his" by "-yago", unless the stress falls on one of these syllables. For example: “at the sa’mago of the blue sea”, but “on yourself”. However, these endings are not replaced in the forms of pronouns: “this”, “someone”, etc.
11. The endings “-s” and “s” are replaced by “-s” and “yya” in the feminine and neuter gender: “big menacing waves”, but “big menacing hurricanes”. Also in feminine and neuter pl. hours, “they” are replaced by “he”, “one” by “one”. The forms "her" and "her" are replaced by "her" and "her" in gender. etc., but not in wine. p.: "I was looking for her, but she was not there."Punctuation
Punctuation basically coincided with modern, with the exception of combinations with “would”, “whether” and “zhe”, in which they wrote a hyphen: “how to”, “do you know”, “what”: “she looked as yesterday". They wrote a hyphen and in the combination "that is".
What is the old (pre-reform, pre-revolutionary) spelling?
This is the orthography of the Russian language, which was in use from the time of Peter the Great until the spelling reform of 1917-1918. Over these 200 years, of course, it has also changed, and we will talk about the spelling of the late XIX - early XX century - in the state in which the last reform found it.
How does the old spelling differ from the modern one?
In the Russian alphabet before the reform of 1917-1918 there were more letters than now. In addition to the 33 current letters, the alphabet had i (“and decimal”, read as “and”), ѣ (yat, read like “e”, in italics looks like ѣ ), ѳ (fita, read as “f”) and ѵ (zhitsa, read as “and”). In addition, the letter “b” (ep, hard sign) was much more widely used. Most of the differences between pre-reform spelling and current spelling have to do with the use of these letters, but there are a number of others, such as the use of different endings in some cases and numbers.
How to use ъ (ep, hard sign)?
This is the easiest rule. In pre-reform spelling, a solid sign (aka er) is written at the end of any word ending in a consonant: table, telephone, St. Petersburg. This also applies to words with hissing consonants at the end: ball, already married unbearable. The exception is words ending in "and short": th considered a vowel. In those words where we now write a soft sign at the end, it is also needed in pre-reform orthography: deer, mouse, sitting.
How to use i ("and decimal")?
It's also very simple. It should be written in place of the current and, if immediately after it comes another vowel (including - according to pre-revolutionary rules - th): line, other, arrived, blue. The only word where the spelling і does not follow this rule, peace meaning "earth, universe". Thus, in pre-reform spelling, there was an opposition of words peace(no war) and peace(the Universe), which disappeared along with the abolition of "and the decimal".
How to use ѳ (phyta)?
The letter "fita" was used in a limited list of words of Greek origin (and this list was reduced over time) in place of the current f- in those places where the letter "theta" (θ) was in Greek: Athens, aka-hist, Timothy, Thomas, rhyme etc. Here is a list of words with phyta:
Proper names: Agaѳya, ANAMIM, AѳANASII, Aѳina, Varѳoloy, Goliaѳ, Evhamiy, MARѳA, MATFEY, MEMADII, Naѳanail, Parhenon, Pihagor, Ru, Savaoѳ, Timoi, Eserir, ѳadodor, ѳmikolor, ѳmikol, , Theodosius (Theodosius), Theodosius, Theodot (Theedot), Theophanes (but Fofan), Theophilus, Thera-pont, Thomas, Tominichna.
Geographic names: Aѳin, Aѳon, Viyania, Viyzda, Viinia, Vileem, Viѳsaida, Geaxine, Golgoѳa, Karѳgen, Korinѳ, Mara-ѳon, Parѳiyya, Parhenon, Eѳiopіya, ѳaavor, ѳeodosiya, ѳsesaloniki, ѳsesaloniki, ѳseselniki, ѳseselniki.
Peoples (and city dwellers): Corinthians, Parthians, Scythians, Ethiopians, Thebans.
Common nouns: anathema, akathist, apotheosis, apothegma, arithmetic, dithyramb, ethimons, catholic(but catholic), pulpit, kathisma, kithara, leviathan, logarithm, marathon, mythology, mythology, monothelitism, orthography, orthoepia, pathos(passion , but Paphos - island), rhyme, ethereal, fimiam, hita.
When to write ѵ (izhitsu)?
Almost never. Izhitsa was preserved only in the word world(myrrh - church oil) and in some other church terms: ѵpodiakon, ѵposta etc. This letter is also of Greek origin, corresponds to the Greek letter "upsilon".
What do you need to know about endings?
Adjectives in the masculine and neuter gender that have endings in the nominative case singular -th, -th, in the genitive case end in -ago, -yago.
“And the beaver sits, its eyes goggle at everyone. Doesn't understand anything. Uncle Fyodor gave him milk boiled"("Uncle Fyodor, dog and cat").
“Here it [the balloon] flew over the last floor great at home, and someone leaned out of the window and waved after him, and he was even taller and a little sideways, taller than antennas and pigeons, and became quite small ... ”(“Deniska’s Tales”).
Feminine and neuter plural adjectives end in -ya, -iya(but not th,-s, like now). feminine third person pronoun she is in the genitive case has the form her, as opposed to the accusative her(this hour is everywhere her).
"So what? Sharik says. - It is not necessary to buy a big cow. You buy a small one. There is takiya special cows for cats. Goats are called "(" Uncle Fedor, dog and cat ").
“And I am sending you money - one hundred rubles. If you have left superfluous, send it back ”(“ Uncle Fyodor, dog and cat ”).
“At that time, my mother had a vacation, and we were visiting her relatives, in one large collective farm "(Deniska's Tales").
What do you need to know about attachments?
In prefixes ending in a consonant h (from-, in-, times-), it is saved before the next With: tell, rise, fade. In consoles without- and through-/through- final h always saved: useless, useless.
The most difficult thing: how to write yat?
The rules for using the letter “yat” are, alas, not so easy to describe. It was yat that created a large number of problems for pre-revolutionary gymnasium students, who had to memorize long lists of words with this letter (much like today's schoolchildren learn "dictionary words"). The mnemonic poem "White Poor Pale Devil" is widely known, although it was not the only one of its kind. The thing is that spellings with yat basically obeyed the etymological principle: in an earlier period of the history of the Russian language, the letter “yat” corresponded to a separate sound (middle between [i] and [e]), which later in most dialects merged in pronunciation with the sound [e]. The difference in writing persisted for several more centuries, until, during the reform of 1917-1918, the yat was universally replaced by the letter “e” (with some exceptions, which are discussed below).
White, pale, poor devil
Hungry ran away into the forest.
Leshim through the forest he ran,
I dined with horseradish
And for that bitter dinner
I made a vow to put on trouble.Look, brother, what a cage and a cage,
Sieve, grid, grid,
Vzha and iron to remove -
That's how it should be written.Our eyelids and eyelashes
Protect the eyes of the pupils,
Eyelids squint for a whole century
At night, every person ...The wind broke the branches,
The German tied brooms,
Hung right at the exchange,
I sold it for two hryvnias in Vienna.Dnieper and Dniester, as everyone knows,
Two rivers in close proximity,
Divides the area of their Bug,
Cuts from north to south.Who is angry and savage there?
Strongly complain so dare?
We must peacefully resolve the dispute
And to convince each other...Bird's nests of sin to dawn,
It's a sin to waste bread in vain,
Laugh at the crippled sin,
To scoff at the crippled ...What should the current lover of pre-reform spelling do, who wants to comprehend all the intricacies of spelling yat? Is it necessary to follow in the footsteps of the gymnasts of the Russian Empire and memorize poems about the poor demon? Fortunately, things are not so hopeless. There are a number of patterns that together cover a significant part of the cases of writing yat - accordingly, their observance will help to avoid the most common mistakes. Let's consider these patterns in more detail: first, we describe the cases where the yat cannot be, and then the spelling where the yat should be.
Firstly, yat is not written in place of that e, which alternates with zero sound (that is, with a missing vowel): lion(not * lion), cf. lion; ash(not * clear), cf. clear etc.
Secondly, yat is not written in place e, which now alternates with yo, as well as in place of the yo: Spring(not * spring), cf. spring; honey, cf. honey; exceptions: star(cf. stars), nest(cf. nests) and some others.
Thirdly, yat is not written in full-vowel combinations -here-, -barely- and in incomplete vowel combinations -re- and -le- between consonants: wood, bereg, shroud, time, tree, attract(exception: captivity). Also, as a rule, yat is not written in conjunction -er- before a consonant: top, first, keep etc.
Fourth, yat is not written in the roots of words of clearly foreign (non-Slavic) origin, including proper names: newspaper, telephone, anecdote, address, method etc.
As for spellings, where the yat should be, let's name two basic rules.
The first, most general rule: if the word is now written e in front of a hard consonant and it does not alternate with zero sound or with yo, with a very high probability in place of this e in pre-reform orthography, you need to write yat. Examples: body, nut, rare, foam, place, forest, copper, business, go, food and many others. It is important to take into account the limitations mentioned above related to full agreement, dissent, borrowed words, etc.
Second rule: yat is written in place of the present e in most grammatical morphemes:
- in case endings of indirect cases of nouns and pronouns: on the table, to my sister, in my hand, to me, to you, to myself, with what, with whom, everything, everyone, everyone(indirect cases - everything except the nominative and accusative, in these two cases yat is not written: drowned in the sea- prepositional let's go to the sea- accusative);
- in superlative and comparative suffixes of adjectives and adverbs -e (-y) and -ѣish-: faster, stronger, faster, stronger;
- in the basic suffix of verbs in -ѣt and nouns derived from them: have, sit, look, had, sat, watched, name, redness etc. (in nouns in -enie, formed from other verbs, you need to write e: doubt- cf. doubt; reading - cf. read);
- at the end of most prepositions and adverbs: together, except, near, after, lightly, everywhere, where, outside;
- in attachment no-, which has the value of uncertainty: someone, something, some, some, somewhat, sometime(once upon a time). In this case, the negative prefix and the particle are written with "e": nowhere, not for anything, not with anyone, once(no time).
Finally, there are two cases where the yat at the end must be written in place of the current one and: he and alone- “they” and “alone” in relation to feminine nouns, and in the case of alone- and in indirect cases: one, one, one.
“Well then. Let him be a poodle. Pet dogs are also needed, though he and useless" ("Uncle Fyodor, dog and cat").
“Look what your Sharik suits us. Now I'll have to buy a new table. It's good that I cleared all the dishes from the table. We would be left without plates! Съ alone forks ("Uncle Fedor, dog and cat").
Besides, in a difficult struggle with the rules for using yat, knowledge of other Slavic languages \u200b\u200bcan help. So, very often in place of yat in the corresponding Polish word, ia will be written (wiatr - wind, miasto - place), and in Ukrainian - i (dіlo - case, place - place).
As we said above, following these rules will save you from mistakes in most cases. However, given that there are many nuances, exceptions, exceptions to exceptions in the rules for using yat, it never hurts to check the spelling in the reference book if you doubt it. The authoritative pre-revolutionary reference book is "Russian Spelling" by Yakov Grot, a convenient modern online dictionary - www.dorev.ru.
Isn't there something faster?
There is. Here is the Slavenica website, where you can automatically translate most words into the old spelling.
