How to relieve neuromuscular excitability In the vast majority of patients, along with the presence of signs of hyperventilation, there are also signs of increased neuromuscular excitability. In such cases, drugs are prescribed that reduce the level of neuromuscular

Neuropsychiatric diseases Reliable protection for the whole organism is a healthy nervous system, it must be protected. No wonder folk wisdom says: "all diseases are from nerves." This means that any negative condition, overexertion or infection can lead to

Nouns denote objects and phenomena.

Genus

Every noun in Latin belongs to one of three genders:

• Male (genus masculinum)
• Female (genus femininum)
• Medium (genus neutrum)

Animated nouns are classified by gender according to their biological sex.

Besides

To masculine include the names of months, mountains, winds, large rivers, peoples, professions.

To feminine include the names of countries, cities, islands, gems, trees.

To neuter traditionally include the names of metals, elements, fruits, as well as indeclinable words.

The gender of a noun is indicated in the dictionary, it is indicated by one of three letters: " m "(male)," f "(female)," n " (average).

Number (numerus)

In Latin, nouns can be used in the singular or plural.

Singular number (numerus singularis) - to designate one object,

Plural (numerus pluralis) - to refer to many objects.

In dictionary and reference entries, the number of a noun is indicated by two letters: Sg (singular) or pl (plural).

Case (casus)

A noun can be in one of six cases:

Nominative case (casus nominativus) - answers the questions: "Who?" “What?”, in the sentence in the nominative case is the subject or the nominal part of the predicate. Denoted by the letter " N " or combination " Nom ".

Genitive case (casus genetivus) - answers the questions: “Whom?” “What?”, in a sentence in the genitive case, there is an inconsistent definition for another noun. Identified by the letter " G " or " Gen ".

Dative case (casus dativus) - answers the questions: “To whom?” “What?”, in the sentence in the dative case there is an indirect object that accompanies the action. Designated with a capital letter " D " or combination " Dat ".

Accusative case (casus accusativus) - answers the questions: "Whom?" “What?”, in the sentence in the accusative case there is a direct object to which the action is directed. Denoted " AC " or " acc ".

Separative or deferred case (casus ablativus) - answers the questions: "By whom?" “What?”, in the sentence in the deferred case there is a circumstance. Indicated by the letters " Ab " or " Abl ".

The vocative case (casus vocativus) is an appeal to a person or object, which is not a member of the sentence. Denoted by the letter " V " or combination " Voc ".

Declension

Every noun in Latin belongs to one of the 5 declensions. The declension is determined by the end of the genitive singular.

• I declension -ae
• II declension -i
• III declension -is
• IV declension -us
• V declension -ei

There are also disparate words "vesper" (II or III), "domus" (II or IV).

Often they talk about types of declension and equate them to 5 declensions. Strictly speaking, this is not true. There are much more types of declension in Latin than there are declensions. It should be noted that in Latin, knowledge about the belonging of a noun to a particular declension gives only an approximate idea of ​​the end of a word in a particular case. It is the types of declension that give an accurate idea of ​​​​the endings. The declension type system in Latin is more branched than the declension system, because it takes into account the variability within 5 declensions, and therefore it is easier to use it to solve a practical problem - the declension of words.

Many textbooks have a very strange attitude towards the types of declension. There is no general system of declension types and different sources can contain different versions, but, as already mentioned, it is customary to talk about 5 declensions or 5 types of declension, and then make a reservation that there is, for example, declension IIIa, which is somewhat different from declension IIIb .

Here we will not indicate the specific names of the types, since different authors call them differently, but we will try to describe the most detailed classification. So:

AT I declension 2 types of nouns:

1. male
2. female

(declension paradigm is the same).

In II declension- 6 types:

1. ending in -us (in N.Sg.) masculine and feminine,
2. ending in -ius (in N.Sg.) masculine,
3. ending in -ir (in N.Sg.) masculine,
4. ending in -er (in N.Sg.) masculine,
5. ending in -um (in N.Sg.) neuter,
6. ending in -ius (in N.Sg.) neuter.

The declension of all types is different.

A special type of declension is formed by the noun "deus" - god.

In the III declension- 6 types:

• 2 consonants:
  1. masculine and feminine,
  2. neuter.
• 2 vowels:
  1. ending in -e, -al, -ar of the neuter gender (equisyllabic and equally syllabic);
  2. are equally syllable ending in -is feminine.
• 2 mixed:
  1. equally syllable ending in -es, -is (masculine and feminine);
  2. unequal with different endings (masculine and feminine).

Almost all types are in small things, but they differ.

Separate types of declension form the words "vis" - strength, "bos" - bull, Iuppiter - Jupiter.

AT IV declination- 2 types:

1. ending in -us masculine and feminine,
2. ending in neuter -u.

AT 5th declension types are not distinguished.

It is somewhat more difficult to determine whether a word belongs to one or another type of declension than to determine the declension itself. To determine the type of declension, a slightly more subtle analysis of the word is needed, but over time this becomes a very useful habit.

A separate article will be devoted to the types of declension, which is now (unfortunately) under development.

Dictionary form of a noun

In the dictionary (with the exception of educational dictionaries, they are generally a separate topic) the noun is in the nominative singular. Immediately after, with a comma, the ending of the genitive case of the singular is indicated (the one by which the declension of the noun is determined), but if the basis of the nominative and genitive cases differ, then the whole word can be indicated in second place. After a space (usually in italics), the noun belongs to one of the 3 genders (m, f or n).

For example:

ramus, i m branch
Nominative case - ramus,
Genitive - rami(II declension),
Genus - m- male.

lanx, lancis f bowl
Nominative case - lanx,
Genitive - lancis(hence III declension)
Genus - f- female.

Noun endings in declension

1. It is customary to call nouns words denoting the names of objects, people, animals, plants, substances and concepts, for example: a book - a book, a woman - a woman, a student - ...
2. In this article, we'll look at the complexities of using dashes, commas, and parentheses. Dashes, Commas, and Parentheses are punctuation marks used to highlight something...
3. Twain wurde als Samuel Langhorne Clemens am 11/30/1835 in Florida (Missouri) geboren. Der Vater starb 1847 und Twain musste im Alter von zwölf Jahren eine...
4. 1. The plural of “woman” is 1. ? womans 2. ? womanes 3. ? women 4.? woman 2. The plural of “child” is 1....
5. E. Exceptions to the rule There are a number of nouns in English that do not form the plural according to the rule, i.e. do not use the S ending. Example: Singular ...
6. The plural of a noun in German must be memorized immediately when memorizing its definite article. Plural There are five main ways to pluralize names...
7. Question 1. What is a view? A species is a collection of organisms characterized by a common origin, possessing a hereditary similarity of all signs and properties, and capable of endless reproduction of themselves ...
8. What is the plural of nouns? The plural of nouns in Russian is a grammatical feature indicating the plurality of named objects, that is, that the named objects ...
9. Albert Einstein was a German-born Jewish theoretical physicist of profound genius, who is widely regarded as the greatest scientist of the 20th century and one...
10. In German, as well as in Russian, a noun (noun) has 2 numbers (numbers): singular n. (der Singular) and plural (pl.) num. (der Plural)....
11. In German, plural forms are formed with the help of an article and several suffixes. All 3 articles (der, die, das) are replaced by one (die). Indefinite is not used...
12. MINISTRY OF GENERAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION RF KHAKASS STATE UNIVERSITY them. N. F. KATANOVA INSTITUTE OF PHILOLOGY, DEPARTMENT OF RUSSIAN LANGUAGE specialty 021700 – “Philology” Abakan, 2001 INTRODUCTION...
13. What is the number of nouns? The number of nouns in Russian is an inflectional grammatical feature of nouns, indicating the number of named objects - their singularity or ...
14. Pushkin and the philosophical and historical thought of the 19th century ... Pushkin appeared precisely at the time when poetry as an art had just become possible in Russia. Twentieth year...
15. Spelling of personal endings of verbs Personal endings of verbs - a system of endings of conjugated forms of verbs, indicating the person and number of the verb. The spelling of personal endings of verbs depends on ...

1. What do the terms morphology and morphonology mean and what is their origin?

Morphology - 1) a system of grammatical categories, grammatical meanings and grammatical forms of the language, which together form the grammatical structure of the language; 2) a section of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language. Morphonology is a branch of linguistics that studies the variation of phonemes in the morphemes of a language.
Both words are composed of Greek roots: morphology - morphe "form" and logos "word, doctrine"; morphonology - morphe "form", phone "sound" and logos "word, doctrine".

1) The category of animation / inanimateness is semantic, since the division of nouns is based on their semantics: whether they denote living beings or objects of inanimate nature. However, it is impossible to completely identify the concept of animation / inanimateness and the concept of living and inanimate in nature (cf .: oak, birch - science considers them to be living organisms; dead, dead - grammar considers them to be animated).
2) This category is grammatical and is expressed morphologically - by the form of the accusative plural for nouns of all genders: for animate nouns, the accusative form coincides with the form of the genitive (birds, people, heroes), for inanimate nouns - with the form of the nominative case (I saw trees, tables). In the singular form, the category of animateness/inanimateness appears only in masculine nouns of the 2nd declension (I stop a motorcycle, a policeman).
Note. Animated are mostly masculine and feminine nouns and some neuter nouns (child, animal, monster).
Some nouns experience fluctuations in the form of the accusative case, being used either as animate or inanimate: a bacterium, a virus, a larva. The norm is the use of such words as inanimate (to kill bacilli and bacteria); deviations from the norm can be observed in professional speech.
The fluctuation in the use of the category of animation also occurs in the names of toys, mechanisms depicting a person (doll, matryoshka, snowman); most often these words act as animated (there are no aibolites, dunno).
The words holder, pusher, seeker, digger, collector, fighter, carrier, etc. in the meaning of a person will be animated, in the meaning of inanimate mechanisms (devices, vehicles, objects) - inanimate.
Animated nouns are characterized by derivational pairs: teacher - teacher, Muscovite - Muscovite, grandson - granddaughter, lion - lioness, cat - cat, etc.
In the Old Russian language, the category of animation / inanimateness did not exist.

3. It is generally accepted that in the Russian language all nouns have a constant morphological sign of gender. What are the features of the words spouse and spouse, hall and hall, student and student, coffee, bully, associated with their gender? Can these features serve as proof of the ability of some nouns to change by gender?

None of the words given in the task can serve as proof of the ability of some Russian nouns to change by gender, however, all of them, with the exception of the word bully, have certain characteristics of a non-permanent gender attribute, and the words hall and hall are closest to the changeable permanent genus: they have only one sign of the permanent genus.
It is obvious that the words spouse and spouse, student puchaya differ from each other in endings. As for the differences between the stems of the words in these pairs, there are different opinions on this matter: some linguists believe that these words have the same stems, others believe that the stems of the nouns spouse and student have a zero suffix with the meaning "female", absent in spouse and student. If we consider that the stems of these words coincide, then it can be argued that gender differences are expressed only by endings, as is the case with a non-permanent gender attribute. However, the words in these pairs do not have other signs of non-permanent gender, since they have different lexical meanings, the choice of the right word is determined by the need to express one or another meaning, and there is also no neuter form *student. Therefore, these nouns are traditionally considered different words, and not forms of different genders of the same word.
The nouns hall and hall, according to dictionaries, differ from each other in the degree of modernity (hall is an obsolete word), but not in lexical meaning, and both are considered in the same dictionary entry. The dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov gives the following two meanings for these words: “1. A room for the public, public meetings, for doing something, for placing exhibits (in a museum). 2. Front room for receiving guests. In view of the identity of the lexical meaning, none of these words can be based on a zero suffix; thus, the formal differences between them are expressed only with the help of endings. Thus, the words hall and hall have the following features of a non-permanent gender: they do not differ from each other in their lexical meaning, and their formal differences are expressed by endings, the choice of one of these words is due not to the need to express one or another meaning, but to stylistic reasons, for example, the desire to stylize the text "antique". And only the absence of the word of the middle gender *zalo is a feature characteristic of the permanent gender. It is the words in such pairs that are closest to words with a non-permanent gender sign, although they are traditionally considered different words, and not forms of the same word.
The noun bully, as already mentioned, belongs to the general gender, that is, it has generic characteristics of masculine and feminine genders. It is impossible to guess in which of these two genders it is used from its own endings, it is necessary to pay attention to the endings of the agreed word. There are lexical differences between a masculine bully and a female bully: in the masculine gender, this word is applicable only to males (you can only say He is such a bully!, But not * She is such a bully!), And in the female gender - to both male and female persons (you can say He is such a bully!, And She is such a bully!). The choice of the gender of this word, therefore, is associated with the need to express one or another meaning. The form of the middle gender * such a bully is absent. It turns out that this word has no signs of a non-permanent gender; meanwhile, as is known, in dictionaries and grammars only one bully word is presented, which has two genders, in other words, a non-permanent gender attribute is implicitly attributed to it.
The word coffee in modern Russian can be used as a masculine (instant coffee) and neuter (instant coffee) noun6. There are no semantic differences between the two types of use of this word, in other words, the lexical meaning does not change when the generic characteristic changes, as a result of which the choice of one or another generic characteristic is not motivated by meaning. These properties are characteristic of a non-permanent trait of the genus. However, the word coffee has no other signs of an inconstant gender: it lacks the ability to be used in the feminine gender (impossibly soluble coffee) and generic differences are not expressed by the endings of this word itself.

4. Give examples of the transition of common nouns to proper nouns and vice versa. Which of these processes is more regular?

Proper names are often formed from common nouns. Names of people: Faith, Hope, Love, Rose, Lily; nicknames of animals: Ball, Dawn; names of settlements: Zima, Gorki; printed publications: "Pravda", "Pioneer"; works of art: "Chameleon", "Heroes", etc.
Much less regularly, proper names can turn into common nouns: ampere, boycott, boston, browning, volt, riding breeches, hertz, diesel, pendant, mac, marten, mauser, revolver, ohm, x-ray, silhouette, hooligan, che-viot and others

5. What endings are common to all nouns, regardless of declension?

Common to all nouns are the endings of dates, creation. and suggestion. pad. pl. hours: -am (-yam), -ami (-yami), -ah (-yah). Exceptions: children, door, daughter, horse, people in creative. pad. pl. hours have the form: children, doors, daughters (and daughters), horses, people, in stable combinations: lie down with bones, beat with whips.

6. In the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov, the lexical meaning of the words boots, shoes and felt boots is described in the dictionary entries BOOTS, SHOES, VALENKI, where the plural form is given as the initial one. How can this choice of initial form be explained? Give examples of other nouns whose plural has similar meaning features.

For most Russian nouns that have the form of two numbers, the singular form denotes one object, and the plural form denotes several objects, each of which exists on its own, without any specific relationship with other objects of the same type, for example: sparrow-bay and sparrows, house and houses, cloud and clouds, beauty and beauties, etc. However, there are also objects that are designed to function not one by one, but in a set with others of the same kind; such objects include boots, shoes and felt boots.
The plural form of nouns naming such objects usually denotes a complete set, a set of such objects, or several sets, although it can simply name a set of disparate objects. For example, boots are usually two boots of the same model and size, left and right (cf .: I went to work in new winter boots) or several pairs of boots (Boots of workers dried by the battery), less often - several disparate boots (From -for the stove we got five boots, but for some reason they all ended up on the left foot).
Thus, the choice of the plural form as the initial for the words boots, shoes and boots is explained by the peculiarities of the objects denoted by these words, their purpose for joint functioning as part of a set, a set, and a set of boots, shoes and boots consists of two items. Other examples of such nouns are mittens, stockings, socks, gloves and other names for paired items of clothing and footwear, as well as designations for paired parts of the body and paired parts of clothing: arms, legs, wings, nostrils, ears, eyes; sleeves, trousers, armholes.
However, sets can also consist of more objects; words naming such sets include, for example, teeth, ribs, keys, buttons, slices (orange).

7. Why does the word need an initial form? What properties should one of the forms of the word that claims to be the initial one have? Why, for example, is the form Im. case units numbers?

The word is one of the basic units of the language, studied by various linguistic disciplines. Each of them considers it from its own point of view. For example, lexicology is interested in the lexical meaning of a word, which is expressed in its basis and is inherent in all its forms. Constant morphological features are also the same in all forms of the word. In these and similar cases, it is required to speak of the "word in general" in abstraction from all its inconstant morphological features.
Meanwhile, the majority of the words of the Russian language - namely, the changeable words - do not have forms that would be free from non-permanent features. And it is precisely in relation to modified words that it makes sense to talk about the initial form: after all, the initial form is one of several that a word has.
The initial form of a word is such a form of it that acts as an equivalent of the “word in general”, that is, one that, naming which, we mean only the permanent features of a given word and are distracted from the non-permanent ones. It is the initial form that we use when we need to talk about "the word in general." For example, the statement Elephant is a noun is true regardless of the form in which the word elephant is in a particular sentence; in this statement, I used the form Im. case units numbers. Thus, the initial form is needed, strictly speaking, not for the word itself, but for linguists who study it.
In principle, any form of a particular word can be assigned to the role of the initial form, however, as we know, the initial form of a noun is considered to be Im. case units numbers (if the word changes by numbers), the adjective has the form Im. case units masculine numbers, the verb has an infinitive form.
The choice of just such forms as initial ones was made a long time ago and came into modern descriptions from ancient (Latin and Greek) grammars; thus, it is a tribute to the linguistic tradition. However, for the modern Russian language (as well as for many others), the choice of these forms is convenient and in most cases motivated by the structure of the language itself.
As the initial form, one is chosen that can be used in the sentence in the most independent position, that is, in the position of the subject; they have this ability. noun case and verb infinitive. This is a syntactic property of the initial form.
From the point of view of morphology, it is convenient to consider the initial form by which it is possible to predict all or the greatest number of other forms of the word; in other words, this is the form that provides information about the type of declension or conjugation. For nouns, this form is Im. fall unit numbers. It is easy to see that according to the forms of pl. number and indirect cases units. numbers and other forms of the noun are usually not predictable; so, for example, the ending -ami in TV. case pl. numbers can have the word house, and the word book, and the word armchair, which have different systems of endings.
Thus, the choice of the form Im. case for the role of the initial form of a noun is explained by both syntactic and morphological considerations, and the choice of units. numbers - only morphological considerations.
The fact that in adjectives the masculine form is considered the initial form, apparently, cannot be explained by any proper linguistic considerations, and such a choice is only the result of following tradition.

8. In the sentences, Vasya is rich, and Petya is poor (1) and Vasya is richer than Petya, and Petya is poorer than Vasya (2), there are forms of adjectives-antonyms rich and poor. What is the difference between the short form and the comparative form of adjectives in terms of their compatibility with other words in the sentence? Why does the second part of sentence (2) seem informatively redundant?

The short form of the adjective is necessarily combined in a sentence with a word denoting the carrier of the attribute (it is the subject). The form of the comparative degree also requires the presence of a word - designating the carrier of the attribute, but in addition - the presence of words indicating the object (person) with which the comparison is made (Vasya is richer than Petya), or the same object or person at another point in time (Vasya is richer than last year).
In the sentence, Vasya is rich, and Petya is poor, two of its parts tell us about different, at the same time opposed situations: Vasya is involved in the first, Petya is in the second. In sentence (2), each of the parts denotes a situation in which Vasya and Petya are both participants. In the part Vasya is richer than Petya, we are talking about Vasya (the word Vasya is the subject), which is compared with Petya (Flying is an addition). In the part Petya is poorer than Vasya, the same participants are mentioned, but already Petya is compared with Vasya. The positions of the subject and the object are occupied by the same words, which “swapped places”: now Petya is the subject, and Vasya is the object.
The predicates in both parts are forms of qualitative adjectives-antonyms. Qualitative adjectives denote a feature that can be represented to varying degrees (which determines their degrees of comparison). Adjectives-antonyms have a great generality of meaning, in fact, they do not denote different features, but (in a positive degree of comparison) extreme manifestations of the same feature, which can be represented as “two poles” of an imaginary scale. In the form of a comparative degree, each of the antonym adjectives shows the ratio of two compared objects according to this feature (mutual location on one and the same
the same imaginary scale). Since both parts of the second sentence refer to the same participants, then on the "indicative scale" their mutual arrangement is the same, from which side (from which "pole") you look.
So, the second part of the sentence under consideration (Petya is poorer than Vasi) from a different point of view denotes the same state of affairs with the same participants as the first. Due to this, it is informatively redundant.

9. An outstanding philologist of the XX century V. Vinogradov in the work “Russian language.
The grammatical doctrine of the word ”(1947) called the pronoun a special part of speech in modern Russian. Why, in your opinion, did Vinogradov characterize the pronoun in this way?

A pronoun is a word that refers to a person, object or feature, but does not name them.
Over the course of its long history, pronouns have undergone significant changes. At present, in modern Russian, the pronoun as a part of speech consists of subject-personal pronominal words: I, we, you, you, he, she, it, they, yourself, who (no one, someone, someone, who -something, someone, someone), that (nothing, something, etc.), as well as everything, then, this is in an objective sense. These words are close to nouns, they indicate objectivity. In a sentence, they are usually subject or object.
Subject-personal pronouns differ from nouns in a system of morphological categories and features of its manifestation: they have a non-inflective category of a person (I - we); the category of animation also extends when referring to inanimate objects with the word forms of his, her, and them (V. p. = R. p.). Gender, as a rule, is expressed in combination with other words: I came - masculine, I came - feminine, what happened - neuter. When declining, developed suppletivism and a special unproductive system of endings are noted.
Other pronominal words approaching adjectives: mine, yours, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs, yours, this, that, such, such, such, such, this, this, which, whose, which, what, which, itself, the most, all, every, different, other, some, some, some, some, etc. - have a categorical meaning of an attribute of an object, answer the question which one?, change by gender, number, most of them also in cases, have the category of animate / inanimate, agree with nouns; in the sentence, all of the listed pronouns are the definition or nominal part of the compound predicate.
Pronouns-numerals: how much, how much, several, how much - indicate the number and make up the lexical and grammatical category of numerals; pronouns where, where, here, there constitute a special lexical and grammatical category of adverbs.

10. To what pronouns and when is n added?

It is added in oblique cases to the personal pronoun of the 3rd person after prepositions, for example: knew him, but came to him, was with him, was with her, with them, etc. It is curious that after prepositions towards, thanks, contrary to n does not appear (cf. towards him, her). This is due to the fact that these words began to be used as prepositions relatively recently.

11. Why are the pronouns what and such are not declined?

The pronouns what and such, as well as short adjectives and participles, are used as a predicate and, in agreement with the subject, are always in the nominative case.

12. The group of interrogative pronouns and the group of relative pronouns include the same words, which allows us to talk about one category - interrogative-relative pronouns. Are there interrogative-relative pronouns whose morphological properties and / or syntactic "behavior" in these two functions are not the same? If yes, please describe the differences and provide examples.

The morphological and syntactic properties of most interrogative-relative pronouns are the same in both functions they perform. However, there are exceptions.
An interrogative-relative pronoun that has the morphological features of an adjective (it changes by gender, number and case). However, the syntactic functions of this word depend on whether it acts as an interrogative or as a relative.
As an interrogative word that is used quite rarely, mainly in the standard phrase What time is it ?, and also as part of an elective (excretory) construction, for example, Which of the two options do you choose?, Which one is my classmate ?, and in the last construction more often the word which is used, not which. In such constructions, a word that behaves like an ordinal number, forming together with the noun a single member of the sentence; cf. What time is it now? and Now is the second hour (which is also the second part of the subject), Which of the two options do you choose? and I choose the first of the (offered) options. (Which is also the first part of the complement.) Considering that ordinal numbers, in turn, are similar in syntactic properties to adjectives, it can be argued that the interrogative which is not only morphologically, but also syntactically similar to adjectives.
In the role of a relative pronoun, a word that, on the contrary, approaches nouns and can act in any syntactic function inherent in this part of speech: I thanked the person who helped me a lot (subject); I don't know what time it is (subject part); Here is the watch that my grandfather gave me (addition); He looked at the clock, the hands of which had just stopped at twelve (definition); It was the only house in the village that did not have a garden near it (a circumstance).
It is easy to see that the convergence of the relative which with nouns occurs in definitive clauses. On the contrary, in the relative clauses, the relative which does not differ in its syntactic functions from the interrogative; cf. You don't know what time it is?; You need to decide which of the two options you choose; I can't figure out which one is my classmate.
Similar features are found in the word what: in the interrogative function and in the subordinate explanatory, it both morphologically and syntactically behaves like an adjective, and in the relative attributive which, how and which, it has the syntactical properties of nouns; cf. Which tie goes best with this shirt?; Tell me which tie is more suitable for this shirt (which is an agreed definition in the interrogative function and in the function of the allied word in the subordinate explanatory; this syntactic role is characteristic of the adjective) and I re-read all the books I could find, having carefully rummaged through the closet (which - addition in the attributive clause; this role is typical for nouns). However, the pronoun what is used as an allied word in relative clauses is relatively rare.
In contrast to which, the interrogative what and the relative what in the vast majority of contexts do not differ syntactically from each other. Differences are found only when using what in one of the types of clauses, and they fully follow from the morphological features of such a what.
In the interrogative function, the pronoun that has a full set of case forms: What is going on?; What should be feared?; What should be prepared for? Etc. Relative that can be used in three types of subordinate clauses: in subordinate explanatory, adjunctive and attributive clauses. In the first two types of clauses, it, like the interrogative, has a complete set of forms; cf. the explanatory clause He knew what was happening (what to be afraid of; what to prepare for) and the subordinate clause Forecasters promise a hurricane, which happens infrequently in our area (what to fear; what to prepare for).
On the contrary, in subordinate clauses that has only the form of the nominative and accusative cases, and the accusative form cannot be used with prepositions: Go to the store around the corner; Try on the slippers I bought; cf. also the use of this pronoun in the sentence, Where is this girl that I am in love ?, where the word that should have been a preposition (as in the sentence Where is this girl that I am in love with?), However, this is impossible because for features of compatibility that is defining. Due to the limited set of forms, what in attributive clauses can only be subject or direct object.

13. It is known that the numerals two, three, four and both, standing in the forms of the nominative and accusative cases, govern the form of the genitive case of the singular of the dependent noun: two (three, four, both) cakes, but not two (three, four, both ) cakes. However, this is not always true. Okay, you should say two cakes, but not two cakes. What property of the word cake makes only the construction with the plural form correct? Give examples of words that do not differ from the word cake.

A feature of the word cake that distinguishes it from the word cake is the type of declension, that is, the set of endings used when modifying this word. If the word cake refers to the second declension of those three that are usually distinguished from nouns in school tradition and which are called substantive in science (that is, declensions characteristic of nouns, from the Latin substantivum - a noun), then the word cake does not apply to any of these declensions: it has the same set of endings as the neuter adjective (the declension of adjectives themselves, as well as nouns that have endings similar to adjectives, is called adjective, from Latin adjectivum - adjective name) . As part of quantitative combinations, nouns of the adjectival declension behave in exactly the same way as adjectives: cf. both district policemen and both district policemen; three tablespoons and three tablespoons, three tablespoons and three tablespoons; two second courses and two second courses (the ordinal number second is declined in the same way as an adjective). Examples include any nouns that decline in
adjective declension and having singular forms, cf. the words already cited above policeman, district policeman, two hryvnia, canteen, second, aspic, as well as military, student, student, bakery, snack bar, roast, deductible, amphibian, etc.

The word summer in ancient times meant "year". This is quite natural, given that the most active time of the year for the Slavs, as farmers and cattle breeders, was summer, which accounted for the most important work that ensured material well-being for the whole year (cf. the proverb: Summer day year feeds). In the modern language, traces of such word usage have been preserved in the complex words chronicle, that is, a record of events by years, and chronology. In the old sense, the word summer is currently used only in gender. pad. pl. h. in combination with numerals starting from five (five, six, one hundred ... years), as well as in some stable combinations: a person of advanced years, in his declining years, how many years, etc.
The numerals two, three, four in modern Russian are combined with the noun year in the genus. pad. units h. The word year has many historically cognate words, the meaning of which not only in Russian, but also in other Slavic languages ​​​​is very diverse (cf. fit, fit, please, benefit, weather, obsolete year, etc.).

15. What declension numbers have only two endings?

The numerals forty are forty, one hundred are one hundred and ninety are ninety.

16. How can one explain that the numerals fifty, six-ten, seventy, eighty in the modern language end in hard [t], despite the fact that in the word ten - [t] is soft?

As you know, numerals from five are combined with nouns in gender. pad. pl. hours (cf. five tables, six calves, etc.). In ancient times, the numeral ten was inclined according to a special type of stems to a consonant, in this case - to -yat-, and to the genus. pad. pl. hours had the form of ten; hence: five + ten = fifty.

17. What type of signs do the verbs marry, go out, execute, injure, bring in, influence, be? Is it possible to divide these words into groups in terms of specific characteristics? If possible, then on what basis?

All these verbs have features of both perfect and imperfect form (in the same forms and meanings or in different ones). With this in mind, according to the species characteristics, they can be divided into groups as follows.
1. The verbs to marry, to execute, to injure, to influence are two-part.
They can answer both the question “what to do?” and the question “what to do?”. The reporter took a picture of how (what is he doing?) the film actor's wife. He got married yesterday (what did he do?). In the Middle Ages, often (what did they do?) They executed people suspected of witchcraft. Emelyan Pugachev (what did they do?) was executed in 1775 in Moscow on Bolotnaya Square. Your words (what are they doing?) will hurt me to the very heart. Your words have offended and hurt me (what have they done?). The compass needle (what does it do?) Is affected by the Earth's magnetic field. After unsuccessful persuasion, they took away the scissors from the child, that is (what did they do?) They acted on him by force.
Forms of two-spectrum verbs simultaneously have features of both kinds, but in some contexts (for example, in the examples above) they appear in one of the aspect usages - they answer only one of two possible aspect questions. However, there are ambiguous contexts in which both questions can be posed to two-species verbs. These contexts do not allow us to determine the specific aspectual use of the verb. Today he (what is he doing? what will he do?) is getting married. Onlookers saw how (what did they do? what did they do?) Pugachev was executed. Your words (what did you do? what did you do?) then wounded me in the very heart. The child (what did they do? what did they do?) was influenced by persuasion.
2. The verb to be in different forms is characterized by different specific features. Some of its forms answer the question of the imperfect form (She (what did she do?) Was at home), others - to the question of the perfect form (He (what will he do?) Will be there tomorrow). This verb cannot be considered two-species, since there is not a single form of it that would answer both questions at the same time.
3. The word bring in with the meaning "bring somewhere" has signs of an imperfect form (the piano should (what should be done?) be brought into the room very carefully). The homonymous word to bring in "contaminate, wear out with a long toe" is a perfect look (He (what did he do?) He brought his shirt to the holes). So, in this case we are talking about incomplete lexical homonyms that differ in specific characteristics.
4. The verb to go out, "leave the limits of something, leave", refers to the imperfect form (I (what do I do?) leave the house). The verb to go out "with worries, care to return to a healthy state" - to perfect (He was seriously ill, but his mother (what did she do?) came out). These words are homographs. They are spelled the same, but pronounced differently, and also have different specific characteristics.

18. It is known that words of different parts of speech can have the same forms, for example: oven (noun) and oven (verb), three (numeral) and three (verb). Which of the following words can continue this series of examples? Give contexts that make it possible to distinguish between homonymous forms, and indicate for each of them a partial characteristic. What parts of speech are the remaining word forms? Which of them have a sign of comparative degree and is it permanent or non-permanent? In general, deeper, louder, earlier, healthier, more willing, later, earlier, thicker, earlier, northwest, more talented.

In this article we will talk about such a part of speech as a noun. More specifically, we will talk about what are the grammatical features of a noun, what kind of part of speech it is, what is generally characteristic of it. Let's talk about how the morphological analysis of nouns is carried out, what cases they have, how to determine the declension of nouns. Of course, for each item we will give relevant examples that will help you understand the material.

Noun as a part of speech

A noun is a part of speech that answers questions about the subject - “Who?” and what?". The grammatical features of a noun just do include characteristic questions.

Let's make a quick note. A noun as a part of speech can be subdivided according to several criteria. It can be animate (people, animals, and so on) and inanimate (flowers, trees, and so on). In addition, nouns are divided into proper (names of people, names of animals, names of cities and other similar objects, rivers, mountains) and common nouns (words we use in everyday life, names of objects: mug, spoon, and so on). Ultimately, nouns are divided into three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. They have corresponding endings, but this will be discussed a little later.

A noun as a part of speech can be changed by cases. However, you cannot change the same word by gender. It is also possible to change by numbers: a noun can be singular, or it can be plural.

initial form

The grammatical features of a noun include several parameters. Among them are case and number. But according to these criteria, you can compose the initial form of a noun. To do this, the word must be put in the singular, as well as in the nominative case. That is, the initial form of a noun can be considered the words: bird, spoon, bed, and so on. All of them satisfy the requirements that apply to the initial form of a noun.

As mentioned earlier, the noun answers the questions “Who?” and what". In most cases, nouns in sentences express subjects and objects. Of course, they can also be expressed in other parts of speech, but it is the noun that accounts for the largest number of cases. A variant with a definition that is not isolated is also possible. It is possible that a circumstance will also be expressed by a noun.

Noun: proper and common noun

The grammatical features of a noun include division into proper and common nouns. Own type nouns are mostly names of persons. As a rule, these are single items. What can be attributed to proper nouns? Of course, first names, patronymics, last names of people, nicknames of pets, etc. This also applies to geographic features. For example, the Krasnodar Territory, Mount Everest, the Volga River. This list contains various astronomical names, for example, the names of stars and constellations, planets (Sun, Neptune, and so on). The list of proper names ends with the names of companies, works of art and culture, the names of magazines and newspapers, models of transport, and so on.

Turning to common nouns, we note that they can be obtained from proper ones by replacing them with synonyms. In addition, examples from physics can be given when the name of a scientist became a unit of measurement (while it is written with a small letter).

Noun: animate and inanimate

The grammatical features of a noun include a number of criteria. In their list and these factors. Animated nouns denote living beings, that is, they are applied to people, animals, and so on. Everything else - nature, plants, rivers, seas, planets - are inanimate nouns. They also include items that we use in everyday life: dishes, clothes, etc.

As we said earlier, the noun answers the questions “Who” and “What?”. The first question applies to animate nouns, the second - on the contrary, to inanimate ones.

Noun: singular and plural

If only one subject is spoken of, then the forms of the noun assume the singular. This is, in principle, logical. If it is said about several objects at once, for example, that there were “blue, white, red balls”, then in this case it is said about the plural of the noun “balls”.

There are cases when the forms of a noun suggest the use of a word in only one number. That is, it can only be singular or only plural, and nothing else.

Words used only in the singular

Examples include the so-called collective nouns. They can only have the singular form: children, humanity. In addition, the list of similar nouns includes such items that have a real meaning, such as iron, platinum, asphalt, steel, milk, and others. In the singular, signs and states are used: anger, joy, hatred, youth, darkness, burning, fulfillment. There are also exception words that are used only in the singular.

Words that are used only in the plural

The names of paired items are considered plural, such as shorts and trousers, pants and glasses. Materials and leftovers are also plural: sawdust, pasta, yeast, cream. The names of games, like blind man's buff, hide and seek, and periods of time - holidays, days - should also not be used in the singular. Complete the list of nouns that are used only in the plural, states of nature, exceptions to geographical names and names of actions: frosts, troubles, negotiations, Athens, Sokolniki, the Alps.

Noun: cases

The endings of nouns depend on the case in which the word is. There are 6 cases in total.

1. The nominative, which helps to form the initial form of a noun, answers the questions “Who?” and what?".
2. Genitive - to the questions “Who?”, “What?”.
3. The dative case answers the questions “To whom?” and “What?”.
4. Accusative - "a mixture" of the genitive and nominative case. His questions are “Who”, “What?”.
5. The instrumental case has the questions “By whom?”, “By what?”.
6. The list of cases ends with a prepositional one. Nouns put in this case answer the questions “About whom?” and “About what?”.

The first question of each case is given to the animate noun. The second, therefore, inanimate. You can determine the case of a noun by asking a question. To do this, first the word is searched for, with which the necessary noun is associated, and then the corresponding question is already asked.

noun: declension

The endings of nouns also depend on the case, but not only on it. Along with number and case, gender, there is another factor on which they depend. In general, it in some way itself consists of separate criteria. This factor is the declension of nouns.”

You can decline a noun by changing it in cases. There are three declensions in Russian. The first includes nouns related to the feminine gender. They must be singular and end in -а or -я. This also includes masculine nouns that denote people. They have the same endings.

The second declension includes masculine and neuter nouns in its list. At the same time, masculine nouns must end in -o, -e or have a zero ending. Neutral nouns in the nominative case must also end in -o and -e.

The third declension has in its composition nouns related to the feminine gender. They have a null ending, being singular and nominative.

Noun: dissimilar words

In Russian, there are nouns that are called heterogeneous. These are ten neuter nouns (burden, time, seed, crown, flame, stirrup, banner, tribe, name, udder). It also includes the noun "way". In certain cases (namely, in the dative, prepositional), these words have endings that are characteristic of nouns of the third declension. But if you put them in the instrumental case, then they will take the endings of the second declension.

noun: indeclinable words

If, when placed in all cases, a noun has only the same ending, then this is an indeclinable noun. Examples: radio, coffee, jury, Sochi.

Noun: morphological analysis

The first point in morphological analysis is the establishment of the part of speech. The second part includes an indication of morphological features. This is the setting of the word in the initial form, the indication of such constant features as a proper or common noun, animation or inanimateness, an indication of the gender of the noun, its declension. The next sub-item of indicating morphological features is non-permanent characteristics. This is the case and the number of the word. Well, the morphological analysis consists in indicating the syntactic role of the word.

Conclusion

The presence of almost all the analyzed criteria that determine this part of speech is characteristic of many languages, one of which is ours, Russian. The noun in it occupies a very important place and plays a big role.