Plan

Introduction. Assessment of the personality and activities of Peter I from the point of view of V.O. Klyuchevsky

Peter the Great, his appearance, habits, way of life and thoughts, character

Foreign policy and reform of Peter the Great. Assessment of the personality and activities of Peter I from the point of view of S.M. Solovyov. Assessment of the personality and activities of Peter I from the point of view of N.V. Karamzin

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Certainly, Peter I is one of the outstanding personalities in Russian history. Probably, there is no such person who would not know this figure. The personality and activities of the Russian emperor are striking in their diversity. During the reign of Peter I, reforms were carried out in all areas of the state life of the country. He is the hero of countless works of art, an outstanding reformer and, of course, the first Russian emperor.

In Russian historiography, the personality of Peter I and his activities are considered ambiguously: from the complete idealization of his personality and deeds, to numerous criticism of him. Basically, it depends on the opinion of the historian who is narrating and most often there is a subjective factor.

The purpose of my work is to consider the personality and activities of Peter I, to try to identify an objective assessment of his personality, and to show what role he played in Russian historiography.

To achieve the goal, it is necessary to complete certain tasks - to consider the personality of Peter I from the point of view of prominent historians N.V. Karamzin, S.M. Solovieva, V.O. Klyuchevsky. To identify an objective assessment, it is necessary to study the opinions of several historians, compare them and draw certain conclusions.

I.Assessment of the personality and activities of Peter I from the point of view of V.O. Klyuchevsky

1. Peter the Great, his appearance, habits, way of life and thoughts, character

According to Klyuchevsky's description, Perth was a giant, almost three arshins tall, a whole head taller than any crowd among which he had ever had to stand. By nature he was a strong man; the constant handling of an ax and a hammer further developed his muscular strength and dexterity. He could not only roll a silver plate into a tube, but also cut a piece of cloth with a knife on the fly. Peter was born into his mother and especially resembled one of her brothers, Fedor. With the Naryshkins, vivacity of nerves and briskness of thought were family traits.

Peter was subjected to a severe nervous breakdown, the cause of which was either a childish fright during the bloody Kremlin scenes in 1682, or too often repeated revelry that broke the health of an organism that was not yet strong, and probably both together. Very early, already in his twentieth year, his head began to shake, and in moments of reflection or inner excitement, convulsions that ugly appeared on his handsome round face. All this, together with a mole on his right cheek and the habit of waving his arms widely on the move, made his figure noticeable everywhere. The unaccustomed habit of looking after himself and restraining himself imparted to his large wandering eyes a sharp, sometimes even wild expression, which caused an involuntary trembling in a weak-nervous person.

Many years of tireless movement developed in him mobility, the need for a constant change of place, for a quick change of impressions. Haste has become his habit. He was always in a hurry in everything. His usual gait, especially with the understandable size of his step, was such that his companion could hardly keep up with him skipping. It was difficult for him to sit still for a long time: at long feasts, he often jumped up from his chair and ran out into another room to stretch himself. He was an ordinary and cheerful guest at the home holidays of nobles, merchants, craftsmen, he danced a lot and not badly. If Peter didn't sleep, didn't drive, didn't feast, or didn't inspect something, he was sure to build something. His hands were always at work, and calluses never left them. He took up manual labor whenever the opportunity presented itself. In his youth, when he still did not know much, inspecting a factory or factory, he constantly grabbed at the observed case. It was difficult for him to remain a simple spectator of someone else's work, especially new for him: his hand instinctively asked for an instrument; he wanted to do everything himself. His early inclination towards handicraft occupations, towards technical work, turned into a simple habit, into an unconscious impulse: he wanted to learn and master any new business before he had time to figure out what he would need it for. Already on his first trip abroad, the German princesses concluded from a conversation with him that he knew perfectly up to 14 crafts. Subsequently, he was at home in any workshop, in any factory. Advances in handicraft gave him great confidence in the dexterity of his hand: he considered himself both an experienced surgeon and a good dentist. It used to happen that close people who fell ill with some kind of ailment that required surgical care were horrified at the thought that the king would find out about their illness and come with tools and offer his services. They say that after him there was a whole bag with teeth pulled out by him - a monument to his dental practice.

However, above all, he put the skill of the ship. No state business could hold him back when the opportunity presented itself to work with an ax at the shipyard. Until his late years, when he was in St. Petersburg, he did not miss a day, so as not to wrap up two hours in the Admiralty. And he achieved great skill in this matter; contemporaries considered him the best shipbuilder in Russia. He was not only a keen observer and an experienced leader in the construction of the ship: he himself could work the ship from the base to all the technical details of its decoration. He was proud of his art in this skill and spared neither money nor effort to spread and strengthen it in Russia.

Peter, undoubtedly, was gifted with a healthy sense of elegance, spent a lot of trouble and money to get good paintings and statues from Germany and Italy: he laid the foundation for an art collection, which is now placed in the St. Petersburg Hermitage. He had a taste especially for architecture; this is evidenced by the pleasure palaces that he built around his capital and for which he ordered first-class craftsmen from the West at a high price. He had a strong aesthetic sense; only it developed with Peter somewhat one-sidedly, in accordance with the general direction of his character and way of life. The habit of delving into the details of a case, working on technical details created in him a geometric accuracy of sight, an amazing eye, a sense of form and symmetry; he was easily given the plastic arts, he liked the complex plans of buildings; but he himself admitted that he did not like music, and could hardly endure the playing of the orchestra at balls.

So Peter came out unlike his predecessors. He was a great master, best understanding economic interests, most sensitive to the sources of state wealth. Klyuchevsky notes that his predecessors, the kings of the old and new dynasties, were similar masters, but they were masters, white-handed women, accustomed to managing with the hands of others, and from Peter came a mobile master-laborer, self-taught, tsar-craftsman.

So, Klyuchevsky, describing the personality of Peter, rewards him with such qualities as diligence, perseverance, energy. Perhaps it was because of this that Peter succeeded in so many ways. The historian attributes some of the negative traits of his character to the upheavals that Peter experienced in childhood.

2. Foreign policy and reform of Peter the Great

Klyuchevskiy Solovyov Emperor Peter

At the first glance at Peter's transformative activity, it seems to be devoid of any plan and sequence. Gradually expanding, it captured all parts of the state system, touched the most diverse aspects of people's life. But not a single unit was rebuilt at once, at one time and in its entire composition; each reform was approached several times, at different times touching it in parts, as needed, at the request of the current moment. By studying one or another series of reformative measures, it is easy to see what they led to, but it is difficult to guess why they followed in that order.

The author notes that Peter did not know peace and constantly fought with someone: either with his sister, or with Turkey, Sweden, even with Persia. Moreover, with his main enemies, with Turkey and Sweden, Peter did not fight like his predecessors: these were coalition, allied wars. Peter inherited from his predecessors two tasks, the resolution of which was necessary in order to ensure the external security of the state. First, it was necessary to complete the political unification of the Russian people, almost half of which was still outside the Russian state. Secondly, it was necessary to correct the borders of the state territory, which, on the southern and western sides, were too open for attack. The second task, territorial, even before him brought the Muscovite state into a collision with two external enemies: with Sweden, from which it was necessary to recapture the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea, and with Turkey. But even before Peter the Great, the Moscow government recognized the impossibility of simultaneously resolving both tasks.

IN. Klyuchevsky emphasizes that the war was the driving force behind the reforms and that the structure of the reforms and their sequence were entirely due to the needs imposed by the war, which, in his opinion, was rather stupidly conducted.

Peter's goals were primarily aimed at transforming the military forces of the country. The military reform entailed two series of measures, some of which were aimed at maintaining the regular order of the transformed army and the newly created fleet, others to ensure their maintenance. Military, social and economic innovations demanded such intensive and accelerated work from the management, set him such complex and unusual tasks that he could not do with his previous system and composition. Therefore, side by side with these innovations and partly even ahead of them, there was a gradual restructuring of the management of the entire government machine, as a necessary general condition for the successful implementation of other reforms. Another such general condition was the preparation of businessmen and minds for reform. For the successful operation of the new management, as well as other innovations, executors were needed who were sufficiently prepared for the work, possessing the knowledge necessary for this, and a society was also needed that was ready to support the work of transformation, understanding its essence and goals. Hence Peter's intensified concerns about the dissemination of scientific knowledge, about the establishment of general educational and vocational, technical schools.

The military reform was Peter's primary transformative work, the longest and most difficult both for himself and for the people. She put forward a double cause, demanded the search for funds for the maintenance of the transformed and expensive armed forces and special measures for maintaining their regular order. Recruitment sets, extending military service to non-serving classes, informing the new army of an all-class composition, changed the established social relations. The nobility, which made up the bulk of the former army, had to take a new official position. This reform, as Klyuchevsky notes, is very important in our history.

Peter did not remove compulsory service from the estate, universal and indefinite, did not even make it easier, on the contrary, burdened it with new duties and established a stricter procedure for serving it in order to extract all the available nobility from the estates and stop harboring. He wanted to get accurate statistics of the noble reserve and strictly ordered the nobles to submit to the Discharge, and later to the Senate, lists of underage children, their children and relatives who lived with them at least 10 years old, and orphans themselves to come to Moscow for recording. These lists were frequently reviewed and reviewed. Together with undergrowths, or especially, adult nobles were also called up for reviews, so that they would not hide at home and were always in good working order. Peter severely persecuted "non-being", failure to appear at a review or for an appointment. In the autumn of 1714, all nobles aged 10 to 30 were ordered to appear in the coming winter for recording at the Senate, with the threat that anyone who reported on the one who did not appear would receive all his belongings and villages. However, Klyuchevsky assures, these measures were of little success. What the nobles did not just go to "shirk" from the service. Not only the city nobles, but also the courtiers, when attired on a campaign, were attached to some kind of "idle business", an empty police assignment, and under its cover lived in their estates during the war. Klyuchevsky was concerned that the poor and the old were serving, while the rich were “shitting” from service, and other couch potatoes simply scoffed at the tsar’s cruel decrees on service.

One of the most fruitful ideas that began to stir in the minds of Moscow in the 17th century was the awareness of the fundamental shortcoming that the financial system of the Moscow state suffered from. This system, raising taxes as the needs of the treasury increased, burdened the labor of the people, without helping it to become more productive. The idea of ​​a preliminary rise in the productive forces of the country, as a necessary condition for the enrichment of the treasury, formed the basis of Peter's economic policy. He set himself the task of equipping people's labor with the best technical methods and tools of production and introducing new industries into the national economic circulation, turning people's labor to develop the country's still untouched wealth. Having asked himself this matter, he affected all branches of the national economy; there does not seem to be a single industry left, even the smallest one, to which Peter would not pay keen attention: agriculture in all its branches, cattle breeding, horse breeding, sheep breeding, sericulture, horticulture, hop growing, winemaking, fishing, etc. - everything touched his hand. But most of all, he spent his efforts on the development of the manufacturing industry, manufactories, especially mining, as the most necessary for the army. Moving the manufacturing industry with a strong hand, Peter thought no less about marketing, about internal and especially external maritime trade, in which Russia was a slave to Western sailors.

As for the reforms in the field of management, Klyuchevsky believed that in this branch of his activity, Peter suffered the most failures, made many mistakes; but these were not accidental, transient phenomena. About the provincial reform, he said that Peter's legislation did not reveal either a slowly considered thought or a quick creative mind. The purpose of the reform was purely fiscal. Provincial institutions received the repulsive character of the press for squeezing money out of payers and least of all thought about the well-being of the population.

Peter I achieved financial success. Klyuchevsky cites statistics: the estimated income of 1724 was almost three times the income of the scarce 1710. This success was achieved by the poll tax, which increased the salary income of the treasury by more than 2 million. Since military reform was impossible without financial reform, Klyuchevsky recognizes financial reform as the second most important aspect of the transformation of Peter's activities.

The historian believes that the reforms have varying degrees of importance: he considered the military reform the initial stage of Peter's transformative activity, and the reorganization of the financial system - his ultimate goal. The rest of the reforms were either the result of changes in military affairs, or prerequisites for achieving the mentioned ultimate goal. Klyuchevsky attached independent importance only to economic policy.

Many criticize Peter for wanting to Europeanize Russia (for example, Karamzin), but from Klyuchevsky's point of view, rapprochement with Europe was in Peter's eyes only a means to achieve goals, and not the goal itself.

Speaking about the reforms in general, Klyuchevsky says that they were military-financial in their initial moment and in their ultimate goal. He limited his review to the facts, which, arising from this dual meaning, touched all classes of society, resonated with the whole people. Drawing general conclusions on Peter’s reforms, he writes: “The reform itself arose from the urgent needs of the state and people, instinctively felt by an imperious person with a sensitive mind and strong character, talents that were harmoniously combined in one of those exceptionally happily built natures, which, according to unknown yet causes from time to time appear in humanity. With these qualities, warmed by a sense of duty and the determination "not to spare his life for the fatherland," Peter became the head of a people, of all European peoples, the least successfully placed historically. The reform carried out by Peter the Great did not have as its direct goal to rebuild either the political, or social, or moral order established in this state, was not directed by the task of placing Russian life on Western European foundations that were unusual for it, introducing new borrowed principles into it, but was limited to the desire to arm The Russian state and the people with ready-made Western European means, mental and material, and thereby bring the state on a level with the position it has won in Europe, raise the labor of the people to the level of the forces they have shown. But all this had to be done in the midst of a stubborn and dangerous foreign war, hastily and forcibly, and at the same time fought against the apathy and inertia of the people, brought up by the predatory bureaucracy and the rude landowning nobility, and fought against the prejudices and fears inspired by the ignorant clergy. Therefore, the reform, modest and limited in its original design, aimed at restructuring the military forces and expanding the financial resources of the state, gradually turned into a stubborn internal struggle, stirred up the entire stagnant mold of Russian life, agitated all classes of society. Started and led by the supreme power, the habitual leader of the people, it adopted the character and methods of a violent upheaval, a kind of revolution. It was a revolution not in its aims and results, but only in its methods and in the impression it made on the minds and nerves of its contemporaries. It was more of a shock than a coup. This shock was an unforeseen consequence of the reform, but it was not its deliberate purpose.

So, since V.O. Klyuchevsky historian, he evaluates the activities of Peter, based on historical facts, analyzes the situation as a whole and sees the state as a single system. In addition, he is based on the opinions of other historians and contemporaries of Peter, so his assessment can be called quite objective. He judges reforms on the basis of their results and achieved goals, calling them successful or failure. Klyuchevsky is looking for the causes of historical processes in objective circumstances.

II.Assessment of the personality and activities of Peter I from the point of view of S.M. Solovyov

CM. Solovyov wrote that Peter 1 was really the Great, as they called him among the people. Peter was not a lover of glory. He lived and worked for the good of the people and cared only about the people. He realized that it was his duty to lead a weak, poor, almost unknown people out of this sad state through civilization. For example, at the request of the people, to fight against private fires, roofs are covered with tiles instead of yew, and houses are built of stone, and they are built along the streets, according to European custom, and not inside courtyards, as before. Peter forbids the carrying of edged weapons, tk. during drunken fights, people cut each other with knives, sometimes to death.

A rather interesting innovation was that women were no longer allowed to be locked up at home, but had to be taken out to public meetings. Also, in the presence of a woman, men had to restrain their bad or indecent morals. Peter also makes theatrical art publicly available - "a wooden comedy temple was built on Red Square - for everyone."

Peter was faced with a difficult task: for the education of the Russian people, it was necessary to call in foreign mentors, leaders who, naturally, sought to subordinate the students to their influence, to rise above them. This humiliated the disciples, whom Peter wanted to make masters as soon as possible. He wanted at least the nobility to be subject to compulsory literacy. The historian wrote that Peter forced foreign books to be translated, and the translation, the king ordered, should not be literal, but semantic.

The historian spoke of Peter in enthusiastic tones, attributing to him all the successes of Russia, both in internal affairs and in foreign policy, showed the organic and historical readiness of the reforms: “The need to move onto a new road was realized; At the same time, the duties were determined: the people got up and gathered on the road; but someone was waiting; waiting for the leader; the leader has come"

Military operations are conducted by Peter skillfully and clearly, without excessive self-confidence, but with purposefulness. To resist Turkey, he takes the Azov fortress from the second time. In order to break through the "window to Europe", i.e. access to the Baltic Sea, is at war with the Swedes. The historian believed that the emperor saw his main task in the internal transformation of Russia, and the Northern War with Sweden was only a means to this transformation.

Solovyov attached paramount importance not to external influences on the history of the country, but to the internal processes that took place in it. In his opinion, the basis of the historical process was the movement from the tribal system to the state and the development of the state itself. The historian also attached great importance to the geographical factor.

For the country as a whole, Peter also does a lot, and perhaps even more. Under his rule, the extraction of coal and iron ore, metallurgy, leather production, shipbuilding, and military craft are developing.

Solovyov significantly distinguishes Peter from his predecessors: “Peter was not a king in the sense of his ancestors, he was a transforming hero or, rather, the founder of a new kingdom, a new empire, and the more he went into his transformative activity, the more he lost the opportunity to be similar to their ancestors; moreover, the great war ceased shortly before his death.

So, Solovyov characterizes Peter as very responsive to the people. He cared about the state of the people, sought to make them educated. Solovyov also notes that during the reign of Peter I, society was cultivated. Solovyov presented the reforms as a strictly sequential series of links that make up a comprehensively thought-out and pre-planned program of transformations, which is based on a rigid system of clearly formulated targets.

III.Assessment of the personality and activities of Peter I from the point of view of N.V. Karamzin

N.V. Karamzin was especially interested in the personality of Peter I and his reforms. In 1798, the writer even had an idea to write a “Eulogy to Peter I”, but it was not carried out. In Karamzin's notebook, only a sketch of "Thoughts for a commendable word to Peter I", dated June 11, 1798, has been preserved.

Describing the emperor, Karamzin writes that in the extraordinary efforts of Peter we see all the firmness of his character and autocratic power. Nothing seemed scary to him.

Karamzin notes that Peter is great without a doubt, but he could still be exalted much more if he found a way to enlighten the mind of Russians without harming their civic virtues. He considers him a “poorly educated” Lefort, who moved to Moscow out of poverty and, quite naturally, finding Russian customs strange to him, spoke to Peter about them with contempt, and elevated everything European to heaven. According to Karamzin, when Peter saw Europe, he wanted to make Holland out of Russia.

One of the many mistakes of Peter I, Karamzin considers the foundation of a new capital on the northern edge of the state, "among the swells of the marsh, in places condemned by the breed to infertility and lack." We can say that Petersburg is based on tears and corpses.

According to Karamzin, the reason for the reforms was the "passion" of Peter the Great: the passion to glorify Russia and the passion "to new customs for us", which "crossed the boundaries of prudence in him."

He blames Peter I for setting as his goal "not only the new greatness of Russia, but also the modern appropriation of European customs." Karamzin condemned the restructuring of the state administration system, the elimination of the patriarchate, the subordination of the church to the state, the Table of Ranks, the transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg, and the breaking of old customs. He believes that Peter "raped" Russian nature and abruptly broke the old way of life. Karamzin declares that everything Russian was eradicated, we became citizens of the world, but in some cases we ceased to be citizens of Russia, and Peter is to blame for this.

When I read The Note on Ancient and New Russia in Its Political and Civil Relations, I was struck by Karamzin's sharp, critical attitude towards Peter I.

Assessing the activities of Peter, Karamzin approaches this more emotionally than other historians. Perhaps this is due to the fact that he is more of a writer than a historian. Karamzin's structure of reasoning is not as clear as that of other historians. His work is difficult to read because there is old language and more artistic descriptions than concrete facts.

Conclusion

So, of course, Peter I plays a huge role in our history. We see how much this man did for the people and for the country. And to this day, for three centuries, the New Year is celebrated in Russia, a holiday introduced by Peter in 1699-1700. And many, in those distant times, new and unusual customs have so grown into Russian culture that they are already inseparable, and it seems that they have always existed.

Peter I influenced Russian history so significantly that interest in his activities is unlikely to ever fade, no matter how his reforms are assessed.

Historians agree that the reforms began (and took place) thanks to the personality of Peter, and differ in how Peter defined the goals of the reforms and how clearly he did this.

Due to differences in approaches, Karamzin, Klyuchevsky and Solovyov interpret the reforms in different ways and their meaning, however, often coincide in their conclusions.

According to all historians, Peter was a worker tsar who constantly worked, learned something new and tried to teach this new to those around him.

As a person, Peter 1 was perhaps not the most perfect, but as a statesman and reformer he achieved a lot, so this legacy has been preserved for centuries.

I have made a far from complete sketch of Peter's transformative activity, but I have tried to touch on those events thanks to which we can judge his activity. So, only after considering the point of view of different historians, it is possible to draw objective conclusions about this outstanding personality.

Bibliography

1. Karamzin N.M. A note about ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations. M., 1991

Klyuchevsky V.O. historical portraits. M., 2001

Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. M., 2003

Soloviev S.M. History of Russia since ancient times. M., 2009

Soloviev S.M. Public readings on the history of Russia. M., 2003

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In the political system, the reforms of Peter the Great became the logical conclusion of the trends in the development of statehood, which were outlined in the so-called Moscow period. We are talking about a phenomenon that various researchers call “oriental despotism” (L. S. Vasiliev, M. P. Pavlova-Silvanskaya), “despotic autocracy” (V. B. Kobrin, A. L. Yurganov, V. M. Paneyakh), the third “universal state as a goal” (English historian A. Toynbee) or “state-society” (French historian F. Braudel). Some historians, however, identify the political system of Russia more difficult: in the XVIII century. as a noble paternalistic monarchy based on the leading positions of the nobility in social organization and public service, as well as on the patronage functions of the monarch in relation to all subjects; in the 19th century as a "legitimate monarchy" - the lowest level of the rule of law, in which management is based on the law, but power is in the hands of the bureaucracy in the absence or the meager participation of public representatives (B.N. Mironov). Nevertheless, whatever features of the state-political system these and other definitions take into account, their common basis is the recognition of several fundamental positions. Firstly, within the framework of such a model, the state acts as a self-sufficient force in relation to society, and representatives of power combine several functions at once - rulers, mentors. The expression of the complete subordination of society to the state was the statization (statization) of all elements of the public sector. Any social activity of an individual or a collective could develop only in line with public service and only with the support of certain links of the state apparatus. The only exceptions were grassroots autonomous collectives like peasant rural communities, estate-corporate organizations - bodies of noble self-government, established in 1785. The state monopoly of power was first undermined only by zemstvo and city institutions created during the "great reforms" of the 60-70s. 19th century Secondly, such a political system is characterized by deep structural violations in the field of law, in particular, in the regulation of power and property relations. Thirdly, the political police and punitive bodies, directly accountable to the head of state, acquire significant influence in the state. Fourth, it is the militarization of the state apparatus and the extension of military principles to the sphere of civilian life. The army becomes not only a standard for organizing society, but also a kind of "forge" of personnel for the entire bureaucratic corps. Fifth, the main social pillar of power and the conductor of reforms was the bureaucracy, whose growth dynamics in the XVIII-XIX centuries. significantly outpaced population growth rates nationwide. The transformations of Peter I greatly changed the nature and structure of the Russian political system. First of all, the idea of ​​the scope and rights of the supreme power has become different. The power of the Russian autocrats before Peter I still had a number of limitations. For example, “law” or “rank” served as such a restriction, which meant a way of life fixed by tradition. V. O. Klyuchevsky noted that "the Moscow Tsar had extensive power over persons, but not over order." In addition, the state institutions that framed the supreme power - the Zemsky Sobor, the Boyar Duma, the Consecrated Cathedral - participated in management and legislative work. Finally, individual monarchs in the 17th century. gave crucifixion records containing certain guarantees to subjects. These customs were decisively crossed out by Peter I, opposing them with his own formula of power: “His Majesty is an autocratic monarch who should not give an account of his affairs to anyone in the world, but has his own states and lands, like a Christian sovereign, by his own will piety to govern." Citizens were charged with the duty “to do everything ordered by the autocrat without murmuring and contradiction” (Feofan Prokopovich. “The Truth of the Monarch’s Will”, 1722). This scheme remained virtually unchanged throughout the 19th century, when the supreme power in Russia, despite the desire for a legal justification for the actions taken, managed even without a formal legal restriction of its powers. One of the expressions of this arbitrariness of the supreme power legalized by Peter I was the decree of February 5, 1722, which abolished the previous tradition of succession to the throne and asserted the right of the monarch to appoint his own successor. With this decree, which, according to V. O. Klyuchevsky, turned the state law of Russia back, to a patrimonial track, many politicians and historians associated the subsequent upheavals of the throne. The justification for the unlimited power of the autocrat was carried out through the sacralization (giving a sacred status) to the royal power and the assignment of special charisma to it, mediated by the liquidation of the patriarchate in 1721 and the announcement by Peter I of himself as the "extreme judge" of the spiritual board - the Synod. Of considerable importance were the theory of metamorphosis - the transformation of Russia under the beneficial influence of Peter I, and the personal cult of the monarch. The main ideologist of the time of Peter the Great, Feofan Prokopovich, theoretically substantiated the omnipotence of autocratic power. A graduate of the Roman Jesuit College, Prokopovich combined in his reasoning all the European teachings on the rights of the monarch known to him. Using the ideas of the theorists of the school of natural law of the absolutist direction - G. Grotius, S. Puffendorf, Prokopovich proclaimed such prerogatives of power as independence and accountability (not subject to human trial and punishment), supra-legalism (itself is a source of laws), sacredness and inviolability, unity and inseparability. These exceptional properties were traced back to two sources - God-established (“By God, the king reigns”) and a social contract (“nationwide intention”), by which “the monarchy was introduced and maintained, of course.” But unlike his European teachers, who talked about individual individuals donating their own ancestral rights to the ruler, Prokopovich had in mind not an individual, but a collective alienation of his own rights in favor of the monarch. In numerous legislative acts of Peter I and the writings of his associates, other theoretical provisions were developed that formed the core of the new doctrine. This is, first of all, the idea of ​​"common benefit", or "common good", which implied a wide range of measures for the comprehensive strengthening of the state. This idea was almost completely consistent with another concept - "state interest". Thus, the ideology of the time of Peter the Great put an equal sign between state and public interests. These ideas were specified in relation to each of the estates. From the peasants, the “common good” required regular arable farming (like the “artery”, the peasants fed the entire state) and the execution of the state tax, including the payment of the poll tax and the performance of recruitment duties. For the townspeople, this meant active participation in the development of trade and industry, the payment of taxes, the supply of recruits, the maintenance of hospitals, orphanages, and regular service. For the nobility - compulsory public service in the military or civil field, mastering the knowledge and skills necessary for this. The clergy were not ignored either: they were charged not only with taking care of the moral health of the people, but also with the maintenance of crippled and decrepit soldiers at their own expense, and for monasteries - schools. The ideological calculations of Peter I, therefore, were aimed at the most complete mobilization of the entire society for the service of the state. Reconstruction of the state building in the first quarter of the 18th century. was not carried out according to plan, but as the need arose. At the same time, Peter I could not rely on the example of large-scale reforms in countries with a catch-up type of development (in Turkey, Japan and other non-Western countries of the world they were carried out much later). Hence the need to focus on the experience of developed countries - Sweden, France, adapting it to local conditions. At the same time, the reforms in Russia quite fully reflected the basic principles of the so-called inorganic modernizations. In a generalized form, these principles included: rationalization - the need to introduce reasonable, expedient rules and norms that determine the procedure for the operation of any state institution, unification, i.e., the introduction of uniformity in the structure, states, methods of work of the same type of institutions, centralization and differentiation of the functions of the administrative apparatus. (See: Medushevsky A. N. The establishment of absolutism in Russia. Comparative and historical research. M., 1994. P. 48.) Reforms of power and administration covered all levels: the highest, central, local. In 1711, on his way to the Prut campaign, Peter I established the Governing Senate of nine people. It was the highest body, it replaced the Boyar Duma, which ceased to meet at the beginning of the 18th century. Initially, the Senate was conceived by the tsar as a temporary body, acting during the period of "our absences." The scope of his duties was not clearly defined. In 1718, the heads of collegiums, the newly established bodies of central government, were included in the Senate ex officio. Since 1722, the Senate could include those of the highest rank dignitaries who were not the heads of the central departments. The former principle of staffing was recognized as erroneous on the basis of a completely rational argument: the leaders of the collegiums assembled in the Senate could hardly effectively control their own work. Since that time, the Senate has become a permanent deliberative and administrative body. He was entrusted with the control of justice, and also granted the rights of the highest court of appeal (the death penalty was provided for an attempt to appeal his sentence). In addition, the duties of the Senate included control over the activities of central and local government, managing the state economy, conducting audits, recruiting, land surveying, finding new revenues for the treasury, organizing food stores and warehouses, combating natural disasters, etc. e. In accordance with the directions of activity in the structure of the Senate, two departments were created: the Punishment Chamber for Judicial Cases and the Senate Office for Management. In addition, at the end of Peter's reign, the Senate included two auxiliary services: the King of Arms office, or Heraldry, which replaced the abolished Discharge Order (its competence included accounting for all nobles, registering their official appointments and movements, as well as developing noble armorials), and Requetmeister office (she was engaged in receiving and analyzing complaints about the colleges and offices, checking the validity of appeals). A special place in the system of the Senate was assigned to fiscals and the prosecutor's office. These bodies carried out general supervision over the work of the entire bureaucratic apparatus, over the behavior of citizens, revealing everything that “may be to the detriment of the state interest.” The position of fiscals was introduced both at the local and central levels. In the form of remuneration, the fiscal received half of the property confiscated from the criminal he had exposed. The unsubstantiated accusation was written off as a "manufacturing defect" and actually got away with the fiscal. At the end of the 1720s. the institute of fiscals was abolished, and its personnel partially joined the prosecutor's office. The position of the prosecutor was introduced by Peter I in 1722 in collegiums and offices, and the prosecutor general was placed at the head of the Senate. The Prosecutor's Office was established in order to prevent and promptly respond to offenses. The prosecutor general was considered "like an eye" of the emperor and "solicitor on state affairs." His position in the official hierarchy occupied the first place. He was responsible for organizing supervision in the state; being the first among equals, directed the work of fellow senators, led the Senate office. Over time, the power of the Prosecutor General grew to a volume that was not laid down in the constituent acts of Peter I. From the middle of the 18th century. until the beginning of the 19th century. he actually concentrated in his hands the leadership of three branches of government - finance, internal affairs and justice. Throughout the 18th century prosecutor generals changed infrequently - persons who enjoyed the personal trust of the monarch and were able to bear the heavy burden of official responsibility were appointed to this high post. The first prosecutor general was Pavel Ivanovich Yaguzhinsky. The reason for the consistent strengthening of the role of the Prosecutor General was the desire of the supreme power to influence the senators with his help, moderating their ambitions and inclinations towards arbitrariness. The potential inclination of senators to display independence or even opposition was also foreseen by Peter I, so he did not include the position of senator in the nomenclature of officials of the Table of Ranks. Despite the fact that the Senate was not a legislative body, in certain periods, for example, under Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761), he aggressively invaded the legislative sphere: the vast majority of the empress's legislative acts arose on his initiative. Often, the legislative role of the Senate acted in hidden forms: in the procedure for interpreting laws, as well as in a successfully found (in the conditions of interdepartmental red tape) option - making a decision that had a normative value until the appearance of the corresponding royal decree. Such precedents contributed to the formation of the concept of the transfer of political sovereignty during periods of interregnum to the Senate, with the subsequent delegation of power to the monarch. This idea was popular among the highest dignitaries of the empire in the last year of the life of Elizabeth Petrovna. A similar plan, which tended to recognize the legal priority of the senatorial college over the supreme power at the time of its legitimation, was rejected by the successor of Elizabeth Petrovna. However, the very idea of ​​expanding the powers of the Senate, including turning it into a political representation of the entire nobility, turned out to be extremely tenacious among the liberal nobility. Under Peter I, the personal office of the monarch was also created, which in 1704 inherited some of the functions of the Preobrazhensky order and the near office of the Boyar Duma. The cabinet was transformed into the tsar's personal office, which was in charge of his correspondence, including foreign policy, accounting for financial receipts as personal income, and nominations for positions and awards. Here acts were drawn up to be published on behalf of the monarch. Along with the Senate, although to an incomparably smaller scale, the Cabinet worked out the government's course and monitored its implementation. Like the Attorney General of the Senate, the cabinet secretary had great influence in the bureaucratic environment and became the object of "search" on the part of small and large officials, private individuals. In 1717-1718. restructuring of the central administration. It was based on the principle of cameralism, borrowed from the experience of European countries. Cameralism is the organization of central institutions by clearly delineating their functions by branches of government. (Kamensky A. B. From Peter I to Paul I. Reforms in Russia in the 18th century. An experience of a holistic analysis. M., 1999. S. 128.) New institutions were created - colleges that had the same staffing and general principles of work. They were in charge of national affairs. The boards were headed by the president, who, unlike the judge of the old order, did not exercise sole control in his department. Collegial discussion of all issues under consideration and the adoption of a final decision by a majority of votes served as a guarantee against bossy arbitrariness. The members of the presence, or officials with the right to vote, were the vice-president, four councilors of the board, four collegiate assessors (assessors). The current technical work was carried out by the secretary and the so-called clerks, or clerical servants. In some colleges, an adviser and a secretary from foreigners were also appointed as experts. Originally colle! there were few, but in the early 1720s. their list has grown. The three main ones were considered to be the Board of Foreign Affairs, the Military, the Admiralty (in charge of the affairs of the fleet). Three other collegiums were engaged in finance - the Chamber Collegium (in charge of government fees), the State Office Collegium (supervised government spending), the Revision Collegium (kept records of public expenditures), two collegiums - Berg and Manufaktura - led the industry, the first - metallurgical plants , the second - light industry enterprises. The Collegium of Commerce directed foreign trade. The College of Justice was in charge of court and lower courts, registered various private acts (purchases, debt obligations, powers of attorney, wills, documents on the sale of estates, etc.). The patrimonial collegium, which largely took over the functions of the abolished Local Order, dealt with land litigation, executed transactions for the purchase and sale of land and serfs, dealt with escheated estates, runaway peasants, etc. In 172i, the Spiritual Collegium, or Synod, was created . This body took the place of the patriarchal throne, which was actually abolished by Peter I even earlier. From now on, church affairs were decided by state officials, appointed from clergy (and sometimes from secular), included in the same disciplinary framework as the rest of the bureaucracy. The Chief Magistrate, who controlled the townspeople and led the local magistrates, was arranged according to the type of collegium. The only difference between the Chief Magistrate and other colleges was its elected composition. It included representatives of the highest commercial and industrial corporations of the city, and only the chief president and the president were crown (government) officials. All new central institutions relied in their work on the General Regulations (1720) - a set of rules developed by Peter I. Later, the general principles of activity were specified in relation to each collegium in a special regulation related to it. The collegiate reform of Peter I was also an attempt to separate administration from the court, which was an important step towards establishing the principle of separation of powers. In 1708-1709. reform of local governments was launched. The territory of the country was divided into 8 provinces of unequal size. Later, their number was increased to 11. As a result of the regional reforms of 1708 and 1719, a three-member administrative-territorial division was formed: province - province - county. Governors were at the head of the provinces. Under the governor, there were landrat councils of 8-12 people, elected by the nobility of the province. The Council of Landrats was seen as a necessary counterbalance to the excessive development of the personal principle in the administration of the provinces. Under the governor, a provincial board was also established, consisting of a landrichter - a provincial judge (since 1719 he was replaced by a court court), a chief commissar in charge of finances, a chief commissar in charge of grain supplies for the army, and a manager of palace estates. At the head of the provinces, the number of which in 1719 reached 50, were governors, under whom zemstvo offices were created. Since 1719, the center of gravity in the regional administration was transferred to the provinces, so the most important of them received administration similar to that of the provincial governor-general. The county administration was represented by zemstvo commissars, elected from among the local nobility. Communication with the highest bodies, in particular with the Senate, was carried out through provincial commissars. Despite the efforts of Peter I to ensure a coherent system of government from top to bottom, many regional institutions, unlike the central ones, barely survived their creator. This was caused, firstly, by difficulties with personnel - the constant shortage of trained officials manifested itself even more sharply at the local level. Secondly, the burden of taxes on the tax-paying population, especially after 1725, made it very problematic to continue maintaining the expensive local bureaucracy. Thirdly, in the public consciousness of even the upper classes, there was a deeply rooted dislike for the electoral service: this phenomenon explains the rapid curtailment of the experiment of Peter I with the council of landrats. Finally, the state innovations of Peter I, in particular his regional reform, became the object of fierce criticism from certain political groups at court after his death.

The results of the foreign policy activities of Peter I

The main directions of Russia's foreign policy of this period - northwestern and southern - were determined by the struggle for access to non-freezing seas, without which it was impossible to break out of economic and cultural isolation, and, consequently, overcome the country's general backwardness, as well as the desire to acquire new lands, strengthen border security and improve the strategic position of Russia.

Russia's victory in the Northern War (1700-1721) was largely natural, since the war had a historically justified character. It was determined by the desire of Russia to return the lands that belonged to it earlier, without which its progressive development became impossible. The just nature of the war was especially clearly manifested during the Swedish invasion, when the struggle for independence came to the fore before the Russian and Ukrainian peoples.

The country, under the leadership of Peter, who "raised it on its hind legs", managed to mobilize all its resources, create a defense industry, a new regular army and navy, which for a long time did not know their equal in Europe. During the course of the war, the Russian army acquired a high level of organization and leadership, and the courage, steadfastness and patriotism of its soldiers became one of the main sources of victory.

Russian diplomacy, using the contradictions between European countries, managed to create the necessary foreign policy conditions for concluding peace.

Russia, as a result of a long and painful war, took the most important place in Europe, having won the status of a great power. Access to the Baltic Sea, the accession of new lands contributed to its economic and cultural development. During the war, Russia created a powerful regular army, began to turn into an empire.

Results and evaluation of Peter's transformations

Assessing the Petrine reforms and their significance for the further development of the Russian Empire, the following main trends must be taken into account.

1. The reforms of Peter I marked the formation of an absolute monarchy, unlike the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, balancing the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.

2. The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for modernizing the country.

3. In terms of its scale and swiftness of the reform of Peter I, there are no analogues not only in Russian, but also, at least, in European history.

4. A powerful and contradictory imprint was left on them by the features of the previous development of the country, extreme foreign policy conditions and the personality of the king himself.

5. Based on some trends emerging in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also brought it to a qualitatively higher level in a minimal historical period of time, turning Russia into a powerful state.

6. The price for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations, and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population.

7. A multiple increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social actions - the rebellion of the archers in Astrakhan (1705 - 1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region - were directed not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.

8. Despite the inconsistency of the personality of Peter I and his transformations, in Russian history his figure has become a symbol of decisive reform and selfless, sparing neither himself nor others, service to the Russian state.

9. Transformations of the first quarter of the XVIII century. are so grandiose in their consequences that they give grounds to speak of pre-Petrine and post-Petrine Russia. Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in Russian history. Reforms are inseparable from the personality of Peter I - an outstanding commander and statesman.

However, it should be noted that the price of the transformations was prohibitively high: in carrying out them, the tsar did not consider either the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, or national traditions, or the memory of ancestors. Hence the inconsistency in the assessment of transformations in historical science.

The mighty mind and iron hand of Peter I touched everything that Russia lived then, and subjected her life to profound transformations. They embraced industry, and agriculture, and trade, and the state system, and the position of classes and social groups, and so on. The country has made a leap from patriarchal backwardness to comprehensive development. The seeds of a secular spiritual life appeared: the first newspaper, the first professional schools, the first printing houses, the first museum, the first public library, the first public theaters. That was truly the great work of Peter. But it began with the transformation of state defense and its main engine was military campaigns. The impetus for everything was given by the two Azov campaigns of Peter I against Turkey, when the vital necessity of organizing the Russian army as a regular one and the creation of naval forces was realized. And this required the rapid development of industry, in particular, metallurgy, the rise of agriculture and, in general, the reorganization of the entire state. Meanwhile, the Azov campaigns, which culminated in the capture of Azov and, to some extent, the strengthening of the security of the southern borders of Russia, did not bring the main result - access to the Black Sea. The international situation, in particular, the collapse of the anti-Turkish Holy League, for a long time averted the “thoughts and eyes” of Peter I from the Black Sea. But Russia had the opportunity (the struggle of the major European powers for the “Spanish inheritance” began) to go to war with Sweden, in a coalition with Saxony and Denmark, for the return of access to the Baltic Sea. This long, bloody war, known as the Northern War (1700-1721), ended with the crushing defeat of the first-class Swedish army and the conquest of the Baltic coast by Russia from Vyborg and St. Petersburg to Riga, which allowed it to enter the rank of great powers. The Northern War was the crucible in which the regular Russian army and naval forces were tempered and strengthened, the strategy and tactics of Peter I and his generals were formed. In contrast to the cordon strategy, focused on scattering troops, but, in fact, on defensive actions, the strategy of Peter 1 was decisive: he sought to concentrate troops in a decisive direction and not so much to seize the territory, but to destroy the enemy’s manpower and artillery . At the same time, his strategy did not shy away from defense, as he showed in the first years of the Northern War, but he reduced the very essence of defense not to aimless maneuvering, as the cordon strategy prescribed, but to exhausting the enemy and gaining time in order to give a general battle and defeat his. True, he considered this battle “very dangerous business” and avoided it in an unfavorable situation. Peter I and his commanders remained adherents of linear tactics, but introduced such innovations into it that left only an outward resemblance to a linear battle formation in the proper sense of the concept. The linear formation adopted in the Russian army assumed, for example, a reserve and the so-called private lines (private support lines). This made it deeper and more stable. The art of military engineering has been greatly developed. The Russian troops carried out the siege of fortresses, combining proper engineering methods of action (digging, aproshi, etc.) with massive artillery fire to move on to the assault. The fortress fortification proved to be strong, as evidenced by the heroic defense of Poltava. The way Peter I demonstrated the art of fighting on the battlefields was a school in which major commanders grew up, such as A.D. Menshikov, B.P. Sheremetev, M.M. Golitsyn, F.M. Apraksin. Russia paid a heavy price for the successes in the wars that she had to fight. Despite the acquisition of the "populous" Baltic provinces, the number of population in the country decreased under Peter against the number that was under Tsar Alexei, as they say, three million. After Peter the decline increased even more. But these heavy sacrifices were made not in vain, but in the name of the real needs of the great state - economic development and ensuring the military security of Russia. After the death of Peter the Great, the development of his undertakings in military affairs made its way through the “pro-Prussian” influence of Peter II and Peter III and their entourage and was expressed in the thoughts and military accomplishments of such commanders - the geniuses of Russian military art - as P.A. Rumyantsev, A. .V. Suvorov and their followers. They increased the military glory of Russia (M.I. Kutuzov, P.I. Bagration) and fully satisfied its national interests.

Bibliography:

Anisimov E.V. Muscovite Rus: the middle of the XIII - the middle of the XVI centuries. St. Petersburg, 2000.

Anisimov E.V. Muscovy: mid-16th – 17th centuries - St. Petersburg, 2000

Aisimov E.V. Imperial Russia: 18th century - St. Petersburg, 2000

http://www.ote4estvo.ru/kratkaya-istoriya-rossii/619-istoriya-rossii-17-veka.html

http://xreferat.ru/34/244-2-biografiya-petra-i.html

http://www.istorya.ru/referat/referat2/42604.php

http://www.protown.ru/information/hide/3679.html

Reigned: 1682- 1725

From the biography

• Peter I is one of the most prominent statesmen of Russia.
• From childhood he was interested in military affairs. He created "amusing troops" in Preobrazhensky, where he lived with his mother. These troops will become the basis of the future Preobrazhensky Regiment. He was fond of shipbuilding, firearms. He spent a lot of time in the German settlement, where the masters of this business lived.
• Peter I loved his country, dreamed that it would become the most powerful state, and applied all his strength to achieve the goal. He wanted to change both the country and the people, and in many ways he succeeded in doing so. Russia became one of the civilized countries of the world, a powerful state - an empire, and he himself - an emperor.
• Peter I was a controversial personality. Energy, wealth of nature, industriousness, activity, inquisitive mind were combined in him with cruelty, sometimes with rudeness, with idleness. Despite the different points of view on the activities of Peter I, one cannot fail to pay tribute to him as a great reformer who transformed Russia.

• During his life, he studied many crafts, believed that labor should be an obligatory need for any person, regardless of position and rank. He could decide the most important affairs of state and at the same time deal with ordinary everyday affairs. Russia did not know more such rulers.
• Peter I possessed a truly encyclopedic knowledge: he mastered many crafts and sciences, was a commander, lawmaker, diplomat, historian, geographer. He could easily talk both with the kings of Western countries and their ministers, and with simple artisans, finding a common language with everyone. Fluent in German and Dutch.
• The activities of Peter I are characterized by a look far into the future. He sought to make not momentary transformations, but those that would contribute to the flourishing of Russia for a long time. So many of his innovations acted for decades or more: the state institutions he created lasted the entire 18th century, recruiting sets - until 1864, and the Senate, Synod, prosecutor's office - until 1917.
• Peter I appreciated talented, hardworking people. He did not look at the differences - class, religious, national. A man of labor who cares for Russia, he extolled and encouraged such people in every possible way.
• How many talented figures of the country came from the bottom under Peter I!

Historical portrait of Peter I the Great

Activities

1. Domestic policy

Activities	results
Strengthening royal power.	Further centralization of power. The king's control over all spheres of life. 1721 - the king became known as the emperor, which significantly increased his role in the country. 1722 - Decree on succession to the throne: the emperor himself appointed the heir, based on the interests of the state.
Improving the system of state and local government.	1.Central government reforms: instead of the Boyar Duma, the Near Office was first created, and then in 1711 it was created Governing Senate; instead of 44 orders - 11 (then 14) colleges in 1717-1721; 1720- General Regulations, a document that consolidated the principles of collegiality and determined the functions of colleges. 2.Local government reforms: creation town halls in Moscow and zemstvo huts in cities in 1699-1700; administrative reform of 1708-1710, according to which the country is divided into 8 provinces, headed by the governor. 3. Since 1719, the three-tier system of local government: county-province-province.( 1 province = 5 districts, with him. districts, so from 1719 the counties were called, from 1727 the name of the counties was returned). 1714 - the appearance of fiscals - officials exercising control over the activities of institutions and persons in financial and judicial activities. magistrate, the main institution above the magistrates of other cities (these are self-government bodies in cities)
Formation of a bureaucratic apparatus capable of solving the assigned tasks.	1714 - Decree "On single inheritance", according to which the estate was inherited by the eldest son. The rest should serve the country. 1722 - Table of ranks, allowing you to support talented people from different classes. According to him, the 8th rank gave the right to hereditary nobility. The emergence of colleges, the administrative division of the country significantly increased the bureaucracy.
Deterioration of the condition of the peasants.	Forced work at enterprises (affiliated and possessive peasants). 1724 - a ban on peasants to go to work without the permission of the landowners. A passport system was introduced. 100 km. The result was numerous performances of the people, the most significant: the Astrakhan uprising in 1705-1706 and the uprising led by K. Bulavin in 1708-1709.
Carrying out church reform.	1721 - creation Synod, leading the church. The liquidation of the patriarchate, at the head of the Synod - a secular man, chief prosecutor.
Strengthening the defense capability and military power of the country, carrying out military reform.	1696 - creation of the navy. 1705 - creation regular army.Introduction recruiting sets. Lifelong service of peasant recruits. 1725 - the consciousness of an irregular army at the same time. The emergence of many educational institutions that train army officers (1701 - the first artillery school in Moscow, 1712 - in St. Petersburg, 1698 - the first nautical school in Azov. mathematical sciences, where they trained personnel for the army, etc.) For the nobles, the service became lifelong. 1716- "Military Regulations" about the order in the army. Especially the moral - moral qualities of soldiers and officers. 1718-1722 - "Marine Charter" and "Admiralty Regulations". 1707 - the first military hospital appeared in Moscow.
Improving the financial system.	Accumulation of the country's gold reserves. 1704 - monetary reform. Reducing the content of precious metals in coins. Copper money appeared. 1711 - monetary reform, minting of gold, silver and copper coins. 1718-1724 - census of the population, introduction of a new type of tax - poll tax.
Further development of industry	Created new industrial centers, new industries (shipbuilding, glassmaking, paper production). 1699 - the first ironworks in the Urals Vinius. State metallurgical plants were created in the Urals; into private hands.
Support for domestic trade.	The policy was mercantilism and protectionism 1703 - the first exchange of merchants appeared in St. Petersburg. 1721 - trade charter 1724 - the first protectionist customs tariff. Canals and communication routes were built to allow active trade.
The state policy in the field of education is beginning to take shape, contributing to its further development.	A system of vocational education was being formed. However, only the children of the nobility could enter the educational institutions where future officers were trained. Education for the nobility became mandatory. Without a diploma of education, priests could not give the right to marry. Strengthening secular principles in education. 1696- Decree on sending noble children abroad for study.
Support for scientific discoveries, creation of conditions for scientific activity in Russia.	The opening of the Russian Academy of Sciences has been prepared. However, Peter did not have time to do this, the Academy was opened in the year of the death of the emperor - in 1725 - by Catherine 1.1699 - the opening of the navigation school by an associate of Peter 1 P. Bruce - astronomy was studied there. 1702 - the first observatory in Russia was equipped on the Sukharev Tower Russia is a map of the starry sky. And since 1725, regular meteorological observations began in St. Petersburg. built a lathe. 1724 - the first Russian submarine (mechanic Nikonov) From 1722 - began collecting materials on the history of Russia.
Further discovery of mineral deposits and their processing	1700 - a mining exploration service was created, the purpose of which is to search for minerals. 1703 - a copper ore deposit was discovered in the Urals by a peasant Shilov. 1714 - mineral waters were discovered in Petrozavodsk by a master Ryabov. discovered by the explorer Grigory Kapustin. At the same time, brown coal was found in the Moscow region.
Further development of culture.	Forced imposition of a way of life according to the Western model. 1700 - transition to a new chronology. 1708 - introduction of a civil, more lightweight font. 1719 - creation of the first museum - the Kunstkamera. 1702 - the first printed periodical newspaper "Vedomosti" is published. (a public theater was opened in Moscow) 1714 - the first public library was opened. 1717 - a set of rules for behavior at the table and other public places appeared - “An honest mirror of youth”. high society, women were invited for the first time. Innovation in architecture: for the first time St. Petersburg was built according to plan, palace and park ensembles appeared in Peterhof. The heyday of painting, especially portraiture (A. Matveev, I. Nikitin)

2. Foreign policy

Activities	results
Southern direction. Purpose: to achieve access to the Black Sea, to annex territories.	1695-first Azov campaign, unsuccessful, since there was no fleet.1696- second Azov campaign. Successful. During the winter, a fleet was created. Azov was taken, the Taganrog fortress was built. 1697-1698- Grand Embassy to Europe in order to find allies to fight against Turkey. Didn't solve problems. The embassy consisted of 250 people, among them Lefort, Golovin, Voznitsyn; Peter I under the name of constable Peter Mikhailov. 1699-Karlovitsky Congress, peace was signed with Turkey for two years. 1700- Constantinople truce for 30 years.1710-1713- Russian-Turkish war. Turkey demands the return of Azov.1711- Prut campaign. The Russian army is surrounded by the Turks on the Prut River, near Yass. Truce of Jassy, according to which Russia leaves Moldova, returns Azov, destroys the Azov fleet, the Taganrog fortress and others. 1724- Treaty of Constantinople with Turkey. Russia recognized Turkey's conquests in Transcaucasia, and Turkey recognized Russia's conquests in the Caspian region.
Northern direction. Purpose: to achieve access to the Baltic Sea, to annex territories.	1699-northern union(Russia, Denmark, Saxony) 1700-1721- North War with Sweden. November 1700 - defeat near Narva. 1702 - Capture of Mirenburg and Noteburg (Schlisselburg) 1703 - capture of Nienschanz 1704 - capture of Navra and Derpt 1706 - Altranstadt peace between Sweden and Poland, according to which Poland broke off relations with Russia and pledged to help Sweden. September 28, 1708 - battle near the village Forest, a major victory for Russia. June 27, 1709- Poltava battle. The victory of Russia. 1710 - the capture of Riga, Vyborg, Revel. 1710 - the first naval victory - Gangut the battle. 1718-1719-Åland Congress, according to which Sweden and Russia wanted to end the war. However, the death of Charles 12 and the coming to power of new people did not allow the signing of a peace treaty, although it was much softer for the Swedes than the Nishtad peace. 1720-Grenham battle, the victory of Russia. 1721- Peace of Nystad with Sweden. According to it, Russia gained a foothold in the Baltic Sea from Vyborg to Riga (this is part of Karelia, Ingria, Estonia - Estonia, Livonia - Latvia, Russia paid 1.5 million rubles for the western territories. Finland returned to Sweden.
Southern direction. The goal is to secure on the shores of the Caspian Sea.	1722-1723 - Russian-Persian war. Persia recognized Russia's right to the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea. 1722- Caspian(Persian) campaign of Peter 1. Derbent was taken. 1723 - the campaign was resumed, the southern and western coasts of the Caspian Sea were conquered (Baku, Rasht, Salyan) 1723- Petersburg treaty with Persia, according to which Russia secures the conquered territories.
Eastern direction: the desire to secure a trade route with India,	1716-1717 - expedition of Prince A. Bekovich-Cherkassky to Central Asia ( Khiva campaign). Unsuccessful, the death of the prince. End of the hike. The eastern direction was not very interested in Peter, since the main thing for him was to achieve access to the Baltic and Black Seas.

RESULTS OF ACTIVITIES

• The absolute power of the king continued to strengthen, he began to be called the emperor.
• Numerous reforms strengthened the apparatus of state power and local self-government, which led to a significant strengthening of all spheres of society.
• A strong army and navy, powerful industrial production have been created, which made it possible to achieve access to the sea, to become a world power, closing the gap with the countries of the West.
• Russia has become one of the strongest civilized countries in the world, which was facilitated by numerous transformations and reforms in the social and cultural sphere.
• Successful policy in the west and south: Russia gained access to the Baltic Sea, conquered territories near it, conquered and annexed the western and southern territories of the Caspian Sea.
• The international prestige of Russia, which began to be called an empire, increased significantly.

However, there were also negative activity results.

• The enslavement of the peasants increased significantly, and their situation worsened. The result of which were numerous popular performances.
• Reforms were often carried out by force, without taking into account the traditions that have developed in the country for centuries.
• Unsuccessful policy in the south and east: access to the Black Sea and the route to India for trade were not opened.

Chronology of the life and work of Peter I

1682-1696	Joint reign of Peter I and Ivan V.
1682-1889	Sophia's Regency
1701	Sukharev tower built in Moscow
1695 March-October	The first Azov campaign of Peter I, unsuccessful.
1696, May-July	The second Azov campaign of Peter I. Azov is taken.
1697-1698	Grand Embassy to Europe.
1697-1699	Expedition of V. Atlasov to Kamchatka.
January 1, 1700	The beginning of a new era.
1700	Konstantinovsky world with Turkey.
1700-1725	Northern War with Sweden.
	EVENTS OF THE NORTHERN WAR:
1700 November	Defeat near Narva
1702	Noteburg taken
1703	Fortress Nienschanz taken
1708	Battle of Lesnaya, Russian victory
1709	Poltava battle
1714	The victory of the Russian fleet at the cape Gangut
1720	The victory of the Russian fleet near the island Grengam.
1701	A school of "mathematical and navigational" sciences was opened in Moscow.
1702-1704	Start of creation Baltic Fleet
1703	Release of the first issue of the newspaper "Vedomosti"
1703	Base Petersburg
1705	Introduction recruitment duty, that is, the beginning of the creation of a regular army.
1705-1706	Streltsy uprising in Astrakhan
1707	Establishment of 8 provinces
1707-1708	The uprising of the Cossacks on the Don led by K.Bulavina.
1710	Population census.
1710-1713	Russo-Turkish War
1711	Establishment of the Governing Senate
1711	Prut campaign Petra
1711	monetary reform. Minting of gold, silver and copper coins.
1713	Petersburg is the capital of Russia.
1714	Decree on unanimity, equalization of estates with estates.
1714	Military charter
1716-1718	Khiva unsuccessful campaign of A. Bekovich-Cherkassky.
1718-1721	Creation colleges(instead of orders).
1718	Start of tax reform, transition to poll tax .
1719	The division of the provinces into provinces. General regulation.
1721	Liquidation of the patriarchate, establishment Synod.
1721	Peace of Nystad with Sweden (Russia + Livonia, Ingria, Estland, part of Karelia with Vyborg, part of Southern Finland)
1722	Table of ranks.
1722	Decree on succession to the throne.
1722	Establishment of merchant guilds and craft workshops.
1722-1723	Russo-Persian War. Persia recognized Russia's right to the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea.
1724	Decree on the establishment of the Academy of Sciences (opened in 1725, after the death of Peter 1).

• Peter I was tall - 2m, always stood out in the crowd.
• The king mastered many crafts in his life. He learned navigation, shipbuilding, watchmaking, took drawing and engraving lessons, learned how to make paper, was a bricklayer, carpenter, gardener, attended an anatomical theater, where he studied the basics of anatomy and practiced surgery. Peter I could not learn one thing - weaving bast shoes. He said: "There is no craft more sophisticated than bast shoes."
• As a result of military victories, Peter 1 became the emperor of All Russia, the prince of Courland, Estland, Karelian. In his military career, he also achieved great success - from a sergeant to a captain, colonel and admiral of the fleet.
• Peter I was distinguished by diligence in learning, perseverance, although in childhood and adolescence he could play for a day, and without food, he was so fond of the game.
• The health of the king was directly heroic. In addition, several times he had to avoid death at the hands of the conspirators.
• Peter I was very fond of skating. Previously, skates were tightly tied to shoes with laces. The skates we are used to - attached by runners to the sole - he invented himself, while in Holland and became interested in skating there.
• Many associates of Peter I, for example, his right hand Menshikov, were semi-literate people.
• Peter I issued many decrees during his life. Some of them were unusual. For example, the decree on what a subordinate should be like read: “A subordinate in front of his superiors should look dashing and silly, so as not to embarrass his boss with his understanding.” Who knows, maybe from this decree the desire of the bosses to see people in their environment, much lower than them in terms of education and skills, came from?)))
• And what is the medal "For drunkenness", issued by decree of Peter I! She weighed 7 kg., And wearing her, willy-nilly, thought: is it worth it to stop drinking. So every era had its own methods of dealing with drunkenness!)
• Peter I did his best to raise the level of education in the country. So, according to his decree, priests were forbidden to bless nobles who had no education for marriage. (Remember Mitrofanushka from D. Fonvizin’s comedy “Undergrowth”, the hero’s words: “I don’t want to study, but I want to get married”! - this is an echo of Peter's transformations!)

Under Peter I for the first time

• 1698 - the first order of St. Andrew the First-Called. They were awarded for military merit and civil service. The first order was received in 1699 by General-Admiral F.Golovin.
• In 1702, in Moscow, on Red Square, a German theater troupe gave the first public performances. The theater was specially built for this.
• The first newspaper, Vedomosti, began to appear in 1702.
• It was under Peter I that Russia became a maritime power. The first naval victory was won at the mouth of the Neva against the Swedes in 1703, in honor of which a medal was issued, on which it was written: “Unprecedented happens!”
• Magnitsky's first mathematics textbook was published in 1703
• The first observatory in Russia on the Sukharev Tower in 1702,
• In 1707, the first military hospital was opened in Moscow.
• In 1708, the first book was published, written in a lightweight civil type, it was geometry.
• The first public library was opened in 1714.
• The famous Kunstkamera is the first museum in Russia, the museum began to operate in 1719.
• From January 1, 1700 - the transition to a new chronology.
• For the first time, boards began to act instead of orders.
• For the first time, a secular person was placed at the head of the church - at the head of the Synod in 1721 was the chief procurator.
• For the first time there were provinces and provinces.

Thus, under Peter I the Great there were a lot of innovations, which had not been in the country before. Truly, the emperor was the FIRST! It is no coincidence that in 1721 the Senate conferred on Peter I the titles of "Father of the Fatherland", "Great" and Emperor of All Russia.

On the site poznaemvmeste.ru you can find material on personalities who lived during this period, were the emperor's associates (see section "Personality")

On this site there is material about the associate of Peter 1 - which can be used in a historical essay.

When describing in a historical essay the initial period of the activity of Peter 1, you can use material about his associate, the first generalissimo

Moscow. Monument "In commemoration of the 300th anniversary of the Russian fleet", Zurab Tsereteli, 1997
Height 98 m. The highest in Russia and one of the highest in the world.

Etienne Falcone
Monument to Peter 1 in St. Petersburg, Senate Square.
Bronze Horseman. 1768-1770