Synonyms are divided into absolute(full) and relative(partial).
Absolute (full) synonyms are called synonymous words that are identical in meaning to the word and in stylistic coloring. Absolute synonyms have neither semantic nor stylistic differences. For example: abstract - abstract, spelling - spelling, linguistics - linguistics, bucks - greens - green. Such synonyms are most often completely interchangeable. .
Relative (partial) synonyms (quasi-synonyms) such words are called synonyms that have semantic and stylistic differences. There are three types of relative synonyms:
· semantic (ideographic) synonyms differ in shades of values ( key - spring: key - a spring where the water gushes with pressure, spring- water leaks semantic synonyms can indicate a different degree of manifestation of a feature or action: run away and rush;(bonfire) burned- (bonfire) glowing, fast(step) - impetuous(step), anxiety - confusion, hot(air) - sultry(air), etc.
· stylistic synonyms differ in their stylistic affiliation, i.e. used in different functional styles of speech. For example, synonyms eyes - eyes, beauty - beauty differ from each other only in a stylistic sense: the first words are stylistically neutral, the second ones are bookish. In the synonymy run away - run away the first word is stylistically neutral, the last word is colloquial.
· semantic-stylistic synonyms differ in shades in meaning and stylistic affiliation. For example, synonymous adjectives interesting and amusing differ in shades of meaning: the word interesting used in the sense of ‘exciting attention with something significant’, and amusing– ‘exciting only external interest’. Besides, interesting- the word is stylistically neutral, and amusing- colloquial. ( Walk - drag, cough - thump, breathe).
Synonyms are divided into occasional and general language.
Common language (usual) synonyms synonyms are called, which are characterized by relative independence from the context, sufficient frequency of use. Such synonyms are reflected in modern dictionaries and, as a rule, lend themselves to literal translation into another language (if they do not denote special, nationally limited concepts, phenomena, realities, etc.). For example, cheerful - joyful.
occasional (usual,contextual speech, contextual, situational, individual, author's ) synonyms such words-synonyms are called, which, taken separately, are not synonyms, but, lined up in a row by the speaker in a certain context, seem to converge in a common sense, tk. become expressions of the author's intention. For example, " They are tired of dual power, polyarchy, to be more precise - anarchy "(Ros. newspaper. 1994). Dual power and multiple power are equated to anarchy only in this context.
Contextual synonyms approach their meanings only in context. Distinctive features of such synonyms are clearly expressed contextual conditionality and fixation, a single (as a rule, individual) nature of semantics (and often word formation), irreproducibility, i.e. a clear limitation of use, absence in dictionaries and the difficulty of literal translation into another language.
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article subject: | Synonym types |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Literature |
Given the dependence on semantic or functional-stylistic differences, three basic types of synonyms are conditionally distinguished: 1) semantic, or semantic, ideographic (gr.
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idea - concept + grafho - record), 2) stylistic, 3) semantic-stylistic (ᴛ.ᴇ. those in the meaning of which there are additional evaluative and expressive shades). The last two types are usually closely related.
1. semantic
(semantic, ideographic) are called synonyms that differ in shades in meanings. For example, wet - damp, damp reflect a different degree of manifestation of the trait - ʼʼhaving significant moisture, saturated with moistureʼʼ; cf.
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also die - perish, perish- ʼʼ cease to exist, be destroyed (as a result of disasters, the impact of any forces, conditions) ʼʼ. The presence of semantic synonyms in a language reflects the analytical depth and accuracy of human thinking. The surrounding objects, their properties, actions, states are known by a person in all their diversity. The language conveys the subtlest nuances of the observed facts, each time choosing new words to adequately express the corresponding ideas. This is how synonyms appear that have a common semantic core and make it possible to detail the described phenomena of reality with the utmost clarity. Semantic synonyms enrich speech, make it transparent and expressive. Wed
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examples from fiction: glitters
neck of a broken bottle(Ch.), Through the fog the flinty path glitters
(L.) White snow sparkles blue light(Nick.), Onegin, eyes sparkling, from the table, rattling, gets up. (P.). The meaning of the first synonym is ʼʼshine brightly, sparkleʼʼ, the meaning of the second is ʼʼshine brightly, shining with iridescent lightʼʼ. For this reason, when describing static pictures, it is more appropriate to use the first word, while the second is more often used when depicting instantaneous, swift action, cf.
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flashed
behind the line(L.).
2. style synonyms are called that have differences in expressive-emotional coloring and are used in connection with this in different styles of speech; compare: wife(common) - spouse(official); young(razᴦ.) - newlyweds(book), eyes(neutral) - eyes(high), face(neutral) - muzzle(sikzh.) - face(high).
The expressive features of synonyms allow us each time to choose the word ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ most appropriate in a particular speech situation, stylistically justified in a particular context. The richness of stylistic shades of words in the Russian language creates unlimited opportunities for creativity, their unexpected comparison or opposition, which is appreciated by word artists: He came up... he shakes her hand... watching him peepers in clear eyes(Bl.); The day will come - sad, they say! - They will reign, they will pay off, they will burn out, - they are cooled by other people's nickels, - my eyes, moving like a flame. And - a double who groped for a double - a face will appear through a light face(Color); He is not ate, a ate (Ch.); And Uli's eyes were large, dark brown, - not eyes, a eyes (Fad.).
3. Semantic-stylistic synonyms are called, which differ both in shades of meaning and stylistically. For example, wander - a bookish word meaning ʼʼto go or go without a definite direction, without a goal, or in search of someone – or somethingʼʼ; circle (circle) – colloquial, meaning ʼʼchanging the direction of movement, often getting to the same placeʼʼ; stray - everyday colloquial, meaning ʼʼto go or go in search of the right direction, the right roadʼʼ; with the same meaning: get confused - colloquial, fornicate - colloquial.
The language is dominated by semantic-stylistic synonyms. This is explained by the fact that the functional affiliation and stylistic coloring of the word often complement each other. Yes, the words full and thick(combined with the word human) have pronounced stylistic differences (the second is clearly reduced, perceived as less polite) and appear to be different in the degree of manifestation of the feature: the second indicates its greater intensity.
It is important to note that in order to create a vivid, expressive artistic speech, writers most often use synonyms of various types in one sentence: He is not walked, a dragged along without lifting your feet off the ground(Cupr.); Mouth and lips- their essence is not the same. And eyes- not at all peepers! (A. Markov)
Synonym types - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Types of synonyms" 2017, 2018.
- SYNONYMS
- (from the Greek synonymos - of the same name) - words that are identical or very close in meaning, but are not of the same root, for example: enemy, ... - SYNONYMS in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(from the Greek synonymos - the same name) words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning, as well as syntactic and grammatical ... - SYNONYMS
(from the Greek. synonymos - the same name), words related to one part of speech, the meanings of which contain identical elements; the differing elements of these values... - SYNONYMS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
Synonyms - words of close, adjacent, almost the same meaning. The process of creating new forms, new, differentiated categories in thought corresponds to the creation of new ones in language ... - SYNONYMS in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(from the Greek synonymos - the same name), words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning, as well as syntactic and grammatical ... - SYNONYMS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
[from the Greek of the same name] words that are different in sound form, but identical or very close in meaning, used to distinguish those or ... - STYLISTIC
STYLISTIC FIGURES, see Stylistic figures ... - SYNONYMS in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
SYNONYMS (from the Greek syn?nymos - the same name), words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning, as well as syntactic. and … - SYNONYMS in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron:
? words of close, adjacent, almost the same meaning. The process of creating new forms, new, differentiated categories in thought corresponds in language to the creation ... - SYNONYMS in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(from Greek synonymos - same name) - words of the same part of speech (as well as, in a broader sense, phraseological units, morphemes, ... - SYNONYMS
(Greek synonymos - the same name). Words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing ... - SYNONYMS in the New Dictionary of Foreign Words:
(gr. synonymos of the same name) words that are identical or close in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing or shades ... - SYNONYMS in the Dictionary of Foreign Expressions:
[ words that are identical or close in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing either in shades of meaning, or in stylistic ... - SYNONYMS in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB:
(from the Greek synonymos - the same name), words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning, as well as syntactic and grammatical ... - STYLISTIC FIGURES in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
stylistic (Greek schema, Latin figura - outline, appearance; turn of speech), a system of historically established methods of syntactic organization of speech, used mainly ... - SHOW in the Architectural Dictionary:
, Richard Norman (1831-1912). English architect, author of many country houses, designed in a free manner. In city mansions he reproduced stylistic features ... - CONNOTATION in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary:
- POSTSTRUCTURALISM in Dictionary of Postmodernism.
- CONNOTATION in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
(Late Latin connotatio, from Latin con - together and noto - I mark, designate) - a logical and philosophical term expressing the relationship between meaning (connotation) ... - TRIPLE ARTICULATION OF CINEMATOGRAPHIC CODE in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
- a problematic field that was constituted in the discussions of film theorists and semiotics of the structure-list orientation in the mid-1960s. In the 1960s and 1970s, the reversal (or return) of film theory... - SYNESTHESIA
(from other Greek synaisthesis - co-sensation) A concept meaning a form of perception characterized by connections between feelings in the psyche, as well as the results of them ... - GRAFFITI in the Lexicon of non-classics, artistic and aesthetic culture of the XX century, Bychkov:
(graffiti - in archeology, any drawings or letters scratched on any surface, from Italian graffiare - to scratch) This is how works are designated ... - BAKHTIN in the Lexicon of non-classics, artistic and aesthetic culture of the XX century, Bychkov:
Mikhail Mikhailovich (1895-1975) Philosopher, generalist philologist, aesthetician, culturologist. The philosophical concept of B. was mainly expressed indirectly - on the material of private humanitarian ... - ECLECTICISM
- (from the Greek eklektikos - able to choose, choosing) a combination of heterogeneous artistic elements; usually takes place during periods of decline in art. Elements… - SCHOOL IN ART in the Dictionary of Fine Art Terms:
- an artistic direction, a trend represented by a group of students and followers of an artist (for example, the Venetian school) or a group of artists who are close in creative ... - STYLE in the Dictionary of Fine Art Terms:
- (from the Greek stylos - a pointed stick for writing), a stable unity of the figurative system, expressive means, characterizing the artistic originality of those or ... - REALISM in the Dictionary of Fine Art Terms:
- (from the late Latin realis - real, real) in art, a truthful, objective reflection of reality by specific means inherent in a particular species ... - GRAPHIC ARTS in the Dictionary of Fine Art Terms:
- (from the Greek grapho - I write, I draw, I draw) a type of fine art, including drawing and printed works of art (engraving, lithography, monotype ... - UTAGAWA KUNIYOSHI
(1798-1861) - artist. His real name is Igusa Yoshisaburo. Kuniyoshi was born in Edo in the family of a dyer. Since childhood, the boy was well versed ... - IKEBANA in Encyclopedia Japan from A to Z:
is the traditional Japanese art of flower arranging. Literally, ikebana means "flowers that live." In European art, arranging a bouquet demonstrates skill ... - GRABTSEV NIKOLSKY CHURCH in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Temple in the name of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker in the village of Grabtsevo, (Kaluga diocese) (inactive, being restored). … - ENZYME DEFICIENCY in the Medical Dictionary.
- ENZYME DEFICIENCY in the big medical dictionary.
- EMPHASA in the Dictionary of Literary Terms:
- (from Greek emphasis - indication, expressiveness) 1) Type of path: the use of a word in a narrowed compared to its usual meaning, for example: ... - MAYAKOVSKY in the Literary Encyclopedia.
- GENRES in the Literary Encyclopedia:
" id=Genres.Contents> On the history of the problem. Definition of the concept. Solution of the problem in dogmatic literary criticism. Evolutionist theories Zh.. Solution of the problem ... - EPIC in the Literary Encyclopedia:
TERMIN - Russian epic songs, preserved mainly in the mouths of the northern peasantry under the name "starin? n", "starin" and "starinok". The term epic ... - UZBEK SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB.
- STYLE (IN LIT-RE AND ART) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
in literature and art, a stable integrity or commonality of a figurative system, means of artistic expression, figurative techniques that characterize a work of art or a set ... - STYLISTICS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
a section of linguistics that studies the system of styles of a particular language, describes norms (see Linguistic Norm) and methods ... - NEOLOGISMS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
(from neo... and Greek. logos - word), new words or expressions, the freshness and unusualness of which is clearly felt by native speakers of this language. … - FIGURES in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
STYLISTIC FIGURES (stylistic figures), special turns of speech fixed by stylistics, used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of an utterance (for example, anaphora, epiphora, simplock, ellipse, ... - STYLISTIC SYNTAX in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
The doctrine of the use of syntactic constructions for stylistic purposes. This includes such issues as the synonymy of certain types of a simple sentence, stylistic functions ... - STYLISTICS in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
1) A branch of linguistics that studies various styles (styles of language, styles of speech, genre styles, individual style of writers, etc., see style ... - DICTIONARY LINGUISTIC in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms.
- KEEP in the Popular Explanatory-Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
-n "yu, -n" ish, nsv. ; save, sov. 1) (what) Keep something somewhere, keeping it from spoilage, damage, damage. Store milk ... - HEAVY
- SOLID in the Popular explanatory-encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language.
1. The concept of lexical synonyms. Synonymous line.
3. Types of lexical synonyms: semantic, stylistic, semantic-stylistic. Lexical doublets. Contextual synonyms
4. The use of lexical synonyms in speech.
5. Dictionaries of synonyms
Polysemy and homonymy in the language is opposed by the phenomenon of lexical synonymy. If polysemantic and homonymous words are characterized by different content with the same form, then with synonymy, a different form expresses the same (or close) content.
Lexical synonyms(gr. synonymos“of the same name”) are words belonging to the same part of speech, close or identical in meaning and sounding differently: homeland - fatherland - fatherland; difficult - heavy - not easy - difficult - difficult; go - walk - walk.
Not all words enter into synonymous relations. Proper names are not synonymous in the literary language ( Ivan, Natalia, Caucasus, Minsk), names of inhabitants ( Muscovite, Kievan, Omsk), many names of specific items ( table, chair, spoon, cupboard, book). As a rule, terms should not be synonymous, although in practice there are often synonymous terms: prefix=prefix, ending=inflection, linguistics=linguistics.
Two or more lexical synonyms form a certain group or paradigm in the language, which is otherwise called synonymous side by side. Yes, synonymous order- order - command - directive - instruction - command united by the common meaning for all members of the synonymic series ‘an indication to do something’. The main word of the synonymic series, which conveys the most general concept and is neutral in use, is called the dominant of the synonymic series(from lat. dominants"dominant"). In the above row, the dominant word is order. The remaining words of the synonymic series express additional shades: order‘the official order of the one who is invested with power’; command‘the same as an order, but with a touch of obsolete’; team‘short verbal order’; directive‘guiding instruction from a higher authority to subordinate authorities’.
Since the dominant expresses a concept that is common to all words included in a given synonymic series, it is usually located at the beginning of the synonymic series. Along with the term dominant, the scientific literature uses the synonymous term key word.
From the point of view of the constancy of the composition of words, synonymic series are characterized by openness. Changes and additions are possible in them, due to the ongoing process of development of the entire lexical system. For example, path - road - route - track - orbit.
Synonyms are usually formed from heterogeneous words. But synonyms can be single root, i.e. arising from the same root, but decorated with different prefixes and suffixes: homeland - fatherland, potatoes - potatoes, radishes - radishes, expel - expel, swim - bathe, overtake - overtake.
2. Reasons for the appearance of synonyms
Synonyms appear in the language all the time. This is due to a number of reasons. 1. One of the main ones is the desire of a person to find some new features and shades in already known objects, phenomena of the surrounding world. A new additional feature of a concept is called a new word, similar or identical in meaning to the existing names. For example, for a long time there have been synonyms in the language world, universe with the general meaning ‘the totality of everything that exists, of all forms of matter’. Then the word entered the literary language universe, the semantics of which reflects ‘systematic, harmony of everything that exists’. In the 19th century, another synonym appears - space, semantically similar to the words already existing in the language. In the specialized literature of recent decades, the word is used with the same meaning. macrocosm(as opposed to the word microcosm).
2. Synonymic rows are also formed as a result of penetration into the Russian language and the development of foreign vocabulary by it: opposition - contrast, balance - balance, cramp - convulsion.
3. Under certain conditions, not only commonly used words of the literary language can enter into synonymous relations, but also limited in use lexical units: dialect professional and so on: lead (lead) = turn the steering wheel; anxiety, restlessness, excitement in literary language are synonymous with colloquial commotion idialect words flashes, flashes and so on.
4. Synonyms arise in the Russian language and as a result of the fact that the well-developed morphological structure of the language allows the use of different word-forming morphemes for two or more words similar in meaning, for example: innocent - innocent; harmless - harmless.
5. A synonym may arise as a result of the fact that once close words have diverged in meaning: bench = bench and shop a (‘small trading enterprise’) = shop = stall = tent.
6. Polysemy of words, especially metaphor and metonymy, has great resources for replenishing the synonyms of the Russian language. The appearance of figurative meanings in a word often leads to the fact that it enters into new synonymous relations: Hedgehog(prickly, small, big...) and Hedgehog hair, Hedgehog hairstyles; ocean(calm, stormy, cold, affectionate...) and ocean thoughts, an ocean of feelings, an ocean of blood, an ocean of tears); forest(dark, mixed, pine...) and forest hands, forest banners.
Synonym types
In the modern Russian language, there are several types of synonyms that are distinguished depending on the nature of the differences between words with their general semantic similarity.
Words that have the same meaning are called full synonyms, absolute synonyms, or lexical doublets:linguistics=linguistics, throw=throw, look=look, stop=cease, strike=strike, original=original, everywhere=everywhere, spelling=spelling, cavalry=cavalry. These are words that have neither semantic nor stylistic differences. From this point of view, all other types of synonyms are incomplete, relative. There are few complete synonyms in Russian, as the language tries to avoid duplication.
Incomplete synonyms ( quasi-synonyms) .
Semantic (ideographic, conceptual), denoting the same phenomenon of reality, they distinguish different aspects in it and different so apart shades of its meaning I.
If the meaning of one of the quasi-synonyms is completely “embedded” in the meaning of the second, and at the same time, there are some more semantic components in the meaning of the second, then there are relations of “inclusion” between them. The words carry = drag, attack = aggression are related in this way: drag- this is carry, but with difficulty (you can carry a bag and drag it, but you can’t drag a cup of coffee, for example); any aggression is attack, but not every attack can be considered aggression (in combination attack by robbers on a passerby word attack cannot be replaced by aggression).
The meanings of two quasi-synonyms may have a common part, and the meaning of each of them differs in some feature, in which case their meanings "intersect". So, greedy means ‘obsessed with the passion to capture someone else’, stingy- ‘obsessed with passion not to give what is his’. Consider the following group of synonymous nouns: stillness, stillness, stillness. All of them mean ‘lack of wind’, but differ from each other in shades of their lexical meanings: the word calmness has the meaning ‘complete absence of wind, calm weather’; word silence– ‘calmness, absence of noise’; word calm– ‘weakening, temporary cessation of wind, noise’.
Stylistic synonyms, denoting the same phenomenon of reality, differ from each other stylistic affiliation. They also have differences in semantic expressiveness and emotional coloring. An example of stylistic synonyms is the words to sleep - to rest - to sleep. Verb sleep is neutral in stylistic terms and does not contain emotional overtones. Verb rest is obsolete, stylistically bookish; word sleep is vernacular with an emotional appraisal of disapproval.
Stylistic or multi-style synonyms also include the words: face - face - muzzle(neutral - bookish - vernacular), to die - to die - to die(neutral - bookish - colloquial), satisfactory - triple, tired - tired(neutral - colloquial), argument - argument, view - look(neutral - bookish).
Within the framework of stylistic synonyms, the following are also distinguished:
a) Synonyms that differ from each other in the degree of modernity. In such a synonymous series, one word refers to modern vocabulary, the other to obsolete: plane - airplane, minister - people's commissar, this - this, cinema - cinema;
b) Synonyms that differ in the scope of use. This includes, for example, series consisting of a national word and a term or professionalism : kitchen - galley, cook - cook(maritime), jaundice - hepatitis(honey.), page - strip(polygraph.); literary jargon : parents - ancestors, dining room - feeder, knife - pen, search - shmon;
Semantic-stylistic synonyms differ both in shades of lexical meanings and in stylistic coloring. An example of such synonyms are the verbs go and trail, which have a close but not identical meaning: go- "to move, stepping over your feet", and trail- "move slowly, sluggishly." Therefore, the verb trail has an additional semantic connotation - "to move with difficulty, barely stepping over." In addition, synonymous verbs go and trail differ in stylistic affiliation: verb go is neutral and the verb trail used in colloquial speech with an emotional assessment of disapproval. Thus the words go and trail are semantic-stylistic synonyms. Comp. Also: reserve - reserve: stock- a common word, means "everything that is prepared for the future"; reserve- bookish, special, meaning "what is left for a special, exceptional case." Semantic and stylistic differences are also characteristic of synonyms angry - angry(colloquial), hasty - hasty(colloquial), eat - eat(simple);
All the previously given synonyms are common language, i.e. they are characteristic of the lexical system of the Russian language, understandable to all or the vast majority of its speakers. It should be distinguished from general language contextual, or individual author's synonyms. These include words that enter into synonymous relations temporarily, only in this context. For example, between words showered and pasted over there are no synonymous relations in the lexical system of the Russian language. However, in the story "Chelkash" A.M. Gorky uses the word pasted over as a synonym for the word showered: He fell asleep with a vague smile on his face covered with flour dust. Let's compare more examples of the use of contextual synonyms : Ostap was about to take the pounds for the starched collar and show him the way, the way(collar- contextual synonym of the word collar); The whole plain is covered with loose and soft lime (lime – snow).
Polysemantic words can be included in several synonymous rows, participating in each of them with only one meaning. So, short in the meaning ‘small in height’ is synonymous with the word low; quasi-synonymous with words squat, stunted, undersized(about a human); in the meaning ‘relating to the lower sound register’ is a synonymous series with bassy, bassy(for example, about the voice); in the meaning of ‘unsatisfactory in quality’ is synonymous with the word bad; when designating a certain quality of a person short enters into synonymous relations with the words vile, dishonorable.
Synonyms can also differ in their compatibility with other words. So, brown has free compatibility with many words: pencil, shoes, coat. Meaning brown is phraseologically related to the word eyes; chestnut can only be hair.
In everyday speech, synonyms perform two new functions for everyone who speaks Russian. First, this substitution function one word with another. It is caused by the desire to avoid unwanted repetitions of the same words in speech: The whole hall applauded. Clapping hands up. Secondly, refinement function. A person with a large weight can be called and complete, and thick, and overweight. Moreover, each of the synonyms has its own peculiarity of meaning, emphasizing the volume (full), shape ( thick), the weight ( overweight). Such a person can sit down or about start I'm on a chair, maybe plop down; at the door he is not always included- in a narrow squeezed in or squeezes through; his voice may to sound, to roar, to rumble(if it's bass) hum, whine etc.
The clarification function is associated with the method of stringing synonyms to emphasize the identity or semantic similarity of words: Mind, reason, she agreed with Sergei in everything.« We will close the file cabinet, bury it,” Volodya said. In this case, in one synonymous row there may be words that are different in stylistic affiliation and emotional coloring: They shouted that it was sinful, even vile, that the old man was out of his mind, that the old man had been deceived, cheated, deceived(Dost.). Comp. also: And soon a crowd gathers near the wood warehouse ... Ochumelov makes a half turn to the left and steps towards the crowd(A. Chekhov.) - here in a synonymous pair crowd - gathering the second word in the meaning of "a large crowd of people" has the stylistic marks "disapproved." and “colloquial”, which “reduces” its meaning in the text and serves as an expression of a negative assessment.
The use of synonyms can create a comic effect and be a means of characterization:
-- Died Claudia Ivanovna, - said the customer.
“Well, the kingdom of heaven,” agreed Bezenchuk. -- passed away so old lady...
Old ladies, they always pass away... Or give your soul to god- it depends on what an old woman. Yours, for example, is small and in the body, which means it has passed away. And, for example, the one who is bigger and thinner is considered to give her soul to God ...
- So how is it considered? Who considers it?
- We count. At the masters. Here you are, for example, a prominent man, of lofty stature, although thin. You are considered, if, God forbid, die, what in box played. And who is a merchant, a former merchant guild, that means ordered to live long. And if someone is of a lower rank, a janitor, for example, or one of the peasants, they say about him: spread or legs stretched out. But the most powerful, when they die, railway conductors or someone from the authorities, it is believed that give oak. So they say about them: "But ours, they heard, gave oak."
Shocked by this strange classification of human deaths, Ippolit Matveyevich asked:
- Well, when you die, what will the masters say about you?
- It’s impossible to give me oak or play in the box: I have a small complexion ...(I. Ilf and E. Petrov. Twelve chairs)
Sometimes there is the use of synonyms in the so-called antonymic situation. For example : this city is old but not old. Compare the following statement by K.S. Stanislavsky: Actors do not have hands, but hands, not fingers, but fingers ... They do not walk, but march, do not sit, but sit, do not lie, but recline ...
In the dictionaries of synonyms, synonymous rows are grouped. The first dictionary of synonyms D.I. Fonvizina appeared at the end of the 18th century. Then, during the 19th and the first half of the 20th century, dictionaries by P. Kalaidovich, A.I. Grecha, I.I. Davydova and other authors. From modern synonymous dictionaries, the “Concise Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” is known. V.N. Klyueva(1956, 2nd edition - 1961). The dictionary includes about 3000 words. The author gives the lexical meanings of each word included in the synonymic series, uses quotes from the works of writers.
In 1968, the Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language was published. Z.E. Alexandrova. This dictionary includes about 9000 synonymous series. However, semantic differences between synonyms are minimized or absent altogether. The stylistic characteristic of synonyms is given with the help of marks bookish, colloquial, simple. and others. Phraseological phrases are widely introduced into synonymic rows. There are no examples of the use of words.
The first fairly complete dictionary of synonyms should be considered published in 1970-1971. two-volume Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language, edited by A.E. Evgenieva. It clearly explains the meaning of each of the words - members of the synonymic series, shows their semantic and stylistic shades, provides illustration examples.
In 1976, the one-volume Dictionary of Synonyms was published. It, like the two-volume one, was prepared by the dictionary sector of the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences, edited by A.P. Evgenieva. Despite the small volume, the dictionary contains a greater number of synonymic rows. Clarifications have been made to the composition of these series and the interpretation of synonyms. The dictionary adopts a general alphabetical order, and this makes it easier to find the right synonym word. The accent is consistently reflected, the shades of the meaning of the word are revealed, the boundaries of the lexical compatibility of synonyms of the Russian language are indicated.
Currently, dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms have appeared (see below).
Questions for self-examination
1. Can all words of the Russian language enter into synonymous relations?
2. What is the dominant of the synonymic series?
3. What are the reasons for the appearance of synonyms?
4. Name the types of synonyms.
5. How do contextual synonyms differ from common language ones?
6. Are lexical doublets useful for the language?
7. What functions do synonyms perform in speech?
Literature:
2. Bragina A.A. On the openness of synonymic series // Philological Sciences, 1974, No. 1.
3. Lexical synonymy (Collection of articles). - M., 1967.
4. Essays on the synonymy of the modern Russian literary language. - M. - L., 1956.
5. Palevskaya M.F. Synonyms in Russian. - M., 1964.
6. Synonyms of the Russian language and their features. - L., 1972.
7. Shmelev D.N. Problems of semantic analysis of vocabulary. - M., 1973.
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Synonyms appear in the language all the time. This is due to a number of reasons. One of the main ones is the desire of a person to find some new features and shades in already known objects, phenomena of the surrounding world, that is, to deepen and expand the existing concepts of the surrounding reality. A new additional feature of a concept is called a new word, similar or identical in meaning to the existing names. For example, for a long time in the language there have been synonyms for the world, the universe with the general meaning "the totality of everything that exists, all forms of matter." Then the word universe entered the literary language, the semantics of which reflects the "systematic, harmony of everything that exists." In the 19th century, another synonym appeared - space, semantically similar to the words that already existed in the language. In the specialized literature of recent decades, the word macrocosm is used with the same meaning (as opposed to the word microcosm).
Sometimes words that are identical, as well as close in meaning, appear due to the fact that in different styles of speech or in different expressive-stylistic groups the same object is called differently. For example, the so-called inter-style (stylistically neutral) at random, free, hang, card and many others have synonyms in colloquial speech: at random, free, pull up, gamble and so on. To reduce the style, some of them in colloquial everyday speech are replaced by synonyms of colloquial origin.
Synonyms also arise when an object or phenomenon of reality is given a different emotional assessment (solemn, traditionally poetic) in comparison with the well-known meaning: medicine is a drug (joking, colloquial).
Under certain conditions, not only commonly used words of the literary language, but also lexical units limited in their use can act in synonymous relations: dialectal (or, more broadly, regional in general, that is, territorially not clearly fixed), professional, and so on. For example, the commonly used lead (drive) is synonymous not only with the common literary rules, sit behind the wheel, but also with limited professional use to turn the steering wheel. In one synonymous series, there can always be commonly used, as well as anytime, at any time, at any time and limited in scope, regional always; commonly used - anxiety, anxiety, excitement is synonymous with stylistically limited colloquial commotion and territorially limited, that is, dialectal flashes, flashes, and so on.
The open use of synonyms is a technique in which they coexist in the text, performing various functions. So, synonyms can clarify one or another concept: "... She married a simple, very ordinary and unremarkable person." Often synonyms are used to clarify words: "I will use it [the word ordinary] in the sense in which it means: ordinary, trivial, habitual."
The author can compare synonyms, paying attention to the differences in the shades of their meanings: “I still believe in goodness, in truth; but I not only believe - I believe now, yes - I believe, I believe. It is even possible to contrast synonyms that have significant differences in semantic structure or stylistic coloring: “How young he was then! How often and intoxicatedly he laughed - he just laughed, but did not laugh!
Using synonyms helps writers avoid repetition. At the same time, synonyms not only diversify speech, but also introduce subtle semantic and stylistic shades into the design of the statement.
The stringing of synonyms often gives rise to gradation, when each next synonym strengthens (or weakens) the meaning of the previous one: “He has certain views, beliefs, worldview”; "We have a duel with you, a constant duel, a continuous struggle."
Thanks to stable system connections, each word that has a synonym is perceived in speech in comparison with other members of the synonymic series. At the same time, expressively colored words are, as it were, "projected" onto their stylistically neutral synonyms. Therefore, the reader is particularly impressed by the use of the vocabulary of "ultimate meaning"; in F. M. Dostoevsky: “Raskolnikov looked in horror at the hook of constipation jumping in the loop”; “Suddenly, in a rage, she grabbed him by the hair and dragged him into the room”; "He spat and ran away in a frenzy at himself."
The choice of synonyms by writers is also determined by the peculiarities of their individual style. The ability to use the synonymous wealth of the native language is a sure sign of the professionalism and skill of the writer.
If the analysis of the semantic structure of a word clearly shows the degree of independence of the meaning of the word and its limits, that is, it characterizes systemic relations at the level of one word, then synonymy is one of the clearest and most convincing evidence of systemic relations in vocabulary in the sphere of a group of words with similar meanings.
Lexical synonyms include words that are close or identical in meaning, naming the same concept in different ways, but differing from each other either in shades of meaning, or in stylistic coloring, or both at the same time: speed - swiftness; faithful - unchanging, devoted; to run out - to run out, to run out.
Since lexical synonymy is a semantic phenomenon, its most significant feature will be the proximity or identity of meaning. It is this feature that allows modern researchers to talk about the so-called neutralization of the meanings of synonymous words, that is, about the erasure of semantic differences between them in a certain contextual position and, therefore, about the possibility of their almost complete interchangeability: Silence reigned all around and Silence reigned all around, where the difference in the meaning of the words silence (absence of sounds) and silence (absence of pronounced sounds) are erased, semantic neutralization occurs, and synonyms turn out to be positionally interchangeable.
However, conceptual correlation, that is, the similarity or closeness of associative links denoted by the words of phenomena, objects, qualities, signs, actions, is also the basis for the convergence of meanings. If such correlation is violated, one cannot speak of lexical synonymy. For example, to name what delimits different areas of activity, human relations, ideas, emotions, and so on, modern language uses the synonyms border, edge, betrayed, border, line, boundary. But even with a relatively slight change in semantic associations, not all of the above words will be equally synonymous. So, if the word border denotes “the last, extreme degree of something permissible”, then a synonym for it will be, along with the words limit, edge, and also a new word - measure.
Not all words enter into synonymous relations. Proper names, names of inhabitants, many specific names of household items are not synonymized in the literary language. As a rule, terms should not have synonyms, although the practice of creating and functioning of modern terms provides examples of synonymy in this area as well. Moreover, the so-called absolute synonymy (complete coincidence of meanings) is observed mainly in modern terminologies (linguistics, linguistics).
