By the end of the XIII - the beginning of the XIV century. in Russia, a new political system has developed with the capital in Vladimir. Under the authority of the Grand Dukes of Vladimir, in addition to the territory of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, there was Ryazan land and formally Novgorod the Great.

Most of the ancient cities of North-Eastern Russia (Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir) fell into decay during the period of the Horde yoke, losing their political primacy to the outlying centers - Tver, Nizhny Novgorod and Moscow.

At the end of the XIII century. the center of the economic and political life of North-Eastern Russia moved to the central and outlying forest regions, less accessible to the Horde, where a number of new principalities grew up: Tver, Moscow, Starodub. The inclusion of the rulers of these principalities in the struggle for the great reign of Vladimir outwardly did not go beyond the usual feudal strife. The princes, who practically did not participate in the internecine war on the eve of the Batu invasion, which weakened the princes of Chernigov, Smolensk, Volyn, led an active struggle for primacy.

The strengthening of the positions of the Grand Dukes of Vladimir was also facilitated by the fact that the Horde immediately recognized them as "the oldest" in Russia. Thanks to this, Vladimir, as it were, replaced Kyiv as a nominal capital. Although the power of the Grand Duke was nominal, it gave significant advantages: the prince received vast Vladimir lands at his disposal, and the boyars received profitable governorships. Applicants for the great princedom of Vladimir were Moscow, Tver, Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principalities. The rest (Ryazan, Chernigov, Smolensk) did not have either powers or dynastic rights. The “all-Russian” claims of the Grand Dukes of Vladimir were seriously reinforced by the transfer to North-Eastern Russia at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries. residences of the "Metropolitan of All Russia" - the head of the Russian Orthodox Church.

More on the topic The political development of North-Eastern Russia. Championship fight:

1. Topic 2. Political fragmentation of Ancient Russia. The struggle of the Russian people for independence (XII - the first half of the XIU century)
2. 2.2. The main trends in the socio-economic and political development of Russia in the XIII-XV centuries.
3. No. 198 REPORT FROM THE HEAD OF THE OPERATIONAL DEPARTMENT OF THE 5TH ARMY TO THE HEAD OF THE OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT OF THE EASTERN FRONT ON THE LIBERATION OF THE SETTLEMENTS OF NORTH-EAST KAZAKHSTAN
4. No. 190 REPORT FROM THE CHIEF OF THE FIELD DEPARTMENT OF THE FIFTH ARMY TO THE HEAD OF THE OPERATIONAL DEPARTMENT OF THE EASTERN FRONT ON THE LIBERATION OF THE TERRITORY OF NORTH-EAST KAZAKHSTAN FROM THE ENEMY Chelyabinsk November 2, 1919
5. Political structure, socio-economic and cultural development of Kievan Rus and the Galicia-Volyn state (IX-XIV centuries)

After Batu's pogrom, which contemporaries compared with a universal catastrophe, Russia begins to restore its strength. This process was most intensive in the northeast of the former Kievan Rus - in the lands of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

In the XIII-XV centuries. there was an increase in population in the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. These territories were relatively far from the centers of the Mongol-Tatar aggression and were covered by the outlying southern and southeastern Russian lands from the Golden Horde. The influx of population came from the south, where there was a constant danger from the Mongol-Tatars, and from the north-west, which was subjected to pressure from Lithuania and the Order.

Agriculture

The restoration of productive forces and their further development took place faster in the field of agricultural production: the area of ​​arable land increased, the methods of tillage improved, the three-field system spread more and more, although felling and fallow still remained. Metal tools began to be used more widely - a plow with iron tips and a plow. The land was fertilized with manure. Cattle breeding, fishing, and hunting were further developed and spread. Horticulture and horticulture expanded. There has been a transition from beekeeping to apiary beekeeping.

The main social development in the XIV-XV centuries. was the intensive growth of feudal landownership. Its main, dominant form was the estate, that is, as mentioned above, the land that belonged to the feudal lord by right of hereditary use. This land could be changed, sold, but only to relatives and other owners of estates. The owner of the patrimony could be a prince, a boyar, a monastery.

In order to quickly master and more successfully exploit the estate, as well as to have military support, the owners of the estates transferred part of the land to their vassals on certain conditions. Such land ownership was called conditional, service or local. The nobles, who made up the court of the prince or boyar, owned the estate, which they received on the condition of serving on the patrimony. (From the word "estate" the nobles were also called landowners.) The term of service was established by contract.

From the middle of the XIV century. there was a significant increase in monastic land ownership. The Mongols were religiously tolerant and, interested in maintaining their dominance, left land holdings in the hands of the church. The Russian princes were also interested in supporting the church. If earlier the tax in favor of the church - tithe - was paid in money or in kind, then in the new conditions the princes replaced the tithe with the distribution of land. The landownership and wealth of the monasteries grew also because, unlike the lands of the secular feudal lords, the lands of the monasteries were not divided among the heirs, as was the case after the death of the secular landowner.

The most famous among the Russian monasteries was the Trinity Monastery, founded by Sergius of Radonezh (c. 1321-1391) 70 km north of Moscow (now the Trinity-Sergius Lavra). Located in a forested, sparsely populated, secluded area (desert), the monastery has become a major religious and economic center. Pupils and followers of the great Sergius in the XIV-XV centuries. built about 100 monasteries of the dormitory type, i.e., on the basis of joint ownership of the economy and the collectivist organization of the life of the monastery.

Peasant colonization was going on in a new place. The authorities provided assistance to the “newcomers”. The princes issued letters to the feudal lords, which stipulated benefits for their peasants for 5-15 years, until the land received was developed. Attachment to the land and their transition under the jurisdiction of the feudal lords, as it were, equalized the rights of almost the entire agricultural population. This process was reflected in the disappearance of many old terms denoting forms of social dependence (“smerdy”, “purchases”, “outcasts”, “people”, etc.). In the XIV century. a new term appeared - "peasants", which became the name of the oppressed class of Russian society. Along with the work of the dependent peasantry until the beginning of the XVIII century. slave labor was used.

In addition to private feudal land ownership (princely, boyar, monastic estates and estates), there existed, especially on the outskirts of the country, a significant number of peasant communities - "black" lands that paid taxes to the treasury. The feudal lord in relation to these peasants, according to many historians, was the state.

City

The rise in agricultural production created favorable conditions for the restoration and further development of Russian cities. The defeat of the old large cities, such as Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, etc., the change in the nature of economic and trade ties and routes led to the fact that in the XIII-XV centuries. new centers received significant development: Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Kolomna, Kostroma, etc. In these cities, the population increased, stone construction was revived, the number of artisans and merchants grew. a business. Despite the fact that the Golden Horde, Lithuania, Poland, the Hanseatic League slowed down and tried to control the foreign trade of Russia, the cities became centers of not only domestic, but also foreign trade, the main directions of which were western (Lithuania, Poland) and eastern (Caucasus, Crimea, Middle Asia).

Unlike the cities of Western Europe, many of which achieved self-government and independence from the feudal lords, Russian cities remained dependent on the feudal state. Trade in agricultural products prevailed in the cities. By the 16th century Veche law practically disappeared in the cities. The population of the city, having personal freedom, was divided into “black artisans” who carried a “tax” - a complex of natural and monetary duties in favor of the state, and artisans who belonged to boyars, monasteries or princes, exempted from bearing taxes (later the settlements where they lived, called white).

Despite the slow development compared to Western European cities due to the Mongol-Tatar devastation and the Golden Horde yoke, Russian cities played a significant role in the unification process. They were the centers that maintained, although still weak, economic ties between the individual parts of the country. The nature of handicraft production and trade relations determined the interest of the townspeople in the country's associations. This was especially true for the fairly rapidly developing cities around Moscow.

Political centralization of Russia in the XIII-XV centuries. occurred much faster than its economic disunity was overcome. The presence of external danger from the east and west, the need to fight for the overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke, for the establishment of national independence accelerated this process. The unification of the Russian lands into the Russian centralized multinational state took about two and a half centuries.

The economic feature of the region was the slow development of productive forces. In the agricultural sector, this was determined by the following reasons.

The natural and climatic conditions and geographical position of this region were worse than in the lower reaches of the Dnieper and Danube, the Dniester basin, where the demographic center of Kievan Rus was located. Moreover, they differed significantly from Western Europe. Daytime summer temperatures in Central Europe and North-Eastern Russia were approximately the same - 19-24 degrees. But in winter, the temperature in Europe rarely dropped below zero, so agricultural work there began earlier and ended later than in North-Eastern Russia, and animal husbandry could be done all year round. This had an extremely negative impact on the development of agriculture, which in those centuries was the basis of the economy. Summer heat was enough for barley and rye to ripen. It was quite rare to grow a good crop of heat-loving crops - wheat, oats and millet. Winters could be severe and with frequent thaws, which harmed winter crops. In spring, the harvest was under the threat of late frosts, and in autumn - early frosts.

The second reason that complicated the development of agriculture was the nature of the vegetation. There were very few territories more or less free from forests - Vladimir, Suzdal and Rostov regions. The forests there were not located in a continuous mass, there were many edges between them, which freed the colonists from the need to uproot trees. Therefore, the common names "Rus-Zalesskaya" and "Opole" were assigned to these three districts. In the rest of the territory, taiga forests were noisy, and their uprooting made agricultural work extremely time-consuming.

The third reason for the low profitability of agricultural labor was the nature of the soil. Only in the Vladimir and Rostov regions did relatively good soils exist - dark-colored carbonate. The rest of the areas consisted of loams, gray podzolic soils and sandstones.

All this made agricultural work inefficient. It is no coincidence that the local Finno-Ugric population was almost never engaged in agriculture before the arrival of the Slavs. In turn, poor food supply led to high mortality. The population density of this region has always remained low, which ultimately became one of the main reasons for the delay in the historical development of the future Russia.

The development of crafts and trade was held back by other reasons.

The productivity of labor in agriculture was so low that the craft did not actually separate from agriculture in this region: due to poverty, the peasants strove to do everything they needed themselves. As a result, trade and craft cities did not arise here. The vast majority of fortified settlements were fortresses or administrative centers that belonged to any prince, boyar or monastery.

The next reason was the remoteness from world trade routes. From the Baltic trade route, North-Eastern Russia was separated by the lands of Novgorod, which did not need trade competitors at all. From the Volga route to the XIII century. the Slavs were cut off by the Polovtsy, and from 1237 by the Tatar-Mongols. The routes to the south were also under enemy control. Therefore, the market mechanism in the region was formed extremely slowly. In trade transactions, crystal and carnelian beads, multi-colored glass bracelets, slate spindle whorls (weights for spindles) were used as a monetary equivalent.

Craftsmen and merchants were considered second-class people and lived on the outskirts of the city. Until the 13th century these outskirts were called the word "podil" (i.e., a place located below the fortress city), then it is transformed into the word "posad". In the XIV century. artisans and merchants began to be called "people of the townspeople", or "civilian people", and from the first half of the 15th century. - "townspeople".

From a technological point of view, the artisans of North-Eastern Russia reached a high level, for example: the products of locksmiths were exported to Europe, and the quality of weapons, according to the Crimean Khan, was higher than that of Italian, Turkish and Syrian masters. Basically, artisans worked only on the orders of their masters, so the market mechanism did not form among them. It is no coincidence that there are no indications in the annals of the sale of artisans' products on the market.

A narrow circle of relatively wealthy merchants formed in Moscow. Their administrative freedom was much less than in Novgorod or Pskov. The authorities attracted them to the fulfillment of financial tasks and demanded unquestioning obedience.

For the territorial definition of a group of principalities in Russia, settled between the Volga and the Oka in the 9th-12th centuries, the term "North-Eastern Russia" was adopted by historians. It meant lands located within Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir. Synonymous terms were also applicable, reflecting the unification of state entities in different years - "Rostov-Suzdal Principality", "Vladimir-Suzdal Principality", and also "Grand Duchy of Vladimir". In the second half of the XIII century, Russia, which was called North-Eastern, actually ceases to exist - many events contributed to this.

Grand Dukes of Rostov

All three principalities of North-Eastern Russia united the same lands, only capitals and rulers changed in different years. The first city built in these parts was Rostov the Great, in the annals of which it was mentioned in 862 AD. e. Before its foundation, the Merya and Ves tribes, related to the Finno-Ugric peoples, lived here. The Slavic tribes did not like this picture, and they - Krivichi, Vyatichi, Ilmen Slovenes - began to actively populate these lands.

After the formation of Rostov, which was one of the five largest cities under the rule of the Kyiv prince Oleg, references to Merya and Vesy began to appear less frequently in chronicles. For some time Rostov was ruled by henchmen of the Kievan princes, but in 987 Yaroslav the Wise, the son of Vladimir, the prince of Kyiv, already ruled the principality. From 1010 - Boris Vladimirovich. Until 1125, when the capital was transferred from Rostov to Suzdal, the principality passed from hand to hand either to the Kyiv rulers or had its own rulers. The most famous princes of Rostov - Vladimir Monomakh and Yuri Dolgoruky - did a lot to ensure that the development of North-Eastern Russia led to the prosperity of these lands, but soon the same Dolgoruky moved the capital to Suzdal, where he ruled until 1149. But he erected numerous fortresses and cathedrals in the style of the same fortification with heavy proportions, squat. Under Dolgoruky, writing and applied arts developed.

Rostov heritage

The significance of Rostov was, nevertheless, quite significant for the history of those years. In the annals of 913-988. the expression "Rostov land" is often found - a territory rich in game, crafts, crafts, wooden and stone architecture. In 991, one of the oldest dioceses in Russia - Rostov - was not formed here by chance. At that time, the city was the center of the principality of North-Eastern Russia, conducted intensive trade with other settlements, artisans, builders, gunsmiths flocked to Rostov ... All Russian princes tried to have a combat-ready army. Everywhere, especially in the lands separated from Kyiv, a new faith was promoted.

After Yuri Dolgoruky moved to Suzdal, Izyaslav Mstislavovich ruled Rostov for some time, but gradually the influence of the city finally faded away, and they began to mention him very rarely in the annals. The center of the principality was transferred to Suzdal for half a century.

The feudal nobility erected mansions for themselves, while artisans and peasants vegetated in wooden huts. Their dwellings were more like cellars, household items were mostly wooden. But in the premises illuminated by torches, unsurpassed products, clothing, luxury items were born. Everything that the nobility wore on themselves and with which they decorated their towers was made by the hands of peasants and artisans. The wonderful culture of North-Eastern Russia was created under the thatched roofs of wooden huts.

Rostov-Suzdal Principality

During that short period, while Suzdal was the center of North-Eastern Russia, only three princes managed to rule the principality. In addition to Yuri himself, his sons Vasilko Yuryevich and Andrey Yuryevich, nicknamed Bogolyubsky, and then, after the transfer of the capital to Vladimir (in 1169), Mstislav Rostislavovich Bezokiy ruled Suzdal for a year, but he did not play a special role in Russian history. All the princes of North-Eastern Russia came from the Rurikids, but not everyone was worthy of his kind.

The new capital of the principality was somewhat younger than Rostov and was originally referred to as Suzdal. It is believed that the city got its name from the words "build" or "create". The first time after the formation of Suzdal was a fortified fortress and was ruled by princely governors. In the first years of the XII century, there was some development of the city, while Rostov began to slowly but surely fall into decay. And in 1125, as already mentioned, Yuri Dolgoruky left the once great Rostov.

Under Yuri, who is better known as the founder of Moscow, other important events took place. So, it was during the reign of Dolgoruky that the North-Eastern principalities forever separated themselves from Kyiv. A huge role in this was played by one of the sons of Yuri - Andrei Bogolyubsky, who sacredly loved his father's patrimony and could not imagine himself without it.

The fight against the boyars and the choice of a new capital of Russia

The plans of Yuri Dolgoruky, in which he saw his elder sons as the rulers of the southern principalities, and his younger ones as the rulers of Rostov and Suzdal, were not destined to come true. But their role in some way was even more significant. So, Andrew declared himself as a wise and far-sighted ruler. His wayward character was tried in every possible way to restrain the boyars included in his council, but even here Bogolyubsky showed his will, transferring the capital from Suzdal to Vladimir, and then captured Kyiv itself in 1169.

However, the capital of Kievan Rus did not attract this person. Having won both the city and the title of "Grand Duke", he did not stay in Kyiv, but planted his younger brother Gleb as governor in it. He also assigned Rostov and Suzdal an insignificant role in the history of those years, since by that time Vladimir was the capital of North-Eastern Russia. It was this city that Andrei chose as his residence in 1155, long before the conquest of Kyiv. From the southern principalities, where he ruled for some time, he took to Vladimir the icon of the Vyshgorod Mother of God, which he greatly revered.

The choice of the capital was very successful: for almost two hundred years this city held the palm in Russia. Rostov and Suzdal tried to regain their former greatness, but even after the death of Andrei, whose seniority as the Grand Duke was recognized in almost all Russian lands, except perhaps Chernigov and Galich, they did not succeed.

Civil strife

After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, the people of Suzdal and Rostov turned to the sons of Rostislav Yuryevich - Yaropolk and Mstislav - in the hope that their rule would return the cities to their former glory, but the long-awaited unification of North-Eastern Russia did not come.

In Vladimir, the younger sons of Yuri Dolgoruky, Mikhalko and Vsevolod, ruled. By that time, the new capital had significantly strengthened its significance. Andrei did a lot for this: he successfully developed construction, during the years of his reign the famous Assumption Cathedral was erected, he even sought the establishment of a separate metropolis in his principality, in order to separate himself from Kyiv in this.

North-Eastern Russia under the rule of Bogolyubsky became the center of the unification of Russian lands, and later the core of the great Russian state. After the death of Andrei, the Smolensk and Ryazan princes Mstislav and Yaropolk, the children of one of the sons of Dolgoruky Rostislav, tried to seize power in Vladimir, but their uncles Mikhail and Vsevolod turned out to be stronger. In addition, they were supported by the prince of Chernigov lasted more than three years, after which Vladimir secured the status of the capital city of North-Eastern Russia, leaving both Suzdal and Rostov the lot of subordinate principalities.

From Kyiv to Moscow

The north-eastern lands of Russia by that time consisted of many cities and villages. So, the new capital was founded in 990 by Vladimir Svyatoslavovich as Vladimir-on-Klyazma. About twenty years after its founding, the city, which is part of the Rostov-Suzdal principality, did not arouse much interest among the ruling princes (until 1108). At this time, another prince, Vladimir Monomakh, took up its strengthening. He awarded the city the status of a stronghold of North-Eastern Russia.

No one could imagine that this small settlement would eventually become the capital city of Russian lands. Many more years passed before Andrew turned his attention to it and transferred the capital of his principality there, which would remain it for almost two hundred more years.

From the moment the grand dukes began to be called Vladimir, not Kyiv, she lost her key role, but interest in her did not disappear at all among the princes. Everyone considered it an honor to rule Kyiv. But from the middle of the XIV century, the once outlying city of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality - Moscow - gradually but surely began to rise. Vladimir, like Rostov in his time, and then Suzdal, was losing his influence. The move to Belokamennaya Metropolitan Peter in 1328 contributed a lot to this. The princes of North-Eastern Russia fought among themselves, and the rulers of Moscow and Tver tried in every possible way to win back the advantage of the main city of Russian lands from Vladimir.

The end of the XIV century was marked by the fact that the local owners received the privilege to be called the Grand Dukes of Moscow, so the advantage of Moscow over other cities became obvious. The Grand Duke of Vladimir Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy was the last to bear this title, after him all the rulers of Russia were called the Grand Dukes of Moscow. Thus ended the development of North-Eastern Russia as an independent and even dominant principality.

Crushing the once mighty principality

After the Metropolitan moved to Moscow, the Vladimir principality was divided. Vladimir was transferred to the Suzdal prince Alexander Vasilievich, Veliky Novgorod and Kostroma were taken over by the Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich Kalita. Even Yuri Dolgoruky dreamed of uniting North-Eastern Russia with Veliky Novgorod - in the end, this happened, but not for long.

After the death of the Suzdal prince Alexander Vasilyevich, in 1331, his lands passed to the princes of Moscow. And 10 years later, in 1341, the territory of the former North-Eastern Russia again underwent a redistribution: Nizhny Novgorod passed to Suzdal, like Gorodets, while the Vladimir principality forever remained with the Moscow rulers, who by that time, as already mentioned, also wore title of the Great. This is how the Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal principality arose.

The campaign against the North-Eastern Russia of the princes from the south and the center of the country, their militancy, contributed little to the development of culture and arts. Nevertheless, new temples were erected everywhere, in the design of which the best techniques of arts and crafts were used. A national school of icon painting was created with bright colorful ornaments characteristic of that time, combined with Byzantine painting.

Capture of Russian lands by Mongol-Tatars

Civil wars brought many misfortunes to the peoples of Russia, and the princes constantly fought among themselves, but a more terrible misfortune came with the Mongols-Tatars in February 1238. The whole of North-Eastern Russia (the cities of Rostov, Yaroslavl, Moscow, Vladimir, Suzdal, Uglich, Tver) was not just ruined - it was practically burned to the ground. The army of Vladimir was defeated by a detachment of the temnik Burundai, the prince himself died, and his brother Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was forced to submit to the Horde in everything. The Mongol-Tatars only formally recognized him as the oldest over all the Russian princes, in fact, it was they who ruled everything. In the total defeat of Russia, only

In 1259, Alexander Nevsky conducted a population census in Novgorod, developed his own strategy of government and strengthened his position in every possible way. Three years later, tax collectors were killed in Yaroslavl, Rostov, Suzdal, Pereyaslavl and Vladimir, North-Eastern Russia again froze in anticipation of a raid and ruin. This punitive measure was avoided - Alexander Nevsky personally went to the Horde and managed to prevent trouble, but died on the way back. It happened in 1263. It was only through his efforts that it was possible to maintain the Vladimir principality in some integrity, after the death of Alexander it broke up into independent destinies.

The liberation of Russia from the yoke of the Mongol-Tatars, the revival of crafts and the development of culture

Those were terrible years ... On the one hand, the invasion of North-Eastern Russia, on the other, the incessant skirmishes of the surviving principalities for possession of new lands. Everyone suffered: both the rulers and their subjects. Liberation from the Mongol khans came only in 1362. The Russian-Lithuanian army under the command of Prince Olgerd defeated the Mongol-Tatars, forever ousting these militant nomads from the Vladimir-Suzdal region, Muscovy, Pskov region and Novgorod region.

The years spent under the enemy yoke had disastrous consequences: the culture of North-Eastern Russia fell into complete decline. The ruin of cities, the destruction of temples, the extermination of a significant part of the population and, as a result, the loss of certain types of crafts. For two and a half centuries, the cultural and commercial development of the state stopped. Many monuments of wooden and stone architecture perished in the fire or were taken to the Horde. Many technical methods of construction, plumbing and other crafts were lost. Many monuments of writing disappeared without a trace, chronicle writing, applied art, painting fell into complete decline. It took almost half a century to restore what little was saved. But the development of new types of crafts proceeded rapidly.

Unity of cultures and lands

After liberation from the Yoke, more and more Russian princes came to a difficult decision for them and advocated the unification of their possessions into a single state. Novgorod and Pskov lands became the centers of revival and love of freedom and Russian culture. It was here that the able-bodied population began to flock from the southern and central regions, bringing with them the old traditions of their culture, writing, and architecture. Of great importance in the unification of Russian lands and the revival of culture was the influence where many ancient documents, books, works of art were preserved.

The construction of cities and temples, as well as defensive structures, began. Tver became perhaps the first city in North-Eastern Russia, where stone construction began. We are talking about the construction of the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior in the style of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture. In each city, along with defensive structures, churches and monasteries were built: the Savior on Ilna, Peter and Paul in Kozhevniki, Vasily on Gorka in Pskov, Epiphany in Zapskovye and many others. The history of North-Eastern Russia was reflected and continued in these buildings.

Painting was revived by Daniil Cherny and Andrei Rublev - famous Russian icon painters. Jewelry craftsmen recreated the lost shrines, many artisans worked on restoring the technique of creating national household items, jewelry, and clothing. Many of those centuries have survived to this day.