2.3. Activity. Activity structure. Activities
Activity is the active interaction of a person with the environment, in which he achieves a consciously set goal that has arisen as a result of the appearance of a certain need, motive.
Motives and goals may not coincide. Why a person acts in a certain way is often not the same as what he acts for. When we are dealing with activity in which there is no conscious goal, then there is no activity in the human sense of the word, but there is impulsive behavior which is directly driven by needs and emotions.
deed- an action, performing which a person realizes its significance for other people, i.e. its social meaning.
The action has a structure similar to the activity: the goal is the motive, the method is the result. There are actions: sensory(actions to perceive the object), motor(motor actions), volitional, mental, mnemonic (memory actions), external subject(actions are aimed at changing the state or properties of objects in the external world) and mental(actions performed in the inner plane of consciousness). There are the following action components.
Rice. 2. Structure of activity
Traditionally, it is considered that the main and psychologically main division of activity into its types is the differentiation of activity into labor, educational and game. Labor activity differs from the other two types in that it involves the receipt of some socially significant product, result. For play and learning activities, this result is not socially significant, but individually significant and consists in the subject's mastering of socially developed experience, knowledge, etc. Finally, the clearest specific sign of play activity is that, unlike learning and labor, its main motive is the process itself, not its result. These types of activity replace each other in ontogenesis and are designated by the concept of "leading type" of activity for each of the main age stages. Leading - this is such an activity, the implementation of which determines the emergence and formation of the main psychological neoplasms of a person at any stage of his development.
Equally fundamental and common is the division individual and joint activities. Joint activity is realized in contrast to the individual so-called collective subject, ie, two or more people who have a common motive and a common goal. Other important features of joint activity are the spatial and temporal presence of participants in the activity, the role and instrumental differentiation of participants in one or another of its tasks, the presence of a managing (organizing) component - either a leader or a leader. Joint activity is also internally heterogeneous and is divided into subtypes: for example, directly-joint - "activities together" and indirectly-joint - "activities side by side".
The most traditional is, apparently, the classification of activities according to their subject area, i.e. by professional accessories. As a result, all those professions that exist today, as well as specializations within these professions, are distinguished.
A derivative of the previous one, but much more generalized, is the classification of professions developed by E.A. Klimov, in order to organize career guidance work. According to this classification, there are five main types of professional activity: "man - technology", "man - man", "man - nature", "man - sign", "man - artistic image".
Extremely common is the dichotomous division of activities into external and internal. At the same time, external activity is understood as all types, types and processes of activity that are accompanied by explicit, i.e. objectified, manifestations of its performing components - movements, actions, expression, communications, etc. Internal activity unfolds on an intrapsychic plane, and as its synonym the term “mental activity” is often used, which, however, is not entirely correct. It is also commonly believed that there is a genetic connection between external and internal activities, since the latter is formed in the process of ontogenesis on the basis of the former through the mechanism interiorization.
Increasing importance is attached today to another one - the general differentiation of activities into two types - subject-object and subject-subjective. The importance of such a division is due to the fact that it is carried out according to the main feature of activity - its subject. In the subject-object type of activities, the subject is an inanimate object, and in the subject-subject type it is “another person” (a social object, according to the definition of J. Bruner), i.e. a person, a subject, more precisely, a number of subjects (for example, an activity leader, teacher, etc.).
Activities are also divided into performing and managerial(organizational). The first is characterized by the fact that the subject of labor directly affects its object, although it contacts with other subjects. The second (administrative) usually does not provide for such a direct impact. However, it necessarily implies the organization by one subject of the activities of other people, as well as the hierarchy of their subordination. Management activity is denoted by the concept of "meta-activity" - it is "activity with activities".
From a practical point of view, it is advisable to differentiate activities depending on conditions its implementation. On this basis, activities are distinguished in comfortable, normal (permissible), para-extreme and extreme conditions. Depending on the change in conditions, the so-called psycho-physiological price of activity, its intensity, as well as the resulting parameters change significantly.
In terms of application, it is also important to divide activities into immediate and mediated. In the first case, the subject of labor directly affects the object and equally directly receives information about its state. In the second case, there is neither one nor the other: information about the subject of labor is presented to a person through mediating links - most often in a symbolic form on the scoreboard, consoles, indicating devices. A person also exercises his influence on the object of labor not directly, but through certain governing bodies. The most typical example of mediated - remote activities is operator-type activities.
Traditionally used, but rather outdated and conditional, is the division of activity into “mental” (intellectual) and “physical”. The essence of this division is clear without comment; we will only note that, along with the two indicated, there is an extensive class of varieties of activity that include both physical and intellectual components at the same time, although in different proportions.
Along with the above, there are numerous other ways to systematize activities. For example, its division into "creative" and "reproductive" (routine) types; differentiation into so-called voluntary (initiative) and imposed (coercive) activities; division of activities according to the nature of the final product - “partial” (partial) and “full” activities.
An important consequence of the principle of multiple descriptions and classifications of activities is that any individual activity can and should be characterized by a set, more precisely, symptom complex leading parameters, each of which specifies in relation to it this or that basis of classification considered above. For example, the activity of a leader is both labor, and intellectual, and “subject-subject”, and, above all, individual activity.
From the book Practical Management. Methods and techniques of the leader's activity author Satskov N. Ya. From the book The Law of Karma author Torsunov Oleg Gennadievich From the book Educational Psychology: Lecture Notes the author Esina E V From the book Introduction to Psychological and Pedagogical Activities: Study Guide author Chernyavskaya Anna Pavlovna1. The structure and functioning of the activity of teaching Teaching is an activity where human actions are controlled by the conscious goal of acquiring certain skills, knowledge, skills. The starting point in teaching is the need-motivational aspect.
From the book Stress Resistant Manager the author Altshuller A A3.1. Types of professional activities of a teacher-psychologist According to the "General characteristics of the specialty 031000 Pedagogy and psychology" (see Appendix 2), the main activities of a teacher-psychologist are correctional and developmental, teaching,
From the book Visualization Effect by Nast Jamie From the book Psychology: Cheat Sheet author author unknownSuggested Activities You have seen many applications of the idea mapping technique using the Mindjet Pro 6 software. Figure 7.9 is a map of the idea of this chapter. Your challenge is to download the Mindjet software demo (www.mindjet.com) and create at least one
From the book Psychology and Pedagogy: Cheat Sheet author author unknown author Voytina Yulia Mikhailovna From the book Cheat Sheet on the General Fundamentals of Pedagogy author Voytina Yulia Mikhailovna From the book Motivation and Motives author Ilyin Evgeny Pavlovich18. STRUCTURE OF ACTIVITY In the structure of activity, goals and motives are distinguished first of all. The goal is understood as what a person acts for, at the same time, the motive is understood as why a person acts. Each person has some of his own
From the book Legal Psychology [With the Basics of General and Social Psychology] author Enikeev Marat Iskhakovich32. MAIN ACTIVITIES. INTERIORIZATION AND EXTERIORIZATION OF ACTIVITY There are three main types of activity: play, learning, work. A specific feature of the game is that its goal is the game itself as an activity, and not those practical results
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From the author's bookMethodology "Structure of work motivation" Methodology developed by K. Zamfir. The structure of work motivation includes three components: intrinsic motivation (IM), extrinsic positive motivation (EPM) and extrinsic negative motivation (VOM).
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From the author's book29. Types of activity There are three types of activity that genetically replace each other and coexist throughout the life path: play, learning and work. They differ in final results (product of activity), in organization, in features
Activity- this is the process of a person's active attitude to reality, during which the subject achieves the goals set earlier, the satisfaction of various needs and the development of social experience.
Activity structure:
1) Subject - the one who carries out activities (a person, a group of people, an organization, a state body);
2) The object is what it is aimed at (natural materials, various objects, spheres or areas of people's lives);
3) Motives - those internal forces that are associated with the needs of the individual and encourage her to a certain activity;
4) Goals - the most significant objects, phenomena, tasks and objects for a person, the achievement and possession of which constitute the essence of his activity. The purpose of an activity is an ideal representation of its future result;
5) Methods and techniques (actions) - relatively complete elements of activity aimed at achieving intermediate goals subordinate to a common motive.
Any activity includes internal and external components. Initially, objective actions are performed, and only then, as experience accumulates, a person acquires the ability to perform the same actions in the mind. The translation of an external action into an internal plan is called internalization. The realization of mental action outside, in the form of actions with objects, is called exteriorization. The activity is carried out in the form of a system of actions.
Action- the main structural unit of activity, which is defined as a process aimed at achieving the goal. Allocate practical (objective) and mental actions.
Skills and skills as structural elements of activity:
1) Human knowledge about the world arises initially in the form of images, sensations and perceptions. The processing of sensory data about consciousness leads to the formation of representations and concepts. Actions with objects give a person knowledge at the same time about their properties and about the possibilities of handling them;
2) A skill is a stereotyped way of performing individual actions - operations, formed as a result of their repeated repetition and characterized by curtailment (reduction) of its conscious control. Skills are formed as a result of exercises, i.e. purposeful and systematic repetition of actions. To save a skill, it should be used systematically, otherwise de-automation occurs, i.e. weakening or almost complete destruction of developed automatisms;
3) Skill is a method of performing actions mastered by the subject, provided by a set of acquired knowledge and skills. Skills are formed as a result of the coordination of skills, their combination into systems with the help of actions that are under conscious control. Skills are based on active intellectual activity and necessarily include thinking processes. Conscious intellectual control is the main thing that distinguishes skills from skills.
Types of human activity, their classification:
1) Game - a form of human activity in conditional situations, aimed at recreating and assimilating social experience, fixed in socially fixed ways of implementing objective actions;
2) Teaching is a type of activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. The main goal of the teaching is preparation for future independent labor activity;
3) Labor is an activity aimed at creating a socially useful product that satisfies the material or spiritual needs of people.
Currently, there are two main approaches to understanding this issue in psychology. The first of them is conditionally designated as a structural-morphological paradigm of the psychological analysis of activity. According to this approach, the main structural component of activity is action, and the organization of activity as a whole is interpreted as a hierarchy of action systems of different levels of complexity. The second approach is designated as the functional-dynamic paradigm of the psychological analysis of activity. It, being more modern and perfect, is based on the following basic provision. An activity, due to its exceptional complexity, cannot and is not based on any one (“unitary”) component, for example, an action. It implies the need for several qualitatively heterogeneous psychological components - their own "units". They are interconnected and form an integral psychological structure of activity. This structure is dynamic, and its functioning is the process of activity. The studies carried out on the basis of this approach have proved that any activity, regardless of its type, type and even class, is based on a stable, constant set of such components. All of them are objectively necessary for the implementation of activities, and their totality is denoted by the concept of "invariant psychological structure" of activity. True, in various psychological concepts they are designated somewhat differently. So, B.F. Lomov uses the concept of "main components" of activity; V.D. Shadrikov - the concept of "a block of the system of activity"; A.V. Karpov, considering the procedural aspect of these components, uses the term "integral processes" of activity regulation.
These approaches are not antagonistic, but rather complement each other, since the second of them is, in essence, the development and deepening of the first (but at the same time, its kind of "negation").
The main components of the invariant structure of activity are: motivation, goal setting, anticipation (anticipation) of its results, decision making, planning, programming, control, correction, as well as the operational image of the object of activity, the system of individual qualities of the subject and the totality of performing actions. Taken in their statics, i.e. in those structural psychological formations that provide them, these components are the main "building blocks" of activity. But taken in their dynamics, functioning, they are the main regulatory processes for the implementation of activities.
The most important, initial and basic component of activity is motivation. It implements in relation to the activity both proper incentive and regulatory functions; dynamizes and organizes the whole system of activity. The totality of motives is united in the concept of the motivational sphere of the personality, and the role of motivators of activity can be a variety of psychological formations - needs, interests, attitudes, motives, aspirations, drives, social roles, norms, values, personal dispositions, etc.
Motivation is always presented in activity not abstractly, but concretely, i.e. in relation to the objectives of the activity. As a result of correlating the motives of activity with its goals, the most important psychological formation of activity is formed - its personal meaning. There is also the concept of the vector "motive - goal", which is likened to a kind of "core", around which the entire system of activity is organized. Goal formation is understood as the process of forming the goal of an activity and concretizing it into subgoals of individual actions. The goal is an ideal form of presentation of performance results. This ideal form of the future result is formed in a person before the start of the activity and subsequently has a decisive influence on all its content. The goal is considered in psychology as a backbone factor of activity. This means that it is the goal that determines the content, structure and dynamics (temporal organization) of the activity.
Forecasting is closely related to goal setting, since the formulation (or choice) of goals is always based on the forecast of future events, anticipated changes in the object and conditions of activity. From a psychological point of view, the process of forecasting is based on the fundamental ability of a person to anticipate - anticipation of the future. In turn, anticipation is the main form of the so-called anticipatory reflection by the subject of reality. An important feature of anticipation and forecasting is that they have a level structure. This means that they can be implemented at qualitatively different levels of complexity, using completely different mental processes and mechanisms. At present, six main levels of anticipation have been described: subsensory, sensorimotor, perceptual, representational, verbal and reflexive.
The next basic component, decision making, occupies a central position in the structure of activity. The main function of decision-making is the removal (or reduction) of pragmatic uncertainty and the determination of methods of action in specific situations. This is a kind of "bridge" from the phase of orientation in activity situations to the phase of building and implementing performing actions. Decision-making processes have the strongest, determining influence both on the performance parameters of the activity and on its procedural features.
The planning process is aimed at concretizing the decisions made by the subject and determining the program of activities. There are three main types (levels of complexity) of planning: “work according to guidelines”, “work according to samples” and planning taking into account expected changes in conditions, including the likely occurrence of new events and activity factors. The content of the planning process is based on a certain sequence of several main stages that make up the temporary planning structure: 1) general orientation in the situation, identification of the main difficulties to achieve the goals facing the subject; 2) development of a number of alternative options for getting out of the current situation; 3) a comparative analysis of these options, "weighing" their advantages and disadvantages, as well as determining the "price" that the implementation of each of them will require; 4) the actual choice of one or another option that maximizes the probability of achieving the goals of the activity; 5) specifying and detailing this option and developing a “technology” for its implementation; 6) implementation of the plan; 7) assessment of the effectiveness of implementation; making corrections to it, if necessary; comparison of actually achieved results with the initial goals.
The processes of self-control, as another mandatory component of activity in psychology, are usually classified according to four main principles - temporal, modal, structural, and the principle of the level of arbitrariness. In accordance with the temporary principle, one should distinguish between preliminary (anticipatory), current (intermediate) and resulting (final) types of self-control. In accordance with the modality principle (the concept of modality denotes one or another kind of sensations), there are visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, and also combined types of self-control. In accordance with the structural principle, the types of self-control differ depending on the level at which it is implemented. In this regard, we can talk about the biological level of self-control (homeostasis); about the physiological self-regulation of the main systems of life; about psychophysiological regulation of states; about psychological self-control of activity; about social self-control of behavior.
Correction processes are also very specific in activity. Firstly, they complete and, as it were, "close" the overall cycle of building and implementing activities, as well as each of its individual stages. Secondly, on the basis of the correction processes, the subject self-educates, expands and enriches his professional experience, and increases the overall level of competence.
Under the operational image, the object of activity is understood as an ideal, specialized reflection of the object transformed in the activity, which develops in the course of its implementation and is subordinate to its main goals, objectives, conditions. It is characterized by the properties of pragmatism, schematicity, "conciseness", adequacy to specific tasks of activity, as well as the property of "functional deformation".
Finally, another mandatory component of the activity is the system of individual qualities of the subject, on the basis of which it is possible to perform this activity. We emphasize that any activity is implemented on the basis of a certain set of individual qualities organized among themselves. They are designated by the concept of "professionally important qualities" - individual qualities necessary for the implementation of activities at a given regulatory level and positively correlated with at least one of the main performance parameters of the activity.
Activity is a specific type of human activity aimed at creative transformation, improvement of reality and oneself. Activity is a form of realization of the relation of the subject to the world of objects; different types of such relations can be distinguished, implemented in different forms of activity: practical, cognitive, aesthetic, etc. Practical activity is aimed primarily at transforming the world in accordance with the goals set by man. Cognitive activity serves the purpose of understanding the objective laws of the existence of the world, without which it is impossible to perform practical tasks. Aesthetic activity associated with the perception and creation of works of art involves the transmission (transfer) of meanings, which are determined by the value orientations of a particular society and individual. All these are types of human activity.
Within each type of activity, separate types of activity can be distinguished according to the difference in their objects - motives: communication, play, learning and work.
Communication is the first type of activity that occurs in the process of individual development of a person, followed by play, learning and work. All these activities are of a developmental nature, i.e. when the child is included and actively participates in them, his intellectual and personal development takes place.
Communication is considered as an activity aimed at the exchange of information between communicating people. It also pursues the goals of establishing mutual understanding, good personal and business relations, providing mutual assistance and teaching and educational influence of people on each other. Communication can be direct and indirect, verbal and non-verbal. In direct communication, people are in direct contact with each other.
A game is a type of activity that does not result in the production of any material or ideal product (with the exception of business and design games for adults and children). Games often have the character of entertainment, they are aimed at getting rest. Sometimes games serve as a means of symbolic relaxation of tensions that have arisen under the influence of the actual needs of a person, which he is not able to weaken in any other way.
Games are: individual (one person is engaged in the game), group (with several people), subject (associated with the inclusion of any objects in a person’s gaming activity), plot (unfold according to a scenario, in basic details), role-playing (in a game a person leads himself according to the role he takes on) and games with rules (governed by a system of rules). Games are of great importance in people's lives. For children, games have a developmental value, for adults - a discharge.
Teaching is a type of activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Teaching can be organized (in special educational institutions) and unorganized (in other activities as a side, additional result). Educational activity serves as a means of psychological development of the individual.
Labor occupies a special place in the system of human activity. Thanks to labor, man built a modern society, created objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed the conditions of his life in such a way that he discovered the prospects for further, practically unlimited development. First of all, the creation and improvement of labor tools is connected with labor. They, in turn, were a factor in increasing labor productivity, the development of science, industrial production, technical and artistic creativity. These are the main characteristics of activities.
At school A.N. Leontiev distinguishes two forms of the subject's activity (according to the nature of its openness to observation): external and internal. External activity usually refers to various forms of objective-practical activity (for example, driving a nail with a hammer, working on a machine tool, manipulating toys in young children, etc.), where the subject interacts with an object clearly presented for external observation. Internal activity is the activity of the subject hidden from direct observation with images of objects (for example, the theoretical activity of a scientist in solving a mathematical problem, the work of an actor on a role, proceeding in the form of internal reflections and experiences, etc.). The ratio of external and internal components is not constant. With the development and transformation of activities, a systematic transition from external components to internal ones is carried out. It is accompanied by their internalization and automation. If any difficulties arise in the activity, during its restoration, associated with violations of the internal components, a reverse transition occurs - exteriorization: the reduced, automated components of the activity unfold, appear outside, the internal ones again become external, consciously controlled.
Activity differs from behavior (behavior is not always purposeful, does not imply the creation of a specific product, is often passive) and has the following main characteristics: motive, goal, object, structure, means. We talked about motives and goals in paragraph 1.1., so let's move on to the third characteristic - the subject of activity. The object of activity is everything with which it directly deals. So, for example, the subject of cognitive activity is information, educational - knowledge, skills and abilities, labor - the created material product.
Activities have a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several "layers", or levels. These are special activities (or special activities); then the action level; the next is the level of operations; finally, the lowest is the level of psychophysiological functions. Special types of activity: game, educational, labor activity.
Action is the basic unit of activity analysis. Action is one of the main "formative" activities. This concept, like a drop of water, reflects the main starting points or principles of the theory of activity, new in comparison with previous concepts.
1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must be brought into the activity of the subject ("opening" the circle of consciousness).
2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness. When considering behavior, consciousness must not only be preserved, but also defined in its fundamental function (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).
3. Activity is an active, purposeful process (the principle of activity).
4. Human actions are objective; they realize social - industrial and cultural - goals (the principle of the objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social conditionality).
The goal sets the action, the action ensures the realization of the goal. Through the characteristics of the goal, you can also characterize the action. There are large goals that are divided into smaller, private goals, which, in turn, can be divided into even more private goals, etc. Accordingly, any sufficiently large action is a sequence of actions of a lower order with transitions to different "floors" hierarchical system of actions. This can be demonstrated with any example.
Suppose a person wants to call another city. To carry out this action (I order), he needs to perform a number of private actions (II order): go to the call center, find a suitable machine, take a queue, purchase telephone tokens, etc. Getting into the booth, he must perform the following action in this row: connect with the subscriber. But for this, he will have to perform a number of even smaller actions (III order): lower the coin, press a button, wait for a beep, dial a certain number, etc.
Now we turn to operations, which form the next, lower level in relation to actions.
An operation is a way to perform an action. You can multiply two two-digit numbers in your mind and in writing, solving the example "in a column". These will be two different ways to perform the same arithmetic operation, or two different operations. As you can see, operations characterize the technical side of performing actions, and what is called "technique", dexterity, dexterity, refers almost exclusively to the level of operations. The nature of the operations depends on the conditions of the action being performed. If the action corresponds to the goal itself, then the operation corresponds to the conditions in which this goal is given. At the same time, "conditions" means both external circumstances and the possibilities, or internal means, of the acting subject himself.
The most accurate psychological sign that distinguishes between actions and operations - awareness / unconsciousness, in principle, can be used, however, not always. It stops working just in the border zone, near the border, which separates the layer of actions and operations. The farther from this boundary, the more reliable the data of self-observation: the subject usually has no doubts about the representation (or non-representation) in the mind of very large or very small acts. But in the border zone, the situational dynamics of the activity process becomes significant. And here, the very attempt to determine the awareness of an act can lead to its awareness, i.e., disrupt the natural structure of activity.
The only way that is now seen is the use of objective indicators, i.e., behavioral and physiological signs, of the active level of the current process.
Let's move on to the last, lowest level in the structure of activity - psychophysiological functions. Psychophysiological functions in the theory of activity are understood as the physiological provision of mental processes. These include a number of abilities of our body, such as the ability to sense, to form and fix traces of past influences, motor ability, etc. Accordingly, they speak of sensory, mnemonic, and motor functions. This level also includes innate mechanisms fixed in the morphology of the nervous system, and those that mature during the first months of life. Psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of the processes of activity. Without reliance on them, it would be impossible not only to carry out actions and operations, but also to set the tasks themselves.
Let's return to the characteristics of the activity, and the last characteristic is the means of carrying out the activity. These are the tools that a person uses when performing certain actions and operations. The development of the means of activity leads to its improvement, as a result of which it becomes more productive and of high quality.
And in conclusion of the paragraph, we emphasize the main differences between human activity and animal activity:
1. Human activity is productive, creative, constructive. The activity of animals has a consumer basis; as a result, it does not produce or create anything new in comparison with what is given by nature.
2. Human activity is connected with the objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used by him either as tools, or as objects for satisfying needs, or as means of his own development. For animals, human tools and means of satisfying needs do not exist as such.
3. Human activity transforms himself, his abilities, needs, living conditions. The activity of animals practically does not change anything either in themselves or in the external conditions of life.
4. Human activity in its various forms and means of realization is a product of history. The activity of animals acts as a result of their biological evolution.
5. The objective activity of people from birth is not given to them. It is "given" in the cultural purpose and way of using the surrounding objects. Such activity must be formed and developed in training and education. The same applies to the internal, neurophysiological and psychological structures that govern the external side of practical activity. The activity of animals is initially set, genotypically determined and unfolds as the natural anatomical and physiological maturation of the organism.
Essence of motivation. Motive and incentive. Basic theories of motivation.
Motivation is a certain process of stimulating oneself or others to work and achieve certain goals. Incentive, stimulation also includes a material side, it is a kind of promise of reward, reward, which also serves as an incentive to work, to achieve goals. Motivation is an internal process. Stimulation is external. The motive implies the internal motivation or aspiration of the individual to behave in a certain way to satisfy the needs. And the incentive also captures the material aspect. Motivation theories: Informative: A. Maslow's model of motivation based on the hierarchy of needs: primary, social, respect and self-expression, self-realization through their consistent implementation; D. McClelland's model of motivation using the needs of power, success and recognition in the group, involvement in it; F. Herzberg's model of motivation using hygienic factors (working conditions, interpersonal relationships, etc.) in combination with the "enrichment" of the labor process itself: a sense of success, promotion, recognition from others, responsibility, growth of opportunities; Procedural: a model of motivation based on the theory of expectations by V. Vram: a person directs his efforts to achieve a goal when he is sure that his needs are met. Motivation is a function of the expectation factor according to the scheme: "labor costs -> results -" reward "; a model of motivation based on the theory of justice: people compare personal efforts expended with remuneration, comparing it with the remuneration of others for similar work. If labor is underestimated, efforts are reduced.
The concepts of "leadership" and "leadership", the features of these forms of influence.
Leadership is a purposeful impact on the people being led and their communities, which leads to their conscious and active behavior and activities, in accordance with the intentions of the leader. Leadership is the process of psychological influence of one person on others during their joint life, which is carried out on the basis of perception, imitation, suggestion, understanding of each other. Leadership is based on the principles of free communication, mutual understanding and voluntary subordination. The leader is characterized by: the ability to perceive the common needs and problems of the team and take on a certain share in solving these problems; the ability to be an organizer of joint activities: he formulates a task that worries most members of the team, plans joint work taking into account the interests and capabilities of each member of the team; sensitivity and insight, trust in people, he is the spokesman for the collective positions of its members. The main differences between management and leadership: leadership provides for the organization of all group activities, and leadership characterizes the psychological relations that arise in the group “vertically”, i.e. in terms of relations of dominance and subordination; leadership is a natural and necessary element in the process of emergence of an official organization, while leadership arises spontaneously as a result of the interaction of people; leadership acts as a process of legal organization and management of the joint activities of members of organizations, and leadership is a process of internal socio-psychological organization and management of communication and activities; the head is an intermediary of social control and power, and the leader is the subject of group norms and expectations, which are spontaneously formed in personal relationships. The leader-leader does not command, does not call and "does not put pressure" on employees, but leads people along to solve common problems for this team.
General and special functions of management activities.
Control functions- this is a direction or types of management activities based on division and cooperation in management, and characterized by a separate set of tasks and performed by special techniques and methods. Any management function includes the collection of information, its transformation, decision-making, shaping and bringing to the performers. General control functions:- carried out in every organization and at every level of management; - inherent in the management of any organization; - divide the content of management activities into types of work on the basis of the sequence of their implementation in time; - are relatively independent and at the same time closely interact. To such functions, in particular, in management include: planning, organization, motivation and control. Concrete (specific) functions- are the result of the division of managerial labour. Such functions include various activities that differ in purpose and method of implementation. Specific functions do not affect the entire organization, but certain parts or parts of it. Each specific management function in an organization is complex in content and includes common functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. Special Features - are subfunctions of a specific function (for example, a special function of main production management is operational scheduling of main production).
The main categories of PU are activity and labor. Activity - activity that realizes the needs of a person, its characteristic is the external side (the tools used, technologies, social roles, languages, norms and values), the internal side (expressed in the conditionality of the psyche by past experience, needs, motives and goals). Human activity has a complex genetic, functional and structural character. It has its origins, "causes" and more or less definite structural and functional organization. Its composition is multicomponent. Its implementation involves mental processes, states and personality traits of different levels of complexity. Depending on the goals, this activity can last for years or even a lifetime. However, no matter how complex it may be, no matter how long it lasts, it can be described using universal units, which reflect not a meaningful, but precisely a structural-level approach to its description. The units of activity, which are its smaller fragments, but at the same time retain the specifics of its psychological content, are those of its elements that are fixed in the concepts of action and operation. Purposeful activity associated with the achievement of private goals in the implementation of a broader activity, it is customary in psychology to call actions. An operation is that specific set and sequence of movements that is determined by the specific conditions of interaction with objects in the process of performing actions (for example, the physical properties of the object, location, orientation in space, accessibility, etc.). Simply put, an operation is a way of performing an action. Operations are formed through imitation (copying) and by automating actions. Unlike actions, operations are less conscious.
The principle of the unity of the psyche and activity; two-stage study of the psychology of activity.
The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity is the fundamental principle of the activity approach in psychology. Activity is not a combination of reflex and impulsive reactions to external stimuli, since it is regulated by consciousness and reveals it. At the same time, consciousness is considered as a reality that is not given to the subject directly, in his self-observation: it can be known only through a system of subjective relations, incl. through the activity of the subject, in the process of which consciousness is formed and develops. The psyche, consciousness "live" in the activity that constitutes their "substance", the image is an "accumulated movement", i.e. curtailed actions, which were at first fully developed and "external", i.e. consciousness is not just "manifested and formed" in activity as a separate reality - it is "embedded" in activity and is inseparable from it. The principle of two-stage psychological study of activity. According to him, the analysis of activity should include two successive stages - the analysis of its content and the analysis of its psychological mechanisms. The first stage is associated with the characterization of the objective content of the activity, the second - with the analysis of the subjective, proper psychological content.
The main functions of management: planning, motivation, etc.
Currently, the process approach to management is widespread, which considers management as a process consisting of a number of specific sequential steps. Most people plan their activities for the day (month, year, etc.), then organize the resources that will be required to carry out their plan. Those. management must be seen as a cyclical process ^ Main types of managementPlanning - the process of preparing for the future decisions about what should be done, how, when, what and how much resources should be used. The planning function answers three questions: Where is the organization currently located? Where does she want to go? How the organization is going to do it. ^ Organization. Stages: 1. structural organization (includes the structure of authority and the structure of communications; 2. organization of the production process (includes the organization of personnel work, work in time, work in space). Motivation - maximum satisfaction of the needs of the employees of the organization in exchange for their effective work. Stages: 1. determination of the needs of employees; 2. enabling the employee to meet these needs through good work. Control - the process of ensuring that the organization actually achieves its purpose. Stages: 1. setting standards; 2. measuring what has actually been achieved and comparing what has been achieved against the intended standards; 3. identification of sources of discrepancy and actions necessary to correct plans.
Basic psychological requirements for an effective manager.
Many existing approaches to defining the normative model of an effective leader can be grouped into 3 main groups:
1. Situational;
2. Personal;
3. Situational.
1. Functional approach. The main point for developing requirements for
An effective manager is to define his functions. At the same time, the structure of the manager's activity is the main one for the allocation of functions.
In most cases, the functional characteristics of the activities of managers are associated with understanding and formulating the mission of the organization, setting goals, managing resources, controlling processes in the external and internal environment of the organization.
There are 12 functions that reflect the structure and specifics of the professional activity of a manager of functions:
1. Knowledge - knowledge of a person, group, organization, its environment, the current situation of management;
2. Forecast - determination of the main directions and dynamics of the development of controlled variables;
3. Designing - defining the mission, goals and objectives of the organization, programming and planning activities;
4. Communication and information - formation, structuring, preservation of communication networks, collection, transformation and direction to communication networks necessary for information management;
5. Motivation - a rational impact on the totality of external and internal conditions that cause activity and determine the direction of the activity of the subject and object of management;
6. Guidelines - taking responsibility for proposed solutions and their consequences based on regulations or agreements within organizations;
7. Organizations - implementation of the goals and objectives of management;
8. Training - the transfer of the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities to personnel;
9. Development - an expedient change in the psychological variables of the individual and the group;
10. Assessments - formation and application of norms and standards of activity;
11. Control - a reflection of the compliance of the current state of organizations with the goals of management;
12. Corrections - making the necessary changes to the goals and management programs.
When carrying out procedures for the professional selection of managers from the standpoint of a functional approach, the readiness of applicants to effectively perform precisely those functions that are characteristic of the proposed position is assessed.
2. Personal approach. It is based on the assumption that effective managerial activity is associated with the manager's possession of some set of personality traits.
The profile of an effective manager, according to which a successful leader is characterized by the following features:
Search for opportunities and initiative; perseverance and perseverance;
Focus on efficiency and quality; involvement in working contacts;
Purposefulness;
Awareness;
Ability to persuade and establish connections; independence and self-confidence.
3. Situational (behavioral) approach. Successful leadership depends on:
1. expectations and needs of led persons;
2. structure of the group and the specifics of the situation;
3. The cultural environment in which the group is included;
4. the history of the organization in which the management activities are carried out;
5. age and experience of the leader, his length of service;
6. Psychological climate in the group;
7. personal characteristics of subordinates.
The situational approach allows us to identify a number of managerial personality traits that indicate the manager's readiness for productive activity in a wide range of situations. These include, in particular, the ability to change leadership style flexibly, resistance to uncertainty, and the absence of rigid stereotypes.
Thus, we can conclude that beyond the task of the professional selection of managers is to establish the correspondence of the personal characteristics of the applicant to the characteristics of the organization, the structure and functions of the activity, the current and predicted state of the professional environment.
The essence of management activity, two main plans for its characteristics.
Activity is defined as a form of the subject's active attitude to reality, aimed at achieving consciously set goals and associated with the creation of socially significant values and the development of social experience. The subject of the psychological study of activity is the psychological components that induce, direct and regulate the labor activity of the subject and implement it in performing actions, as well as the personality traits through which this activity is realized. The main psychological properties of activity are activity, awareness, purposefulness, objectivity and systemic nature of its structure. An activity is always based on some motive (or several motives). Activity involves two main characterization plans - external (subject-effective) and internal (psychological). The external characteristic of activity is carried out through the concepts of the subject and object of labor, the subject, means and conditions of activity. The subject of labor is a set of things, processes, phenomena with which the subject in the process of work must mentally or practically operate. Means of labor - a set of tools that can enhance a person's ability to recognize the features of the object of labor and influence it. Working conditions - a system of social, psychological and sanitary-hygienic characteristics of activity. The internal characteristic of activity involves a description of the processes and mechanisms of its mental regulation, its structure and content, operational means of its implementation.
The mechanism of execution of decisions and its role in management activities. Decision-making model as a circular process, its stages.
Stages of the decision-making process: 1) Identification of the problem - the primary distinction in a given conflicting situation of a problem that needs to be resolved. The discovered discrepancy between the actual and desired state of the organization. 2) Analysis, diagnosis of the problem based on the collection of factual material related to the problem that has arisen. Having discovered the problem, it is necessary to properly qualify it, which is the second task of the process of developing a management decision. Diagnostics is designed to establish the nature of the problem, its connection with other problems, the degree of its danger, the collection and analysis of facts. 3) Determining the essence of the problem, its main content. At this stage, the results of the analysis are used to develop solutions. There should be many such options so that by comparing them it would be possible to choose the best, most reasonable. 4) Choosing the optimal solution and bringing its content to the performers. Such a choice involves consideration of all options for the proposed solution and the exclusion of subjective moments in its content. The optimal option will be the one that best takes into account the essence of the problems that have arisen, is acceptable in terms of the amount of expenses necessary for its implementation, and is the most reliable in terms of the possibility of its implementation. 5) Practical implementation under the control of the head through the use of a feedback mechanism. The implementation of the adopted decision includes all the main phases of the management cycle - planning, organization, motivation and control.
Sole and agreed decisions, conditions for their adoption. The need to make a decision arises when the usual, stereotyped reaction to the information received is impossible. The manager can make decisions both individually and in coordination with the work team. Sole decisions are made by the manager mainly with a minimum communicative space - for example, decisions made in emergency conditions, or decisions whose significance is not great. But there are also decisions that are better to make agreed, taking into account the opinion of the team, or taking into account the opinion of firms with which the enterprise cooperates, for example, on changing the delivery time of products.
The role of feedback in the management communication system.
Feedback - prompt reaction to what is heard, read or seen; this is information (in verbal and non-verbal form) that is sent back to the sender, indicating a measure of understanding, trust in the message, assimilation and agreement with it. Feedback allows the sender not only to know the result of the act of communication, but also to correct the next message to achieve a greater effect. If the result of the message transmission is achieved, it is said that positive feedback is in effect; otherwise, negative feedback operates. Establishing feedback in an organization is a rather difficult task. This is especially true of vertical, power communications under control through coercion, when the recipient of information is afraid of possible sanctions and deliberately distorts the message coming through feedback channels.
Methods of psychological research: general scientific and special; non-experimental and experimental.
Non-experimental methods: observation; questioning; conversation; archival method "or the study of products of activity (The object of research when using the method of studying products of activity can be a wide variety of creative products of the subjects (poems, drawings, various crafts, diary entries, school essays, objects, as a result of a certain type of labor experimental methods: natural (conditions are organized not by the experimenter, but by life itself, the natural behavior of a person is evaluated); modeling (the subject acts according to the experimenter's instructions and knows that he is participating in the experiment as a subject); laboratory (conducting research in the psychological laboratory equipped with special instruments and devices.This type of experiment, which is also distinguished by the greatest artificiality of experimental conditions, is usually used in the study of elementary mental functions (sensory and motor reactions, reaction choice).General scientific methods reflect the scientific apparatus of research, determining ii efficiency of any type. Specific - these are methods that are born by the specifics of management systems and reflect the peculiarity of management activities.
Answer:
Activity- a dynamic system of interactions of the subject with the world, during which the emergence and embodiment of a mental image in the object and the realization of the relations of the subject mediated by it in objective reality take place.
Activity - internal (mental) and external (physical) activity of a person, regulated by a conscious goal.
Activity structure.
Consists of several levels:
Psychophysiological functions;
Operations;
Actions;
Activities are special, or special activities.
In activity, movements and actions are distinguished. Action - each relatively completed element of activity aimed at performing one simple current task. The execution of the movement is controlled and corrected by comparing its results with the ultimate goal of the action. The performance of an objective action is not limited to the implementation of a certain system of movements. It includes sensory control and adjustment of movements in accordance with their current results and properties of the objects of action.
In relation to a person with other people, his activity is carried out, i.e. it expresses the personality of a person and at the same time it forms his personality. The emergence of activities in humans is a long process.
During the first year, based on the development of exploratory behavior, the child learns and gets to know the world. Then practical behavior begins. Further, communicative behavior develops - a means by which the child can satisfy his needs and desires.
Activities:
1) game. The connection of play activity with the body's energy metabolism explains the emergence of urges to play. A feature of gaming behavior is that its goal is the “activity” itself, and not the practical results that are achieved with its help. For a child, a game is a form of realization of activity, i.e. she gives him pleasure;
2) teaching. Learning, or mastering experience, is the main factor in the development of the child. Activity is aimed at mastering certain information, forms of behavior, but learning is possible only when a person himself is aimed at mastering certain knowledge, skills;
3) labor- activities aimed at the production of certain socially useful products - material or ideal. Labor activity of a person is a specific behavior that ensures his survival, the use of the forces and substances of nature.
The main characteristics of activity are objectivity and subjectivity.
In a developed form, objectivity is characteristic only of human activity. It manifests itself in the social conditionality of human activity, in its connection with meanings, in the concepts of language, in values, in roles and social norms.
The subjectivity of activity is expressed in the conditionality of the mental image by past experience, needs, attitudes, emotions, goals and motives that determine the direction and selectivity of activity.
