Types of higher educational institutions. Higher education specialization.

Higher education can be obtained by persons who have completed programs of secondary general, vocational or additional education. Citizens have the right to free higher education on a competitive basis. The Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan "On Education" (2007) was

The following levels and qualifications have been approved:

1) Higher basic education - undergraduate program - with

duration of study is 4 years;

2) Postgraduate education, including scientific and pedagogical

direction of training - program

magistracy– with the following duration of study: based on

higher education - 2 years, and on the basis of

higher specialized education - 1 year,

3) Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) training program - doctoral studies- after completion of master's programs. The duration of training is at least 3 years. Postgraduate medical and pharmaceutical education includes residency, master's and doctoral studies.

Residency is an advanced medical education in

clinical specialties with a duration of study from 2 to 4 years,

depending on specialization. For selected medical specialties, the duration of study is seven years, with the final year of study organized as an internship. Postgraduate education of the highest level (cycle) of continuing education

aimed at preparing

4 highly qualified scientific and pedagogical staff. It is organized through clinical, postgraduate, internships, postgraduate programs, doctoral programs, research fellowships, etc.

Types of higher education institutions Higher education institutions (universities)

operate in the form of universities, academies or institutes. Conservatories, higher schools and higher schools have

similar status. The type of university is determined at the licensing stage and depends on the number of higher and postgraduate programs being implemented, the orientation of research work and is confirmed by the state

certification and accreditation.

Institute- an educational institution that implements professional training programs of higher education one by one

two groups of specialties, carries out scientific and pedagogical activities, advanced training and retraining of personnel;

academy- an educational institution that implements professional training programs for higher and postgraduate education in one or two groups of specialties, carries out research and teaching activities, advanced training and retraining of personnel;

university- an educational institution that implements professional training programs of higher and postgraduate education in three or more groups of specialties (medical university - in two or more), carries out scientific and pedagogical activities,

qualifications and retraining of personnel and is the leading scientific and methodological center in the field of its activities.

The number of universities has grown dramatically since 1993, when the government allowed the establishment of non-state (private) educational institutions. Currently, there are 144 higher education institutions (55 public and 89 private). The number of non-state (private) higher education institutions gradually increased until 2001, and since 2002

Consider some educational institutions where you can get secondary specialized and higher education.

Features of secondary educational institutions

In colleges, pedagogical and medical schools, legal and veterinary technical schools, graduates of the basic school can study. They appeared in our country thanks to the revolutionary reform of Lunacharsky. In the thirties, technical schools were created in the Soviet republic, which became the middle link between higher institutions and schools.

At that time, secondary specialized educational institutions became a tool for the mass training of workers in factories and agriculture. In parallel, the development of factory schools, which were called vocational technical schools, took place.

Terms of study in colleges

Middle-level educational institutions are designed for two or three years of study. The duration of study depends on the direction, the initial level of the applicant. After the reform of Russian education, admission rules have changed in many secondary educational institutions, only graduates of secondary schools are taught.

Composition of the secondary education system

Educational institutions of a similar direction operate in St. Petersburg, Moscow.

Colleges of Education

Despite the fact that recently the interest in pedagogical specialties has significantly decreased, in every Russian region there are educational institutions of a similar orientation. In addition to the traditional specialties associated with the training of primary school teachers, such special educational institutions are engaged in the training of future foreign language teachers and educators. For example, the Arkhangelsk Pedagogical College offers applicants additional English language courses and computer literacy training.

Enrollment in college is carried out on the basis of secondary education. The results of the exam are not taken into account, but an additional competition of certificates is necessarily held. Additional points can be earned for providing a portfolio of personal achievements.

Almost all educational institutions after graduation help graduates in employment.

Documents for admission to colleges and technical schools

Regardless of the direction of activity, there are general requirements for the documents provided by the applicant to the selection committee. In addition to the original of the certificate, the first page of the civil passport (copy), four photographs measuring 30 by 40 mm, a medical certificate is provided confirming the absence of contraindications to study.

Top level establishments

Let's find out which educational institutions are considered in demand among modern graduates. In recent years, the number of schoolchildren who choose medical universities and academies for education has increased significantly. What is the reason for the demand for such universities? What specializations can be obtained in them? Medicine has become an attractive direction after the transformations that have been carried out in our country in this industry.

The increase in wages, the possibility of employment, made medical education in demand and prestigious. Regardless of the geographical location of the medical university (institute), training is carried out in the following areas:

• dentistry;
• general practice (therapy);
• pediatrics;
• pharmaceuticals.

When submitting documents to the selection committee, the applicant provides the results of passing the unified state exam in chemistry, biology, and the Russian language. The average score depends on the faculty, region, number of enrollment.

For several years, there has been a competition for higher institutions of a legal and economic profile. Despite the fact that not all graduates are then employed, it is quite difficult to enter such universities on a budgetary basis.

Conclusion

After our country signed the Bologna Declaration in 2003, the system of higher education underwent significant changes. Among the positive innovations, one can note the possibility of unhindered movement of students between countries - parties to the Bologna Treaty.

Numerous international projects, internships, a chance for employment in any country have appeared. In addition to the specialty, Russian higher education now has a master's and a bachelor's degree, which is the norm for the European system. Graduates of major domestic universities are now holders of two diplomas: domestic and European.

In 1992, educational standards were introduced into the system of higher education by the legislation of the Russian Federation. This had a positive impact on the quality of training of qualified personnel. Currently, postgraduate studies are singled out as a separate level of higher education.

Some domestic educational institutions, for example, Moscow State University named after M. V. Lomonosov, St. Petersburg State University, received the right to independently develop educational standards, as well as to introduce additional entrance tests for applicants. Which educational institution to choose for vocational education should be chosen by the graduate of Russian schools. Currently, special courses are being organized for students in the ninth and eleventh grades to help them choose a profession.

an educational institution established and operating on the basis of the legislation of the Russian Federation on education, having the status of a legal entity and implementing educational programs of higher professional education in accordance with a license. The main tasks of a higher educational institution are: meeting the needs of the individual in intellectual, cultural and moral development through higher and (or) postgraduate professional education; development of sciences and arts through scientific research and creative activity of scientific and pedagogical workers and students, the use of the results obtained in the educational process; training, retraining and advanced training of workers with higher education and scientific and pedagogical workers of higher qualification; formation of a civic position among students, the ability to work and live in the conditions of modern civilization and democracy; preservation and enhancement of the moral, cultural and scientific values ​​of society; dissemination of knowledge among the population, raising its educational and cultural level. Higher educational institutions may have their own structural subdivisions and branches. Structural subdivisions of a higher educational institution may implement educational programs of primary general, basic general, secondary (complete) general, primary vocational and secondary vocational education, as well as educational programs of additional education if the higher educational institution has an appropriate license. Branches of higher educational institutions are separate structural subdivisions located outside its location. Branches of higher educational institutions undergo licensing and certification independently, and state accreditation - as part of a higher educational institution. Admission to higher educational institutions is carried out on the basis of applications from persons with secondary (complete) general or secondary vocational education, on a competitive basis based on the results of entrance examinations or in another manner determined by the founder (founders) of the higher educational institution. Citizens of the Russian Federation with a higher professional education are admitted to postgraduate studies at higher educational institutions (scientific institutions or organizations), as a rule, on a competitive basis. Citizens of the Russian Federation who have a Ph.D. The following types of higher educational institutions are established in the Russian Federation: university, academy, institute. The status of a higher educational institution is determined depending on its type, organizational and legal form, the presence or absence of state accreditation. The status of a higher education institution is included in its name. The name of a higher educational institution is established at the time of its creation and is changed without fail when its status changes. If a special name (conservatory, higher school and other names) is used in the name of a higher education institution, the type of higher education institution is indicated along with it.

The university must be accredited (accreditation is given to the university, as a rule, after attestation). Education at a university, as a rule, lasts from 4 to 6 years and can be full-time (full-time), evening (part-time) and part-time. The most common forms of education are classroom and distance learning. Conventionally, universities are divided into humanitarian and technical.

Types of higher education institutions

In Russia

• The Federal University is the leading higher educational institution on the territory of the federal district, the center of science and education. As of 2016, there are 10 FU in Russia.
• The university is a multidisciplinary educational institution with a large selection of study programs in various fields of knowledge.
• Academy - trains a wide range of specialists in any area of ​​human activity (agriculture, health care, art, tourism, economics, finance, etc.).
• - is engaged in the preparation of specialists for work in a certain area of ​​​​professional activity.

Scientific research is carried out in higher educational institutions of all types, but in universities, as a rule, they are of a fundamental nature.

Belarus

The higher educational institution is headed by the rector, his deputies in various areas of work are vice-rectors, who solve operational and tactical issues of the university. Strategic issues of the development of the university are usually decided by its Academic Council.

Main divisions of higher education institutions

• Faculty - an educational, scientific and administrative structural unit of a higher educational institution that trains students and graduate students in one or more related specialties, advanced training of specialists, as well as management of the research activities of the departments that it unites. In universities and academies, individual faculties can function as intra-university institutions.
• Department - a unit that trains students within a certain specializations.
• Postgraduate and doctoral studies.
• Preparatory department for applicants.

Also, colleges can exist at universities (in this case, upon graduation, a university diploma is also given, but not about higher education, but about secondary vocational education). The structure of a higher educational institution may include libraries, computer centers, pilot production, agricultural land, clinics, research institutes, etc. Many higher educational institutions publish their own newspapers.

At leading higher educational institutions, the HAC organizes dissertation councils for the award of academic degrees.

Varieties of universities

Lists

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Notes

Literature

• Federal Law "On Higher and Postgraduate Professional Education" (as amended on December 31, 2005)

Links

Structure university Higher education Higher Qualifications Other forms Governing bodies Main divisions Officials teachers

An excerpt characterizing the Higher Educational Institution

Napoleon noticed Balashev's embarrassment when uttering his last words; his face trembled, the left calf of his leg began to tremble measuredly. Without moving from his seat, he began to speak in a voice higher and more hasty than before. During the subsequent speech, Balashev, more than once lowering his eyes, involuntarily observed the trembling of the calf in Napoleon's left leg, which intensified the more he raised his voice.
“I wish peace no less than Emperor Alexander,” he began. “Haven't I been doing everything for eighteen months to get it? I've been waiting eighteen months for an explanation. But in order to start negotiations, what is required of me? he said, frowning and making an energetic questioning gesture with his small white and plump hand.
- The retreat of the troops for the Neman, sovereign, - said Balashev.
- For the Neman? repeated Napoleon. - So now you want to retreat behind the Neman - only for the Neman? repeated Napoleon, looking directly at Balashev.
Balashev bowed his head respectfully.
Instead of demanding four months ago to retreat from Numberania, now they demanded to retreat only beyond the Neman. Napoleon quickly turned and began to pace the room.
- You say that I am required to retreat beyond the Neman to start negotiations; but two months ago they demanded of me to retreat across the Oder and the Vistula in exactly the same way, and in spite of this, you agree to negotiate.
He silently walked from one corner of the room to the other and again stopped in front of Balashev. His face seemed to be petrified in its stern expression, and his left leg trembled even faster than before. Napoleon knew this trembling of his left calf. La vibration de mon mollet gauche est un grand signe chez moi, [The trembling of my left calf is a great sign,] he later said.
“Such proposals as to clear the Oder and the Vistula can be made to the Prince of Baden, and not to me,” Napoleon almost cried out quite unexpectedly. - If you gave me Petersburg and Moscow, I would not accept these conditions. Are you saying I started a war? And who came to the army first? - Emperor Alexander, not me. And you offer me negotiations when I have spent millions, while you are in alliance with England and when your position is bad - you offer me negotiations! And what is the purpose of your alliance with England? What did she give you? he said hastily, obviously already directing his speech not in order to express the benefits of concluding peace and discuss its possibility, but only in order to prove both his rightness and his strength, and to prove the wrongness and mistakes of Alexander.
The introduction of his speech was made, obviously, to show the advantage of his position and to show that, despite the fact, he accepts the opening of negotiations. But he had already begun to speak, and the more he spoke, the less able he was to control his speech.
The whole purpose of his speech now, obviously, was only to exalt himself and insult Alexander, that is, to do exactly the very thing that he least of all wanted at the beginning of the meeting.
- They say you made peace with the Turks?
Balashev nodded his head affirmatively.
“The world is closed…” he began. But Napoleon did not let him speak. He evidently needed to speak on his own, alone, and he continued to speak with that eloquence and intemperance of irritability to which spoiled people are so prone.
– Yes, I know you made peace with the Turks without getting Moldavia and Wallachia. And I would give your sovereign these provinces just as I gave him Finland. Yes,” he continued, “I promised and would give Emperor Alexander Moldavia and Wallachia, and now he will not have these beautiful provinces. He could, however, have annexed them to his empire, and in one reign he would have extended Russia from the Gulf of Bothnia to the mouths of the Danube. Catherine the Great could not have done more,” said Napoleon, flaring up more and more, walking around the room and repeating to Balashev almost the same words that he had said to Alexander himself in Tilsit. - Tout cela il l "aurait du a mon amitie ... Ah! quel beau regne, quel beau regne!" he repeated several times, stopped, took a golden snuffbox from his pocket and greedily pulled it out of his nose.
- Quel beau regne aurait pu etre celui de l "Empereur Alexandre! [He would owe all this to my friendship ... Oh, what a wonderful reign, what a wonderful reign! Oh, what a wonderful reign the reign of Emperor Alexander could be!]
He glanced at Balashev with regret, and Balashev had just wanted to notice something, as he again hastily interrupted him.
“What could he desire and look for that he would not find in my friendship?” Napoleon said, shrugging his shoulders in bewilderment. - No, he found it best to surround himself with my enemies, and with whom? he continued. - He called the Steins, Armfelds, Wintzingerode, Benigsen, Stein - a traitor expelled from his fatherland, Armfeld - a libertine and intriguer, Wintzingerode - a fugitive subject of France, Benigsen is somewhat more military than others, but still incapable, who could not do anything done in 1807 and which should arouse terrible memories in Emperor Alexander ... Suppose, if they were capable, we could use them, ”continued Napoleon, barely managing to keep up with the incessantly arising considerations showing him his rightness or strength (which in his concept was one and the same) - but even that is not: they are not suitable either for war or for peace. Barclay, they say, is more efficient than all of them; but I won't say that, judging by his first movements. What are they doing? What are all these courtiers doing! Pfuel proposes, Armfeld argues, Bennigsen considers, and Barclay, called to act, does not know what to decide on, and time passes. One Bagration is a military man. He is stupid, but he has experience, eye and determination ... And what role does your young sovereign play in this ugly crowd. They compromise him and blame everything that happens on him. Un souverain ne doit etre a l "armee que quand il est general, [The sovereign should be with the army only when he is a commander,] - he said, obviously sending these words directly as a challenge to the sovereign's face. Napoleon knew how the emperor wanted Alexander to be a commander.
“It's been a week since the campaign started and you haven't been able to defend Vilna. You are cut in two and driven out of the Polish provinces. Your army murmurs...
“On the contrary, Your Majesty,” said Balashev, who barely had time to memorize what was said to him, and hardly followed this firework of words, “the troops are burning with desire ...
“I know everything,” Napoleon interrupted him, “I know everything, and I know the number of your battalions as surely as mine. You do not have two hundred thousand troops, but I have three times as many. I give you my word of honor, ”said Napoleon, forgetting that his word of honor could not matter in any way,“ I give you ma parole d "honneur que j" ai cinq cent trente mille hommes de ce cote de la Vistule. [on my word that I have five hundred and thirty thousand people on this side of the Vistula.] The Turks are no help to you: they are no good and have proved it by making peace with you. The Swedes are predestined to be ruled by crazy kings. Their king was mad; they changed him and took another - Bernadotte, who immediately went mad, because a madman only, being a Swede, can make alliances with Russia. Napoleon grinned wickedly and raised the snuffbox to his nose again.
To each of Napoleon's phrases, Balashev wanted and had something to object to; he incessantly made the gesture of a man who wanted to say something, but Napoleon interrupted him. For example, about the madness of the Swedes, Balashev wanted to say that Sweden is an island when Russia is for it; but Napoleon cried out angrily to drown out his voice. Napoleon was in that state of irritation in which one must speak, speak, and speak, only in order to prove his justice to himself. It became hard for Balashev: he, as an ambassador, was afraid to drop his dignity and felt the need to object; but, like a man, he shrunk morally before forgetting the unreasonable anger in which, obviously, Napoleon was. He knew that all the words now spoken by Napoleon were of no importance, that he himself, when he came to his senses, would be ashamed of them. Balashev stood with lowered eyes, looking at Napoleon's moving thick legs, and tried to avoid his gaze.
“What are these allies of yours to me?” Napoleon said. - My allies are the Poles: there are eighty thousand of them, they fight like lions. And there will be two hundred thousand.
And, probably even more indignant at the fact that, having said this, he had told an obvious lie and that Balashev, in the same pose of his submissive fate, silently stood in front of him, he abruptly turned back, went up to Balashev's very face and, making energetic and quick gestures with his white hands, almost shouted:
“Know that if you shake Prussia against me, know that I will erase her from the map of Europe,” he said with a pale face distorted with anger, striking with an energetic gesture of one small hand on the other. - Yes, I will throw you beyond the Dvina, beyond the Dnieper and restore against you that barrier that Europe was criminal and blind, which allowed it to be destroyed. Yes, that’s what will happen to you, that’s what you won by moving away from me, ”he said and silently walked several times around the room, shaking his thick shoulders. He put a snuff-box in his waistcoat pocket, took it out again, put it to his nose several times, and stopped in front of Balashev. He paused, looked mockingly straight into Balashev's eyes, and said in a low voice: "Et cependant quel beau regne aurait pu avoir votre maitre!"
Balashev, feeling the need to object, said that things were not presented in such a gloomy way from the Russian side. Napoleon was silent, continuing to look at him mockingly and, obviously, not listening to him. Balashev said that in Russia they expect all the best from the war. Napoleon condescendingly nodded his head, as if to say: "I know it is your duty to say so, but you yourself do not believe in it, you are convinced by me."

Higher education institutions

universities, train highly qualified specialists, scientific and pedagogical personnel for various sectors of the economy, science and culture; carry out scientific work of a theoretical and applied nature, which is the basis for the training of specialists; carry out advanced training of teachers of higher and secondary specialized schools and specialists employed in various industries, agriculture, culture, etc.

Some higher educational institutions are called academies (K. A. Timiryazev Agricultural Academy, military academies), higher schools (N. E. Bauman Moscow Higher Technical School, higher naval engineering schools, etc.), conservatories, schools (School-studio named after V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko at the Moscow Art Theater of the USSR named after M. Gorky), in a number of countries - College ami, etc.

Universities train mainly specialists in the humanities and natural sciences, and some also train engineering and medical personnel; in polytechnic institutes and other technical universities, the training of engineering personnel of various profiles is concentrated; branch institutes train specialists for a particular branch of the national economy, science, and culture—agronomists, economists, lawyers, doctors, teachers, artists, actors, and others.

The concepts of "higher school", "V. y. h.” were not equivalent in different eras and in different countries. A significant difference in the levels of higher education, in the goals and methods of training specialists, in the terms of their training exists at the present time, since the development of higher education in each country is closely connected with its economic and socio-political system.

Historical essay. The highest (philosophical) schools for their time arose in the 3rd-5th centuries. BC e. in Athens and Rome. The first higher school to be called a university (in the Theodosian codex, 438) was a philosophical school opened in 425 in Constantinople. As a type of higher educational institution, universities appeared much later: in the 11th-12th centuries. in Italy (Salerno and Bologna), in France (Paris, early 12th century), in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. in Spain (Salamanca) and England (Oxford).

The first higher schools on the territory of the USSR were Colchis - 4th century, Ikaltoy, German and Gelati academies in Georgia - 11-12 centuries. In the 13th-14th centuries. Universities arose in England (Cambridge, 1209), Italy (Naples, 1224, Rome, 1303), Portugal (Coimbra and Lisbon, 1290), Spain (Valladolid, 1346), Czech Republic (Prague, 1348), Poland (Krakow, 1364) , Austria (Vienna, 1365), Germany (Heidelberg, 1386, Cologne, 1388) and others. ), Munich (1472), Uppsala (1477), Madrid (1508), Jena (1558), Geneva (1559), Edinburgh (1583), Dublin (1591), Ljubljana (1595), etc.

In 1579, the Vilnius Academy was opened, endowed with university rights and privileges (later reorganized into a university).

In the 1st half of the 17th century. universities are created in Cordoba (1613), Amsterdam (1632), Budapest (1635), Cambridge - Harvard College (1636). The Kiev-Mohyla Academy was founded in 1632, the Lvov University in 1661 and Zagreb University in 1669, and the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow in 1687.

At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. the general progress of knowledge necessary for the needs of material production, trade, navigation, the emancipation of science from the power of religion, the formation of the natural sciences, the achievements of mathematics, physics, astronomy, the rapid growth of industry and culture contributed to the development of universities (Yale, 1701, Caracas, 1725, Havana, 1728, Göttingen, 1737, Pennsylvania, 1740, Columbia in New York, 1754, Bonn, 1786, etc.) and led to the organization of higher specialized schools for that time: the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Moscow (1701), the Naval Academy in Petersburg (1715), the Higher Mining School in Ostrava (1716), the National School of Bridges and Roads in Paris (1747), the Freiberg Mining Academy (1766), the Mining School in St. Petersburg (1773, now the Leningrad Mining Institute), the Surveying School in Moscow ( 1779, the history of the Moscow Institute of Geodesy, Cartography and Aerial Photography and the Institute of Land Management Engineers, the Medical and Surgical Academy in Peter burge (1798). In 1725, the first Russian university was founded at the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg - the Academic University, and in 1755, on the initiative of M. V. Lomonosov, Moscow University.

With the development of capitalism and large-scale machine industry in the 19th and early 20th centuries. universities, engineering and other specialized universities were established in many countries of the world, for example, universities: in Buenos Aires (1821), Toronto (1827), Athens (1837), Santiago (founded in 1738, reorganized in 1843), Montevideo (1849 ), Sydney (1850), Zurich (1855), Bombay and Calcutta (1857), Bucharest (1864), California (1868), Tokyo and Stockholm (1877), Algiers (1879), Beijing (1898), Cairo (1908) and etc.; polytechnic institutes in Athens (1836), Delft (1842), Budapest (1856), the Institute of Technology in Massachusetts (1861), etc.

in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. were founded: Derpt (Tartu) University (1802), Forestry Institute in St. Petersburg (1803), universities in Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1805), Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages ​​in Moscow (1815). The following opened in St. Petersburg: the Institute of Railway Engineers (now the Leningrad Institute of Railway Transport Engineers) - in 1809, - in 1816, the university - in 1819 (now the Leningrad University named after A. A. Zhdanov), the Technological Institute (1828). The Moscow Higher Technical School was founded in 1830. During the years of political reaction following the defeat of the Decembrist uprising (1825), the autonomy that the universities had enjoyed since the beginning of the 19th century was abolished; in 1832 Vilnius University was closed. In the next two decades, only a few universities were founded: the Institute of Civil Engineers in St. Petersburg (1832, now the Leningrad Civil Engineering Institute), Kyiv University (1834), veterinary institutes in Dorpat (1849), Kharkov (1851).

Revolutionary-democratic movement of the 60s. The 19th century, the abolition of serfdom, and the development of industry contributed to the organization of new universities: the Riga Polytechnic Institute (1862), the Petrovsky Agricultural and Forestry Academy in Moscow (1865, now the K. A. Timiryazev Agricultural Academy), Novorossiysk University in Odessa (1865), the Institute of History and Philology in St. Petersburg (1867), and others. According to the statute of 1863, autonomy was returned to the universities. In the 70-80s, despite the reaction that suspended the development of higher education (according to the charter of 1884, university autonomy was again abolished), several more universities were opened: the Kharkov Technological Institute (1885), Tomsk University (1888), Yekaterinoslav Mining Institute ( 1889) and others, as well as the Higher Courses for Women. Revolutionary movement of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. revived the activities of higher education. The tsarist government was forced to allow student organizations, introduce the election of the rector and deans. Polytechnic institutes were founded in Kyiv (1898), St. type), the Women's Pedagogical Institute (1903) and the Pedagogical Academy (1908) in St. Petersburg, in Moscow (1911). In 1908, the People's University of Shanyavsky was opened in Moscow with private and public funds (see Shanyavsky University). However, universities still did not meet the country's needs for specialists and remained inaccessible to the people. In the 1914/15 academic year, there were only 105 universities in Russia (127,400 students), which were located mainly in Petrograd, Moscow, Kyiv, and Kharkov.

Universities in the USSR. The Great October Socialist Revolution radically changed the system of higher education, the class and national composition of the students. The Soviet government set the higher education institutions the task of preparing highly qualified specialists from the working people for work in various branches of the national economy, science, and culture. By a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of December 11, 1917, signed by V. I. Lenin, all educational institutions, including universities, were transferred to the jurisdiction of the People's Commissariat for Education. To help young workers and peasants complete their general secondary education and prepare for entry to universities, workers' faculties were opened, which played a significant role in changing the class composition of the student body (for example, in 1925-26, graduates of workers' schools made up 40% of all those admitted to universities).

Particular attention was paid to universities as scientific, educational, cultural and educational centers. In 1918, universities were opened in Nizhny Novgorod (now Gorky), Dnepropetrovsk, Voronezh, Irkutsk, Tbilisi, Tashkent, Baku, Yerevan, Sverdlovsk, Minsk, and others. At the same time, specialized universities of various profiles began to be created. Already in the 1922/23 academic year, there were 248 universities in the country (216.7 thousand students). In 1925, postgraduate studies were organized at higher educational institutions for the training of scientific, pedagogical and scientific personnel. In 1928, the Main Directorate of Higher and Secondary Technical Educational Institutions (Glavvtuz) was established under the Supreme Economic Council of the USSR. In 1928-30, in order to bring the universities closer to the national economy, they were transferred to the jurisdiction of the relevant people's commissariats. By the end of the first five-year plan, in the 1931/32 academic year, the number of universities in the USSR reached 701 (405,900 students). On the basis of large multi-faculty universities in the early 30s. sectoral institutes were created, for example, on the basis of the Moscow Mining Academy (founded in 1918 on the initiative of V. I. Lenin) - mining, geological exploration, oil and peat institutes, the institute of steel and the institute of non-ferrous metals and gold; on the basis of the Moscow Higher Technical School - mechanical engineering, aeromechanical, energy and other institutes. Mining and metallurgical institutes and faculties were opened in Siberia, Donbass and other regions of the country; aviation, machine-tool, transport and communications, chemical-technological institutes in Moscow, Kyiv, Kharkov, Odessa, Gorky, Rostov-on-Don, Dnepropetrovsk and other cities. Along with branch institutes, polytechnic institutes began to be created, for example, in Kuibyshev and Yerevan. Construction universities were organized in 1930. In 1932, the All-Union Committee for Higher Technical Education (VKVTO) was created under the Central Executive Committee of the USSR for the general management of technical colleges. On the basis of universities in the early 30s. more than 40 pedagogical, medical, economic and other institutes were founded, evening and correspondence faculties and departments began to be created at universities (mainly humanitarian ones), the first independent evening and correspondence institutes were opened. In the 20-30s. the activities of higher education institutions were regulated by the Regulations on higher educational institutions of the RSFSR, approved by the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR on July 3, 1922. In 1936, in connection with the broad development of all branches of higher education, the All-Union Committee for Higher Education was established instead of the VKVTO. In 1938, a model university charter was approved, which determined its structure and the content of its work.

The formation of the Soviet higher school is inextricably linked with the name of V.I. Lenin, its development in the 20-40s. - with the names of A. V. Lunacharsky, N. K. Krupskaya, G. M. Krzhizhanovsky, M. N. Pokrovsky, A. S. Bubnov, I. I. Mezhlauk, F. N. Petrov and other prominent statesmen and figures of public education and culture.

In the 1940/41 academic year, 811,700 students studied at the higher educational institutions of the USSR, of which 558,100 were in full-time departments, 26,900 in evening departments, and 226,700 in correspondence departments. The output of specialists in 1940 amounted to 126.1 thousand people.

During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-45, the Nazi occupation inflicted significant damage on Soviet higher education. Many universities were destroyed, some of the universities were relocated to the eastern regions of the country. In order to prevent a decline in the training of specialists with higher education, already in the 1943/44 academic year, more than 50 universities were opened in the eastern regions of the USSR.

In the 50s. in order to improve the quality of training of specialists, some institutions that did not have the material, technical, educational and scientific base corresponding to the new stage in the development of Soviet higher education were merged with large universities (for example, some legal and pedagogical institutes - with universities, teachers' institutes with pedagogical ones) , at the same time new universities, polytechnics and industry institutes were founded. Scientific and technological progress, automation of production, the rapid development of industry and agriculture in the 50-60s. led to the organization of universities, faculties, specialties of new profiles - in radio electronics and electronic engineering, automation and computer technology, biophysics, biochemistry, etc. Specialized institutes were opened in Moscow, Tomsk, Kharkov, Minsk, Novosibirsk, Taganrog and other cities - radio engineering, electrical engineering. , engineering-physical, physical-technical, electronic engineering; on the basis of large industrial enterprises, technical colleges were organized. The training of personnel with higher engineering, construction, economics, chemical and technological education, specialists for the public service sector, etc., has expanded. New universities of the corresponding profile, as a rule, are created in the industrial and economic centers of the country.

In 1970, there were 805 universities in the USSR (4580 thousand students), including 457 (2671 thousand) in the RSFSR, 138 (806.6 thousand) in the Ukrainian SSR, 28 (140.1 thousand) in the BSSR, and 28 in the Uzbek SSR - 38 (232.9 thousand), Kazakh SSR - 44 (198.9 thousand), Georgian SSR - 18 (89.3 thousand), Azerbaijan SSR - 13 (100.1 thousand), Lithuanian SSR - 12 (57.0 thousand), Moldavian SSR - 8 (44.8 thousand), Latvian SSR - 10 (40.8 thousand), Kirghiz SSR - 9 (48.4 thousand), Tajik SSR - 7 ( 44.5 thousand), the Armenian SSR - 12 (54.4 thousand), the Turkmen SSR - 5 (29.1 thousand), the Estonian SSR - 6 (22.1 thousand). The network of universities included: 51 universities, 201 branch universities of industry and construction, 37 - transport and communications, 98 - agriculture, 50 - economics and law, 99 - health and physical education, 216 - education and culture, 53 - arts and cinematography.

In the 1969/70 academic year, 2,139,000 students studied in the daytime departments of universities, 668,000 in the evening departments, and 1,742,000 in absentia. transport, radio engineering and communications - 251.9 thousand, agriculture - 432.6 thousand, economics and law - 334.2 thousand, health and physical culture - 309.2 thousand, education - 1374.4 thousand ( including at universities - 489.5 thousand), art and cinematography - 41.8 thousand.

In 1970, higher education institutions graduated 630,600 specialists and enrolled 911,300 people. (including day departments - 500.7 thousand people); More than 57 thousand people studied in postgraduate studies at universities. (including about 20.5 thousand on the job), in the same year, about 15.2 thousand people graduated from graduate school. In 1918-69 the higher school trained 8.5 million specialists.

As of January 1970, St. 7.5 million people with higher education. For success in training specialists and in the development of science, technology, and culture, 93 universities were awarded orders of the USSR (1971).

The right to study in universities is guaranteed by the Constitution of the USSR to all citizens regardless of race, nationality, gender, property and social status and religion and is ensured by the extensive development of the network of universities, free education (including all types of studies), a system of state scholarships (the vast majority of students receive them). - over 70%), appointed for excellent and good academic performance. Nonresident students, as a rule, are provided with a hostel. In the USSR, there are uniform rules for admission. Higher education institutions accept persons under the age of 35 (for evening and correspondence universities and faculties - no age limit) who have completed secondary education. All applicants to universities take entrance competitive exams in subjects closest to their chosen specialty, their native language and literature, as well as one of the foreign languages ​​(for admission to philological and some other humanitarian specialties). In conservatories, universities of arts and physical culture institutes, in addition, an exam in the specialty is taken. To help those entering universities, various types of reference books and textbooks are published annually in mass circulation, numerous preparatory departments and courses are organized at universities, at enterprises, construction sites, etc. Entrance exams to universities are usually held in August, and to correspondence and evening universities with a seasonal nature of work - at different times from October to February. Some advantages when enrolling in a university are enjoyed by persons who have at least 2 years of practical work experience, demobilized from the Soviet Army, sent to full-time education by enterprises, organizations, collective farms, state farms, etc., as well as those who graduated from high school with a gold medal or secondary special educational institutions with honors. Persons who successfully passed the final exams at the preparatory departments created at universities (decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR of August 20, 1969) for young people from workers, collective farmers and demobilized military personnel are enrolled without entrance exams (by the beginning of the 1970/71 academic year, about 500 preparatory departments, to which more than 60 thousand people were accepted). Foreign citizens permanently residing on the territory of the USSR enter universities on a general basis. Reception of foreign citizens is also carried out on the basis of relevant contracts and agreements.

The structure and content of the work of universities are determined by the Regulations on higher educational institutions of the USSR, approved by Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of January 22, 1969, No. 64. The Rector is at the head of the university. The educational and scientific work of the university is led by Vice-rector s. Universities consist of faculties that train students and graduate students in one or more related specialties, improve the skills of specialists in the relevant branch of the national economy and culture, and also manage the research activities of departments (see Department) that conduct educational, methodological and scientific research. research work in one or related disciplines. A number of universities have general technical faculties - for general engineering training of students, the faculty is headed by the Dean. The structural subdivisions of higher education institutions are also their branches and educational and consulting centers (See Educational and consulting centers), organized to provide educational assistance to part-time students at their place of work and residence. To consider the main issues of the activities of the university (faculty), the rector (dean) organizes a council of the university, faculty (see Council of the university and scientific institution). Councils for the award of academic degrees have been set up in higher educational institutions that have been granted the right by the Higher Attestation Commission (see Higher Attestation Commission) to accept candidate or doctoral dissertations for defense.

For the teaching staff of universities, the following positions have been established: head of the department, Professor a (as well as professor-consultant), Associate professor a, senior lecturer, teacher (See Lecturer), Assistant a, which (except for the position of professor-consultant) are replaced by competition through every 5 years (all decisions on the competition are made by the council of the university by secret ballot). In 1970, 883,400 professors and teachers worked in higher education institutions, research and other institutions of the USSR, including 21,800 doctors of science and 205,400 candidates of science.

Higher educational institutions organize the educational process according to curricula and programs that are developed by leading scientists, discussed by higher educational institution councils, and approved by the USSR Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education. Some of the largest universities in the country work according to individual plans, which allow training specialists based on the best practices of the scientific schools that have developed in these universities.

School attendance is compulsory. The academic year (42 academic weeks) consists of two semesters ending with examination sessions. The weekly load of students with compulsory training sessions (lectures, workshops, seminars) is limited to 24-34 h. The course of study at universities (designed for 4-6, mostly 5 years) ends with the passing of state exams or the defense of diploma projects (works), at universities and some branch universities, along with state exams, theses are also defended. (For the content of education and the organization of the educational process in universities, see Higher education and articles on branches of special education, for example, Architectural education, Surveying education.)

Graduates of the university are awarded a qualification corresponding to the specialty received: physicist, radiophysicist, mathematician, chemist, physicist and teacher of physics, philologist and teacher of Russian language and literature (at the university), teacher in a certain subject (at pedagogical institutes), doctor, agronomist, radio engineer , mechanical engineer (technologist, power engineer, physicist, geologist, metallurgist, economist, builder), architect, actor, director, etc.; in 1971 there were over 400 university specialties. In terms of scientific level, this qualification is usually equivalent to the academic degree of a Master of Science (or another corresponding to it) awarded to graduates of foreign universities. Graduates of universities (regardless of the form of education - full-time, evening, part-time) receive a diploma of a single sample, giving the same rights to specialists.

Universities carry out advanced training of specialists. At 120 faculties and in 6 institutes (1971) created at higher educational institutions, advanced training is being carried out for teachers of higher education. In addition, there are 70 faculties for advanced training of specialists in the national economy. Higher education institutions have scientific research departments, problematic (in 1971 over 400) and industry-specific (in 1971 over 500) laboratories for solving the most important problems of science and technology. Research institutes and design bureaus operate within the largest universities (in 1971 there were 48 such research institutes). Significant development was received by research and design work of students. Almost every university has a scientific student society, where students, under the guidance of professors and teachers, are engaged in experimental and scientific research, abstract new scientific papers, etc. Many universities have organized student design and technology bureaus. In 1971 more than 600,000 students worked in scientific societies, bureaus, and circles. Scientific and other student societies are an effective form of student participation in the research and practical work of departments. They operate under the leadership of party, trade union and Komsomol organizations on the basis of self-government, development of the initiative and activity of students; their activities are coordinated by the All-Union, republican and city councils for the scientific work of students.

Students are involved in the management of universities - representatives of student organizations are members of the councils of universities (faculties), are members of student commissions for the distribution of scholarships. Student construction teams and student clubs, theaters, ensembles, and sports societies have been widely developed in many universities (in 1971, over 1 million students were members of the Burevestnik society). All-Union student sports and athletics and various competitions are held annually. Public and scientific organizations that unite students, graduate students, faculty and other workers operate on the basis of their charters. Soviet students actively participate in the international youth and student movement. The coordinating body of the Soviet student associations of the USSR, representing the Soviet students in the International Union of Students, is the Student Council of the USSR.

The activities of universities are directed and coordinated by the republican ministries of higher and secondary specialized (people's) education, as well as the relevant sectoral ministries and departments, taking into account the characteristics and needs of the national economy of the republic or the country's sector of the economy in specialists. General management of higher education is carried out by the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education of the USSR. Scientific works and experience of the universities are covered in the journals Izvestia of Higher Educational Institutions, Scientific Reports of Higher School and Bulletin of Higher School, in Scientific Notes and Proceedings of Universities and Institutes. In 1971, 426 high-circulation university newspapers were published. Textbooks and teaching aids for universities are published by the Higher School, Prosveshchenie and other industry publishing houses.

In 1971 about 30,000 students, graduate students, and probationers from 126 countries studied at the higher educational institutions of the USSR. Student exchange is carried out with the USA, Great Britain, France, Italy, Germany and other countries of Europe, Asia, America and Africa. In 1960, the Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University was opened in Moscow to train national cadres from the countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In a number of universities, special preparatory faculties have been opened for foreign students to master the Russian language and knowledge in the volume of a secondary school.

Friendly ties between Soviet higher education and higher education institutions in many countries of the world are developing. Outstanding foreign scientists, progressive and public figures are honorary professors and doctors of Soviet universities. Soviet scientists have been elected honorary professors and doctors of universities in many foreign countries. Some of the largest Soviet universities are members of the International Association of Universities (IAU). The Soviet higher school is represented in the International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL). With the help of the USSR in the 50s-60s. the Bombay Institute of Technology in India, the Rangoon Institute of Technology in Burma, the Polytechnic Institute in Conakry (Republic of Guinea), and others were built.

Higher educational institutions have also been greatly developed in other socialist countries, where, as in the USSR, they are under state control. New universities and branch institutes have been opened that make it possible to train specialists in accordance with the needs of the national economy and culture. The class composition of the student body has changed; women are trained equally with men; education is free, students are provided with a state scholarship, a hostel.

In capitalist countries, an educational institution that trains specialists on the basis of a general secondary education is usually considered to be the highest; As a rule, there is no clear boundary between higher and secondary specialized educational institutions. Along with state institutions, many countries have universities owned by private individuals, large monopolies, religious and other communities. See Higher education, Secondary specialized education.

S. I. Zinoviev, V. G. Panov, A. N. Gorshenev.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .