The policy of Catherine II (1762-1796) was called "enlightened absolutism". European politicians of that period considered Catherine II as an enlightened head of state and nation, who cared for her subjects on the basis of the laws he established.

In the concept of Catherine II, autocracy was not questioned. It was it that was to become the main instrument of gradual reform in all spheres of the life of Russian society. And the whole system of state institutions, according to Catherine II, is only a mechanism for implementing the supreme will of an enlightened autocrat.

One of the first initiatives of Catherine II was the reform of the Senate.

On December 15, 1763, a decree appeared, according to which its powers and structure were changed. The Senate was deprived of legislative powers, retaining only the functions of control and the highest judicial body.

Structurally, the Senate was divided into 6 departments with strictly defined competence, which made it possible to increase the efficiency of this central government body.

The main historical document, which outlined the political doctrine of Catherine II, was the "Instruction of the Commission on the drafting of a new Code", written by the Empress herself in 1764-1766. and representing the talented revision of the works of Sh.L. Montesquieu and other philosophers and jurists. It contains a lot of reasoning about the nature of laws, which should correspond to the historical characteristics of the people. And the Russian people, according to Catherine II, belonged to the European community.

The Nakaz said that the vast extent of the territories of Russia requires only an autocratic form of government, any other can lead the country to death. It was noted that the goal of autocracy is the welfare of all subjects. The monarch rules in accordance with the laws established by him. All citizens are equal before the law.

The order was intended for a commission convened from all over the country to develop a draft of a new Code, which began to meet in Moscow in July 1767. The commission consisted of 572 deputies elected according to the estate-territorial principle from nobles, townspeople, Cossacks, state peasants, non-Russian peoples of the Volga region and Siberia.

But it soon became clear that the deputies of the Legislative Commission were poorly prepared for legislative work. The main reason for the failure of the commission's activities was the contradictions between representatives of different social, regional and national groups, which it was not possible to overcome in the course of work. In December 1768, the empress issued a decree dissolving the Legislative Commission under the pretext of another war with Turkey. As a result, Catherine II took up law-making on her own and continued to govern the state with the help of nominal decrees and manifestos, replacing in this sense the entire Legislative Commission.

Another important transformative element in the policy of Catherine II was the secularization reform. In February 1764, the empress issued a decree, according to which the monastery lands, together with the population, were seized from the church and subordinated to the College of Economy. Now the peasants, by their legal status, became state-owned and paid taxes no longer to the church, but to the state. They got rid of the monastic corvee. The land plots of the peasants increased, it became easier for them to engage in crafts and trade. As a result of this reform, spiritual power was finally transferred to the maintenance of secular power, and the clergy turned into civil servants.

Catherine II eliminated the remaining elements of the liberties and privileges of the national territories that became part of Russia. The governing bodies and the administrative-territorial division of the Novgorod land, Smolensk, Livonia (Russia's Baltic possessions) were unified and brought into line with Russian laws. In 1764, the hetmanate in Ukraine was liquidated and P.A. Rumyantsev. The remnants of autonomy and the former Cossack freemen were liquidated. In 1783, Catherine II issued a decree prohibiting the transfer of Ukrainian peasants from one landowner to another, which finally consolidated serfdom here.

In 1791, the Empress established the Pale of Settlement for the Jewish population, which limited the rights of Jews to settle in certain territories.

New in the national policy of the state was the invitation to Russia of German colonists, mostly simple peasants. In the mid 1760s. more than 30 thousand migrants began to develop the territories of the Lower Volga region, the Urals, and later the Crimea and the North Caucasus.

In the general structure of Catherine's reforms, the reform of the local government system occupies an extremely important place.

As a result of the provincial reform (1775), local government acquired a clearer and more organized structure. The number of provinces increased to 50. The province was a territory with a population of 300-400 thousand people, which was divided into counties, each with a population of 20-30 thousand people. In county towns, power belonged to the appointed mayor. Administrative and judicial functions were separated. Special provincial chambers of criminal and civil courts were created. Some positions are elective.

The provincial reform strengthened the local government, the center of administrative activity was moved here, which made it possible to gradually abolish some colleges.

In 1782, a police reform was carried out, according to which police and church-moral control was established over the population.

The administration reform was completed by the adoption of two most important documents - Letters of Complaint to the Nobility and Cities (1785), which became the fundamental legal acts in the sphere of the empress's estate policy.

The charter granted to the nobility legally secured for him all the rights and privileges as the main class of society. In the case of the service, the right to choose or refuse service was confirmed, special rights were retained in matters of land ownership, court, taxation, and corporal punishment. The criteria for reckoning with the nobility were strictly defined, the compilation of genealogical books put all the nobles in their places. The corporatism of the nobles was strengthened through the legal registration of noble assemblies and the election of provincial and district leaders. Only one question, concerning the right and ownership of serf souls, was not covered in the Letter of Complaint. The Empress, as it were, left this problem open.

The charter granted to the cities was aimed at the formation of the "third estate" in Russia. A new body of city self-government was created - the city duma, headed by the mayor. City residents were elected and could be elected to it, divided into six categories depending on property and social differences. Thus, an elective-representative institution of power appeared in Russian cities. The charter provided the city dwellers (philistines) with a structure of rights and privileges close to that of the nobility. The philistines were defined as a special class, and this title, like the nobility, was hereditary. The right of ownership of property and its inheritance, the right to engage in industrial and commercial activities were guaranteed. The merchants of the first and second guilds, as the most significant part of the townspeople, were exempted from corporal punishment, as well as from the poll tax and recruitment duty. In return, they paid a tax of 1% on capital and contributed 360 rubles per recruit.

In 1786, an educational reform was carried out: a system of educational institutions was created.

Catherine II opposed the extremes of serfdom, condemning them in her works. But objectively, during her reign, there was an increase in feudal oppression in the country (the final spread of serfdom in Ukraine, the tightening in 1765 of Elizabeth's decree on the right of landlords to exile serfs without trial to Siberia for settlement and hard labor, the ban on peasants to file complaints against the nobles), which was one of the main reasons for the intensification of popular uprisings, which resulted in the largest in the eighteenth century. Cossack-peasant war.

9.2. Cossack-peasant war led by E.I. Pugacheva (1773–1775)

During the reign of Catherine II, social contradictions intensified in the country, caused by the strengthening of serfdom against various categories of peasants and the expansion of the privileges of the nobility. Quite often, popular demonstrations broke out under anti-serfdom slogans, and the flight from the landowners of the peasants, driven to despair, acquired a massive character.

The southern regions of the state became the center of social discontent. The movement began among the Cossacks. It was headed by Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev. Serfs, working people, as well as foreigners of the Volga region (Bashkirs, Tatars, Mari, Udmurts, etc.) become under his banner.

In the territories under the control of the Pugachevites, authorities were created like a Cossack circle (community) with elected chieftains, elders and other officials.

The war had three main phases:

Stage I (September 1773 - March 1774): an unsuccessful 6-month siege of Orenburg by E. Pugachev and a defeat from government troops near the Tatishchev fortress.

Stage II (April-July 1774): the movement of Pugachev's troops from the city of Orenburg through the Urals and the Kama region to Kazan; battle for Kazan (July 12–17, 1774). The capture of the city by the rebels, and then the defeat of the troops of Colonel I.M. Michelson.

Stage III (July 1774 - January 1775): On July 31, 1774, E. Pugachev issued a decree on the release of peasants from serfdom and taxes; the movement of E. Pugachev from Kazan to the south; unsuccessful siege by E. Pugachev of the city of Tsaritsyn; August 25, 1774 - the decisive defeat of the rebels at the Salnikov plant; the army of E. Pugachev ceased to exist; September 18, 1774 - the capture of E. Pugachev by the Cossack elite and his extradition to the tsarist authorities; January 10, 1775 E.I. Pugachev and his closest associates were executed in Moscow.

Peasant war in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. was the largest uprising of the masses against serfdom and was, in essence, a kind of civil. All this testified to the crisis of the feudal-serf system in the country.

9.3 Foreign policy of Catherine II

In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia's foreign policy was focused on solving problems in two main directions: southern and western.

In the southern direction, there was a sharp struggle between Russia and the Ottoman Empire for the Northern Black Sea region and ensuring the security of the southern borders. This led to two Russo-Turkish wars.

Russo-Turkish War 1768–1774 The reason for the war was the intervention of Russia in the affairs of Poland, which caused discontent in Turkey. September 25, 1768 Turkey declared war on Russia.

The fighting began in the winter of 1769, when the Crimean Khan, an ally of Turkey, invaded Ukraine, but his attack was repelled by Russian troops under the command of P.A. Rumyantsev.

Military operations were conducted on the territory of Moldova, Wallachia and at sea. The decisive year in the war was 1770, in which brilliant victories were won by the Russian army.

The fleet under the command of Admiral G.A. Spiridov and Count A.G. Orlov rounded Europe, entered the Mediterranean Sea and in the Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor on June 24–26, 1770 completely destroyed the Turkish squadron.

On land, a number of victories were won by the Russian army led by P.A. Rumyantsev. In the summer of 1770, he won victories on the tributaries of the Prut - the Larga and Cahul rivers, which made it possible for Russia to reach the Danube.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgorukov took the Crimea. In 1772–1773 an armistice was concluded between the warring parties and peace negotiations began. However, they ended up with nothing. The war has resumed. The Russians crossed the Danube, in this campaign brilliant victories in the summer of 1774 were won by the corps of A.V. Suvorov. Turkey started talking about making peace. On July 10, 1774, at the headquarters of the Russian command, in the town of Kyuchuk-Kaynarzhi, a peace treaty was signed, according to which Russia received the Black Sea lands between the Dnieper and the Bug; the right to build a Russian military fleet on the Black Sea; indemnity from Turkey in the amount of 4.5 million rubles; recognition of the independence of the Crimean Khanate from the Ottoman Empire.

Russo-Turkish War 1787–1791 The confrontation between Russia and the Ottoman Empire continued. The Turkish Sultan Selim III began to demand the return of the Crimea, the recognition of Georgia as his vassal and the inspection of Russian merchant ships passing through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. On August 13, 1787, having received a refusal, he declared war on Russia, which acted in alliance with Austria.

Military operations began with the repulse of an attack by Turkish troops on the fortress of Kinburn (not far from Ochakov). The general leadership of the Russian army was carried out by the head of the Military Collegium, Prince G.A. Potemkin. In December 1788, after a long siege, Russian troops took the Turkish fortress of Ochakov. In 1789 A.V. Suvorov, with lesser forces, twice achieved victory in the battles of Focsani and on the Rymnik River. For this victory, he received the title of count and became known as Count Suvorov-Rymniksky. In December 1790, the troops under his command managed to achieve the capture of the fortress of Izmail, the citadel of Ottoman rule on the Danube, which was the main victory in the war.

In 1791, the Turks lost the fortress of Anapa in the Caucasus, and then lost the naval battle at Cape Kaliakria (near the Bulgarian city of Varna) in the Black Sea to the Russian fleet under the command of Admiral F.F. Ushakov. All this forced Turkey to conclude a peace treaty, which was signed in Iasi in December 1791. This treaty confirmed the accession to Russia of the Crimea and the protectorate over Eastern Georgia; acquisition by Russia of lands between the Dniester and the southern Bug; the withdrawal of Russian troops from Moldova, Wallachia and Bessarabia.

The implementation of the policy in the western direction was to strengthen the position of Russia in Europe and was associated with participation in the partitions of Poland, as well as with the opposition of France, in which in 1789-1794. a bourgeois revolution took place and whose revolutionary influence was feared by the European monarchical states, and above all by the Russian Empire.

The initiator of the division of the weakened Poland was Prussia. Her king Frederick II offered Catherine II to divide the Commonwealth between her neighbors, especially since Austria had already begun the division, since her troops were located directly on the territory of this state. As a result, the St. Petersburg Convention of July 25, 1772 was concluded, which sanctioned the first partition of Poland. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Russia took possession of central Belarus with the cities of Minsk, Slutsk, Pinsk and Right-Bank Ukraine, including Zhytomyr and Kamenets-Podolsky. This caused an uprising of Polish patriots in 1794 led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko. It was brutally suppressed by Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov. The third and last partition of the Commonwealth took place in 1795. The lands of Courland, Lithuania, and Western Belarus were ceded to Russia. As a result, Russia captured more than half of all Polish lands. Poland lost its statehood for more than a hundred years.

As a result of the divisions of Poland, Russia acquired vast territories, moved the state border far to the west to the center of the continent, which significantly increased its influence in Europe. The reunification of the Belarusian and Ukrainian peoples with Russia freed them from the religious oppression of Catholicism and created opportunities for the further development of peoples within the framework of the Eastern Slavic socio-cultural community.

And finally, at the end of the XVIII century. the main task of Russia's foreign policy was the struggle against revolutionary France. After the execution of King Louis XVI, Catherine II broke off diplomatic and trade relations with France, actively helped the counter-revolutionaries, and, together with England, tried to put economic pressure on France. Only the Polish national liberation uprising of 1794 prevented Russia from openly organizing an intervention.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. was active and expansionist in nature, which made it possible to include new lands in the state and strengthen its position in Europe.

9.4 Russia under Paul I (1796–1801)

Paul's views were formed under the influence of many factors and underwent a certain evolution during his life. The heir to the throne grew up as a romantic young man and believed in the ideals of enlightened absolutism until he saw many inconsistencies in the policy of Catherine II compared to the proclaimed ideals. Gradually, a critical attitude towards the deeds of his mother grew in him. Other factors soon added to this: the alienation between Paul and Catherine II, who was not going to share power with him and even thought about depriving her son of the throne and transferring him to his beloved grandson Alexander. All this led to a change in his views and character. He becomes nervous, quick-tempered, suspicious and despotic.

With the accession of Paul I to the throne, a reorientation of domestic policy and, above all, the system of state administration begins.

Centralization based on administrative-bureaucratic methods began to play the predominant role in this area. Paul I replaced elected positions of the nobility with appointed bureaucratic and bureaucratic ones and strengthened the supervisory functions of the prosecutor's office. He restored a number of state departments involved in the economy: berg-, manufactory-, camera-, commerce-boards.

Introduced a new system of succession. On April 7, 1797, he issued a decree on the succession to the Russian throne, in accordance with which the decree of Peter I of 1722 on the appointment of his heir as the current emperor was canceled. Now the principle was introduced (in force until 1917), which provided for the transfer of the throne by inheritance according to the right of primogeniture through the male line.

The system of local government underwent a major change: city dumas were closed, the chambers of the civil and criminal courts were again merged into one, and some judicial instances were abolished.

The administrative-territorial division of the country and the principles of managing the national outskirts were revised. 50 provinces were transformed into 41 provinces and regions of the Don Cossacks, in Ukraine and in the Baltic provinces traditional government bodies were reintroduced.

The trend in Pavlovian politics towards centralization included such extreme manifestations as the desire for complete unification and regulation in the life of society. Special decrees ordered the wearing of certain styles of clothing, it was forbidden to wear round hats, shoes with ribbons instead of buckles, and so on. Censorship is on the rise. In 1797–1799 639 publications were banned. The production of books in Russia was sharply reduced, and a ban was introduced on their import from abroad.

Paul I paid special attention to the army, deciding to reform it in the Prussian manner. He introduced a new uniform in the army, completely copying the Prussian one, put things in order in drill training, new regulations were developed, and discipline was tightened.

Estate policy was also based on principles different from Catherine's. For Paul I, the class freedom enjoyed by the nobles thanks to the reforms of Catherine II was unacceptable. He obliged the nobles to serve, allowed them to be subjected to corporal punishment, abolished provincial noble assemblies, and county ones lost many powers. Restrictions were imposed on the transition of nobles from military service to civil service: to choose a civil service instead of a military one, the permission of the Senate, approved by the tsar, was required. The nobles were taxed for the maintenance of the provincial administration.

There is a certain amount of historical facts that can be interpreted as the monarch's concern for the people, for example: a manifesto appeared on a three-day corvee a week; for the first time in the history of the country, serfs were ordered to swear allegiance to Paul I, who had ascended the throne, along with freemen; some recruiting sets were canceled (in 1796 and 1800); arrears were withdrawn from the peasants and philistines for poll taxes; it was forbidden to sell serfs without land; peasant complaints were resolved. But other historical facts are also known. At the beginning of his reign, peasant unrest broke out in a number of provinces, which were brutally suppressed. The peasants were ordered to obey the landowners without complaint.

The reign of Paul is characterized by the mass distribution of state-owned peasants to private individuals as a reward.

No archival historical documents have been preserved that testify to Paul's ardent desire to abolish serfdom.

In general, the domestic policy of Paul I was controversial and was aimed at leveling Catherine's reforms, which, in principle, could not be done, since the period of Paul I's stay in power was short.

The foreign policy of Paul I was inconsistent. At the beginning of his reign, he declared neutrality with respect to revolutionary France and refused to send a Russian corps there to conduct military operations. However, after the capture of the island of Malta by Napoleon in 1798, Paul I decided to participate in the struggle against France as part of a coalition with England, Austria and the Kingdom of Naples. But in 1800, he was moving towards rapprochement with France, while becoming an enemy of England, since her troops captured the "road" for the Russian autocrat, the island of Malta.

Violating international rules, Paul ordered the arrest of all English merchant ships.

In December 1800, without fodder, without the necessary maps, without knowledge of the terrain, Paul I sent 40 regiments of Don Cossacks (22,500 people) to conquer British India, dooming them to death.

The unpredictable controversial policy of Paul I, the uncertainty of the highest dignitaries and the environment for their future led to the emergence of hidden opposition and the formation of a political conspiracy. The heir to the throne, Alexander, was also informed about the conspiracy. On the night of March 11-12, 1801, the conspirators entered the residence of Paul I - Mikhailovsky Castle - and killed the emperor.

On March 12, 1801, a manifesto was published on the death of Paul I and the accession to the throne of Alexander I.

Tatyana Ponka

Architecture. The leading direction in the architecture of the second half of the XVIII century. was classicism, which was characterized by an appeal to the images and forms of ancient architecture (order system with columns) as an ideal aesthetic standard.

A significant architectural event of the 60-80s. was the design of the embankments of the Neva. One of the attractions of St. Petersburg was the Summer Garden. In 1771 - 1786 The summer garden from the side of the Neva embankment was fenced with a lattice, the author of which is Yu.M. Felten (1730-1801) and his assistant P. Egorov. The lattice of the Summer Garden is made in the style of classicism: the vertical dominates here: vertically standing peaks cross rectangular frames, evenly distributed massive pylons support these frames, emphasizing with their rhythm the general feeling of majesty and peace. In 1780-1789 designed by architect A.A. Kvasov built granite embankments and slopes and entrances to the river.

Like many contemporaries, Yu.M. Felten was engaged in reworking the interiors of the Great Peterhof Palace (White Dining Room, Throne Room). In honor of the glorious victory of the Russian fleet over the Turkish in Chesma Bay in 1770, one of the halls of the Grand Peterhof Palace was Yu.M. Felten converted into the Chesme Hall. The main decoration of the hall was 12 canvases, executed in 1771-1772. by the German painter F. Hackert, dedicated to the battles of the Russian fleet with the Turkish. In honor of the Battle of Chesma, Yu.M. Felten built the Chesme Palace (1774-1777) and the Chesme Church (1777-1780) 7 versts from Petersburg on the way to Tsarskoye Selo. The palace and the church, built in the Gothic style, create a single architectural ensemble.

The greatest master of Russian classicism was V. I. Bazhenov (1737/38-1799). He grew up in the Moscow Kremlin, where his father was a deacon in one of the churches, and studied at the gymnasium at Moscow University. After graduating from the Academy of Arts in 1760, V.I. Bazhenov went as a pensioner to France and Italy. Living abroad, he enjoyed such fame that he was elected professor of Rome, a member of the Florentine and Bologna academies. In 1762, upon his return to Russia, he received the title of academician. But in Russia, the creative fate of the architect was tragic.

During this period, Catherine conceived the construction of the Grand Kremlin Palace in the Kremlin, and V.I. Bazhenov was appointed its chief architect. Project V.I. Bazhenov meant the reconstruction of the entire Kremlin. It was, in fact, a project for a new center of Moscow. It included the royal palace, the Collegia, the Arsenal, the Theater, the square, conceived like an ancient forum, with stands for public meetings. The Kremlin itself, thanks to the fact that Bazhenov decided to continue three streets with passages to the territory of the palace, connected with the streets of Moscow. For 7 years V.I. Bazhenov develops projects, prepares for construction, but in 1775 Catherine orders to curtail all work (officially - due to lack of funds, unofficially - because of the negative attitude of the public towards the project).

Several months pass, and V.I. Bazhenov is entrusted with the creation of a palace and park complex of buildings in the village of Chernaya Dirt (Tsaritsyno) near Moscow, where Catherine II decided to build her country residence. Ten years later, all the main work was completed. In June 1785, Catherine arrived in Moscow and inspected the Tsaritsyn buildings, then in January 1786 issued a decree: the palace and all buildings should be demolished, and V.I. Bazhenov dismissed without salary and pension. "This is a prison, not a palace," - such is the conclusion of the empress. The legend connects the demolition of the palace with its oppressive appearance. The construction of the new palace Catherine instructed M.F. Kazakov. But this palace was not completed either.

In 1784-1786. IN AND. Bazhenov built a manor for the wealthy landowner Pashkov, which is known as the house of P.E. Pashkov. The Pashkov House is located on a slope of a high hill, opposite the Kremlin, at the confluence of the Neglinka with the Moskva River and is an architectural masterpiece of the classicism era. The estate consisted of a residential building, an arena, stables, service and outbuildings, and a church. The building is notable for ancient austerity and solemnity with purely Moscow patterning.

Another talented Russian architect who worked in the style of classicism was M. F. Kazakov (1738-1812). Kazakov was not a pensioner and studied ancient and renaissance monuments from drawings and models. A great school for him was the joint work with Bazhenov, who invited him, on the project of the Kremlin Palace. In 1776, Catherine instructed M.F. Kazakov drafting a government building in the Kremlin - the Senate. The site allotted for the Senate building was an uncomfortable oblong triangular shape, surrounded on all sides by old buildings. So the Senate building received a general triangular plan. The building has three floors and is made of bricks. The center of the composition was the courtyard, into which the entrance-arch topped with a dome led. Having passed the entrance-arch, the person who entered found himself in front of a majestic rotunda crowned with a mighty dome. The Senate was supposed to sit in this bright round building. The corners of the triangular building are cut off. Due to this, the building is perceived not as a flat triangle, but as a solid massive volume.

M.F. Kazakov also owns the building of the Nobility Assembly (1784-1787). The peculiarity of this building was that in the center of the building the architect placed the Hall of Columns, and around it were numerous living rooms and halls. The central space of the Hall of Columns, intended for solemn ceremonies, is highlighted by a Corinthian colonnade, and the state of festivity is enhanced by the sparkle of numerous chandeliers and the illumination of the ceiling. After the revolution, the building was given to trade unions and renamed the House of Unions. Starting with the funeral of V.I. Lenin, the Column Hall of the House of the Unions was used as a mourning room for farewell to statesmen and famous people. Currently, public meetings and concerts are held in the Hall of Columns.

The third largest architect of the second half of the 18th century is I. E. Starov (1744-1808). He studied first at the gymnasium at Moscow University, then at the Academy of Arts. The most significant building of Starov is the Tauride Palace (1782-1789) - a huge city estate of G.A. Potemkin, who received the title of Tauride for the development of the Crimea. The basis of the composition of the palace is the hall-gallery, dividing the entire complex of interiors into two parts. On the side of the main entrance, there is a series of rooms adjoining the octagonal domed hall. On the opposite side, there is a large winter garden. The exterior of the building is very modest, but it hides the dazzling luxury of the interiors.

Since 1780, the Italian Giacomo Quarenghi (1744–1817) has been working in St. Petersburg. His career in Russia was very successful. Architectural creations in Russia are a brilliant combination of Russian and Italian architectural traditions. His contribution to Russian architecture was that he, together with the Scot C. Cameron, set the standards for the architecture of St. Petersburg at that time. Quarenghi's masterpiece was the building of the Academy of Sciences, built in 1783-1789. The main center is highlighted by an eight-column Ionic portico, the splendor of which is enhanced by a typical St. Petersburg porch with a staircase for two "sprouts". In 1792-1796. Quarenghi builds the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, which became his next masterpiece. In the Alexander Palace, the main motif is the powerful colonnade of the Corinthian order. One of the remarkable buildings of Quarenghi was the building of the Smolny Institute (1806-1808), which has a clear rational layout in accordance with the requirements of the educational institution. Its plan is typical of Quarenghi: the center of the facade is decorated with a majestic eight-column portico, the front courtyard is limited by the wings of the building and a fence.

At the end of the 70s, the architect C. Cameron (1743-1812), a Scot by birth, came to Russia. Brought up on European classicism, he managed to feel the whole originality of Russian architecture and fall in love with it. Cameron's talent manifested itself mainly in the exquisite palace and park suburban ensembles.

In 1777, Catherine's son Pavel Petrovich had a son - the future Emperor Alexander I. The delighted Empress gave Pavel Petrovich 362 acres of land along the Slavyanka River - the future Pavlovsk. In 1780, C. Cameron took up the creation of the palace and park ensemble of Pavlovsk. Outstanding architects, sculptors, artists took part in the construction of the park, palace and park structures, but the first period of the formation of the park under the leadership of Cameron was very significant. Cameron laid the foundations for the largest and best landscape park in Europe in the then fashionable English style - a park emphatically natural, landscape. After careful measurements, he laid the main arteries of roads, alleys, paths, allocated places for groves and meadows. Picturesque and cozy corners coexist here with small light buildings that do not violate the harmony of the ensemble. The true pearl of C. Cameron's work is the Pavlovsk Palace, which is built on a high hill. Following Russian traditions, the architect managed to “fit” architectural structures into a picturesque area, to combine man-made beauty with natural magnificence. The Pavlovsk Palace is devoid of pretentiousness, its windows from a high hill calmly look at the slowly flowing river Slavyanka.

The last architect of the XVIII century. V. Brenna (1747-1818) is rightfully considered the favorite architect of Pavel and Maria Feodorovna. After accession to the throne in 1796, Paul I removed C. Cameron from the post of chief architect of Pavlovsk and appointed V. Brenna in his place. From now on, Brenna directs all the buildings in Pavlovsk, participates in all significant buildings of the Pavlovian time.

Brenne, Paul I entrusted the management of work in his second country residence - Gatchina. Brenna's Gatchina Palace has a modest, even ascetic Spartan appearance, but the interior decoration is majestic and luxurious. At the same time, work began in the Gatchina park. On the shores of lakes and islands there are a large number of pavilions that look very simple on the outside, but their interiors are magnificent: the Venus Pavilion, the Birch House (resembling a log of birch firewood in appearance), Porta Masca and the Farmer's Pavilion.

Paul I decided to build a palace in St. Petersburg in his own style - in the spirit of military aesthetics. The palace project was developed by V.I. Bazhenov, but in connection with his death, Paul I entrusted the construction of the palace to V. Brenna. Paul always wanted to live where he was born. In 1797, on the Fontanka, on the site of the Summer Palace of Elizaveta Petrovna (where Pavel was born), the laying of the palace took place in honor of the Archangel Michael - the patron saint of the heavenly host - Mikhailovsky Castle. Mikhailovsky Castle became the best creation of Brenna, to which he gave the appearance of a fortress. The appearance of the castle is a quadrangle surrounded by a stone wall, ditches were dug on both sides around the palace. It was possible to get into the palace through drawbridges, and cannons were placed around the palace in different places. Initially, the exterior of the castle was full of decorations: marble statues, vases, and figures were everywhere. The palace had a vast garden and parade ground, where reviews and parades were held in any weather. But in his beloved castle, Pavel managed to live only 40 days. On the night of March 11-12, he was strangled. After the death of Paul I, everything that gave the palace the character of a fortress was destroyed. All the statues were transferred to the Winter Palace, the ditches were covered with earth. In 1819, the abandoned castle was transferred to the Main Engineering School, and its second name appeared - Engineering Castle.

Sculpture. In the second half of the XVIII century. the real flourishing of Russian sculpture begins, which is associated primarily with the name of F.I. Shubin (1740–1805), countryman M.V. Lomonosov. After graduating from the Academy with a big gold medal, Shubin went on a retirement trip, first to Paris (1767-1770) and then to Rome (1770-1772). Abroad in 1771, not from life, Shubin created a bust of Catherine II, for which, upon returning to his homeland in 1774, he received the title of academician.

The first work of F.I. Shubin after returning - a bust of A.M. Golitsyn (1773, Russian Museum) is one of the most brilliant works of the master. In the guise of an educated nobleman, one can read intelligence, imperiousness, arrogance, but at the same time condescension and the habit of cautious "swimming" on the waves of changeable political fortune. In the image of the famous commander A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, behind the not at all heroic appearance of a round face with a ridiculously upturned nose, the features of a strong and significant personality are conveyed (1778, State Art Museum, Minsk).

Over time, interest in Shubin fades away. Executed without embellishment, his portraits were less and less liked by customers. In 1792, from memory, Shubin created a bust of M.V. Lomonosov (State Russian Museum, Academy of Sciences). In the face of the great Russian scientist there is neither stiffness, nor noble arrogance, nor excessive pride. A slightly mocking person is looking at us, wiser with worldly experience, who lived life brightly and difficultly. Liveliness of mind, spirituality, nobility, at the same time - sadness, disappointment, even skepticism - these are the main qualities inherent in the great Russian scientist, whom F.I. Shubin knew very well.

A masterpiece of portrait art by F.I. Shubin is a bust of Paul I (1798, RM; 1800, Tretyakov Gallery). The sculptor managed to convey the entire complexity of the image: arrogance, coldness, sickness, secrecy, but at the same time, the suffering of a person who from childhood experienced all the cruelty of a crowned mother. Paul I liked the work. But there were almost no orders. In 1801, the house of F.I. Shubin and workshop with works. In 1805, the sculptor died in poverty, his death went unnoticed.

At the same time, the French sculptor E.-M. Falcone (1716-1791; in Russia - from 1766 to 1778). Falcone worked at the court of the French king Louis XV, then at the Paris Academy. In his works, Falcone followed the rococo fashion that prevailed at the court. A true masterpiece was his work "Winter" (1771). The image of a sitting girl, personifying winter and covering the flowers at her feet with smoothly falling folds of clothing, like a snow cover, is full of quiet sadness.

But Falcone always dreamed of creating a monumental work, he managed to realize this dream in Russia. On the advice of Diderot, Catherine commissioned the sculptor to create an equestrian monument to Peter I. In 1766, Falcone arrived in St. Petersburg and began work. He depicted Peter I on horseback. The emperor's head is crowned with a laurel wreath - a symbol of his glory and victories. The hand of the king, pointing to the Neva, the Academy of Sciences and the Peter and Paul Fortress, symbolically denotes the main goals of his reign: education, trade and military power. The sculpture rises on a pedestal in the form of a granite rock weighing 275 tons. At the suggestion of Falcone, a laconic inscription is engraved on the pedestal: "To Peter the First Catherine the Second." The opening of the monument took place in 1782, when Falcone was no longer in Russia. Four years before the opening of the monument at E.-M. Falcone disagreed with the Empress, and the sculptor left Russia.

In the work of the remarkable Russian sculptor M.I. Kozlovsky (1753-1802) combined features of baroque and classicism. He was also retired in Rome, Paris. In the mid-90s, upon returning to his homeland, the most fruitful period in the work of Kozlovsky begins. The main theme of his works is from antiquity. From his works, young gods, cupids, beautiful shepherdesses came to Russian sculpture. Such are his "Shepherd with a Hare" (1789, Pavlovsk Palace Museum), "Sleeping Cupid" (1792, Russian Museum), "Cupid with an Arrow" (1797, Tretyakov Gallery). In the statue "The Vigil of Alexander the Great" (second half of the 80s, Russian Museum), the sculptor captured one of the episodes of the education of the will of the future commander. The most significant and largest work of the artist was the monument to the great Russian commander A.V. Suvorov (1799-1801, Petersburg). The monument has no direct portrait resemblance. It is rather a generalized image of a warrior, a hero, in whose military costume elements of the weapons of an ancient Roman and a medieval knight are combined. Energy, courage, nobility emanates from the whole appearance of the commander, from his proud turn of his head, the graceful gesture with which he raises his sword. Another outstanding work of M.I. Kozlovsky became the statue "Samson tearing apart the mouth of a lion" - the central one in the Great Cascade of Fountains of Peterhof (1800-1802). The statue was dedicated to Russia's victory over Sweden in the Great Northern War. Samson personified Russia, and the lion - defeated Sweden. The powerful figure of Samson is given by the artist in a complex turn, in intense movement.

During the Great Patriotic War, the monument was stolen by the Nazis. In 1947, the sculptor V.L. Simonov recreated it on the basis of surviving photographic documents.

Painting. In the second half of the XVIII century. the historical genre appears in Russian painting. Its appearance is associated with the name of A.P. Losenko. He graduated from the Academy of Arts, then as a pensioner he was sent to Paris. A.P. Losenko owns the first work from Russian history - "Vladimir and Rogneda". In it, the artist chose the moment when Prince Vladimir of Novgorod "begs forgiveness" from Rogneda, the daughter of the Polotsk prince, on whose land he went with fire and sword, killed her father and brothers, and forcibly took her as his wife. Rogneda suffers theatrically, raising her eyes; Vladimir is also theatrical. But the very appeal to Russian history was very characteristic of the era of high national upsurge in the second half of the 18th century.

The historical theme in painting was developed by G.I. Ugryumov (1764-1823). The main theme of his works was the struggle of the Russian people: with the nomads ("The Test of Strength by Jan Usmar", 1796-1797, Russian Museum); with German knights ("The solemn entry into Pskov of Alexander Nevsky after his victory over the German knights", 1793, Russian Museum); for the security of their borders ("The Capture of Kazan", 1797-1799, Russian Museum), etc.

The greatest success was painting in the second half of the 18th century. reaches in the portrait genre. To the most remarkable phenomena of Russian culture of the second half of the 18th century. belongs to the work of the painter F.S. Rokotov (1735/36–1808). He came from serfs, but received his freedom from his landowner. He mastered the art of painting at the works of P. Rotary. The young artist was lucky, his patron was the first president of the Academy of Arts I.I. Shuvalov. On the recommendation of I.I. Shuvalova F.S. Rokotov in 1757 received an order for a mosaic portrait of Elizaveta Petrovna (from the original by L. Tokke) for Moscow University. The portrait was such a success that F.S. Rokotov receives an order for portraits of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich (1761), Emperor Peter III (1762). When Catherine II ascended the throne, F.S. Rokotov was already a well-known artist. In 1763, the artist painted the Empress in full height, in profile, among a beautiful setting. Rokotov also painted another portrait of the Empress, half-length. The empress liked him very much, she believed that he was "one of the most similar." Catherine presented the portrait to the Academy of Sciences, where it remains to this day. Following the reigning persons, the portraits of F.S. Rokotov wished to have the Orlovs, Shuvalovs. Sometimes he created entire galleries of portraits of representatives of the same family in its various generations: the Baryatinskys, the Golitsyns, the Rumyantsevs, the Vorontsovs. Rokotov does not seek to emphasize the external merits of his models, the main thing for him is the inner world of a person. Among the works of the artist, the portrait of Maykov (1765) stands out. In the guise of a major government official behind the languid effeminacy, insight, an ironic mind are guessed. The color of the portrait, built on a combination of green and red, creates the impression of full-bloodedness, vitality of the image.

In 1765 the artist moved to Moscow. Moscow is distinguished by greater freedom of creativity than official St. Petersburg. In Moscow, a special, "Rokotov" style of painting is taking shape. The artist creates a whole gallery of beautiful female images, among which the most remarkable is the portrait of A.P. Stuyskaya (1772, State Tretyakov Gallery). A slender figure in a light gray-silver dress, highly whipped powdered hair, a long curl falling over her chest, a refined oval face with dark almond-shaped eyes - all add mystery and poetry to the image of a young woman. The exquisite coloring of the portrait - greenish marsh and golden brown, faded pink and pearl gray - enhances the impression of mystery. In the XX century. the poet N. Zabolotsky dedicated wonderful verses to this portrait:

Her eyes are like two clouds

Half smile, half cry

Her eyes are like two lies

Covered in mist of failures.

The successful embodiment of the image of A. Struyskaya in the portrait served as the basis for the legend, according to which the artist was not indifferent to the model. In fact, the name of the chosen one S.F. Rokotov is well known, and A.P. Struyskaya was happily married to her husband and was an ordinary landowner.

Another great artist of the 18th century was D.G. Levitsky (1735-1822) - the creator of the formal portrait and the great master of the chamber portrait. He was born in Ukraine, but at the turn of the 1950s and 1960s, Levitsky's life in St. Petersburg began, forever associated with this city and the Academy of Arts, in which he led the portrait class for many years.

In his models, he sought to emphasize originality, the most striking features. One of the most famous works of the artist is the ceremonial portrait of P.A. Demidov (1773, State Tretyakov Gallery). A representative of a well-known mining family, P.A. Demidov was a fabulously rich man, a strange eccentric. In the formal portrait, original in design, Demidov is depicted standing in a relaxed pose against the backdrop of a colonnade and draperies. He is standing in a deserted solemn hall, at home, in a nightcap and a scarlet dressing gown, gesturing to his amusements - a watering can and a pot of flowers, of which he was a lover. In his outfit, in his pose - a challenge to time and society. Everything is mixed in this man - kindness, originality, the desire to be realized in science. Levitsky was able to combine features of extravagance with elements of a ceremonial portrait: columns, drapery, a landscape overlooking the Orphanage in Moscow, for the maintenance of which Demidov donated huge sums.

In the early 1770s. Levitsky performs seven portraits of pupils of the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens - "Smolyanka" (all in the timing), famous for their musicality. These portraits have become the highest achievement of the artist. In them, the skill of the artist was manifested with particular completeness. E.N. Khovanskaya, E.N. Khrushchova, E.I. Nelidov are depicted in theatrical costumes during their performance of an elegant pastoral. In the portraits of G.I. Alymova and E.I. Molchanova, one of the heroines plays the harp, the other is shown sitting next to a scientific instrument with a book in her hand. Placed side by side, these portraits personified the benefits of "sciences and arts" for a reasonable, thinking person.

The highest point of the master's mature work was his famous allelogical portrait of Catherine II, the legislator in the Temple of Justice, repeated by the artist in several versions. This work occupies a special place in Russian art. It embodied the high ideas of the era about citizenship and patriotism, about the ideal ruler - an enlightened monarch, tirelessly caring for the welfare of his subjects. Levitsky himself described his work as follows: “The middle of the picture represents the inside of the temple of the goddess of justice, in front of which, in the form of the Legislator, H.I.V., burning poppy flowers on the altar, sacrifices her precious peace for the general peace.”

In 1787 Levitsky left teaching and left the Academy of Arts. One of the reasons for this was the artist's passion for mystical currents, which became quite widespread in Russia at the end of the 18th century. and his entry into the Masonic lodge. Not without the influence of new ideas in society, around 1792, a portrait of a friend of Levitsky and his mentor in Freemasonry, N.I. Novikov (TG). The amazing liveliness and expressiveness of Novikov’s gesture and gaze, which is not characteristic of the heroes of Levitsky’s portraits, a fragment of the landscape in the background - all this betrays the artist’s attempt to master a new, more modern pictorial language, already inherent in other artistic systems.

Another remarkable artist of this time was V. L. Borovikovsky (1757–1825). He was born in Ukraine, in Mirgorod, he studied icon painting with his father. In 1788 V.L. Borovikovsky was brought to St. Petersburg. He studied hard, honing his taste and skill, and soon became a recognized master. In the 1990s, he creates portraits that fully express the features of a new trend in art - sentimentalism. All "sentimental" portraits of Borovikovsky are images of people in a chamber setting, in simple outfits with an apple or a flower in their hand. The best of them is the portrait of M.I. Lopukhina. It is often called the highest achievement of sentimentalism in Russian painting. A young girl looks down from the portrait. Her posture is unconstrained, a simple dress fits loosely around her body, her fresh face is full of charm and charm. In the portrait, everything is in harmony, in harmony with each other: a shady corner of the park, cornflowers among the ears of ripe rye, fading roses, the languid, slightly mocking look of the girl. In the portrait of Lopukhina, the artist was able to show true beauty - spiritual and lyrical, inherent in Russian women. Features of sentimentalism appeared in V.L. Borovikovsky even in the image of the Empress. Now this is not a representative portrait of the "legislator" with all the imperial regalia, but an image of an ordinary woman in a dressing gown and cap on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo park with her beloved dog.

At the end of the XVIII century. a new genre appears in Russian painting - landscape. A new, landscape class was opened at the Academy of Arts, and S. F. Shchedrin became the first professor of the landscape class. He became the founder of the Russian landscape. It was Shchedrin who first worked out the compositional scheme of the landscape, which for a long time became exemplary. And on it S.F. Shchedrin taught more than one generation of artists. The heyday of Shchedrin's work fell on the 1790s. Among his works, the most famous are the series of views of Pavlovsky, Gatchina and Peterhof parks, views of Kamenny Island. Shchedrin captured specific types of architectural structures, but assigned the main role not to them, but to the surrounding nature, with which man and his creations are in harmonious fusion.

F. Alekseev (1753/54-1824) laid the foundation for the landscape of the city. Among his works of the 1790s. especially known are "View of the Peter and Paul Fortress and the Palace Embankment" (1793) and "View of the Palace Embankment from the Peter and Paul Fortress" (1794). Alekseev creates a sublime and at the same time a living image of a large, majestic, individual city in its beauty, in which a person feels happy and free.

In 1800, Emperor Paul I gave Alekseev the task of painting views of Moscow. The artist became interested in old Russian architecture. He stayed in Moscow for more than a year and brought back a number of paintings and many watercolors with views of Moscow streets, monasteries, suburbs, but mainly various images of the Kremlin. These species are highly reliable.

Work in Moscow enriched the world of the artist, allowed him to take a fresh look at the life of the capital when he returned there. In his St. Petersburg landscapes, the genre character is enhanced. Embankments, avenues, barges, sailboats are filled with people. One of the best works of this period is "View of the English Embankment from Vasilevsky Island" (1810s, Russian Museum). It found a measure, a harmonious ratio of the landscape itself and architecture. The writing of this picture completed the folding of the so-called urban landscape.

Engraving. In the second half of the century, wonderful engravers worked. "The true genius of engraving" was E. P. Chemesov. The artist lived only 27 years, about 12 works remained from him. Chemesov worked mainly in the portrait genre. The engraved portrait developed very actively at the end of the century. In addition to Chemesov, one can name G.I. Skorodumov, known for dotted engraving, which created special opportunities for "picturesque" interpretation (I. Selivanov. Portrait of Grand Duke Alexandra Pavlovna from the original by V.P. Borovikovsky, mezzotint; G.I. Skorodumov. self-portrait, pen drawing).

Arts and Crafts. In the second half of the 18th century, Gzhel ceramics reached a high artistic level - products of ceramic crafts in the Moscow region, the center of which was the former Gzhel volost. At the beginning of the XVII century. the peasants of the Gzhel villages began to make bricks, plain light-coloured glazed dishes, and toys from local clay. At the end of the XVII century. the peasants mastered the manufacture of "ant", i.e. covered with a greenish or brown glaze. Gzhel clays became known in Moscow, and in 1663 Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich ordered the study of Gzhel clays to begin. A special commission was sent to Gzhel, which included Afanasy Grebenshchikov, the owner of a ceramic factory in Moscow, and D.I. Vinogradov. Vinogradov stayed in Gzhel for 8 months. Mixing Orenburg clay with Gzhel (chernozem) clay, he got a real pure, white porcelain (porcelain). At the same time, Gzhel craftsmen worked at the factories of A. Grebenshchikov in Moscow. They quickly mastered the production of majolica, and began to make fermented pots, jugs, mugs, cups, plates, decorated with ornamental and narrative painting, filled with green, yellow, blue and violet-brown colors on a white field. From the end of the XVIII century. in Gzhel there is a transition from majolica to semi-faience. The painting of products is also changing - from multi-color, characteristic of majolica, to one-color painting with blue (cobalt). Gzhel dishes were widely distributed throughout Russia, in Central Asia, and in the Middle East. During the heyday of the Gzhel industry, there were about 30 factories for the production of dishes. Among the well-known manufacturers were the brothers Barmin, Khrapunov-novy, Fomin, Tadin, Rachkins, Guslins, Gusyatnikovs and others.

But the most successful were the brothers Terenty and Anisim Kuznetsov. Their factory arose at the beginning of the 19th century. in the village of Novo-Kharitonovo. From them, the dynasty continued the family business until the revolution, buying more and more plants and factories. In the second half of the XIX century. there is a gradual disappearance of the Gzhel craft with hand molding and painting, only large factories remain. From the beginning of 1920, separate pottery workshops, artels appeared. A genuine revival of Gzhel production begins in 1945. One-color blue underglaze (cobalt) painting was adopted.

In 1766, in the village of Verbilki near Dmitrov near Moscow, the Russified Englishman Frans Gardner founded the best private porcelain factory. He established his prestige as the first among private porcelain manufactures, creating in 1778-1785, commissioned by Catherine II, four magnificent order services, distinguished by purity and austerity of decor. The factory also produced figurines of Italian opera characters. Early 19th century marked a new stage in the development of Gardner porcelain. The factory's artists abandoned direct imitation of European models and tried to find their own style. Gardner's cups with portraits of the heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812 gained immense popularity. Zelentsov from the magazine "Magic Lantern". These were men and women engaged in the usual peasant work, peasant children, urban working people - shoemakers, janitors, peddlers. Figures of the peoples inhabiting Russia were made ethnographically accurately. Gardner's figurines have become a visible illustration of the history of Russia. F.Ya. Gardner found his own style of products, in which Empire forms were combined with the genre of motifs and the color saturation of the decor as a whole. Since 1891, the plant belonged to M.S. Kuznetsov. After the October Revolution, the plant became known as the Dmitrovsky Porcelain Factory, and since 1993 - "Verbilok Porcelain".

Fedoskino miniature . At the end of the XVIII century. in the village of Fedoskino near Moscow, a type of Russian lacquer miniature painting with oil paints on papier-mâché developed. The Fedoskino miniature arose thanks to one bad habit that was common in the 18th century. In those ancient times, it was very fashionable to sniff tobacco, and everyone did it: the nobility, commoners, men, women. Tobacco was stored in snuff boxes made of gold, silver, tortoiseshell, porcelain and other materials. And in Europe they began to make snuff boxes from pressed cardboard soaked in vegetable oil and dried at temperatures up to 100 ° C. This material began to be called papier-mâché (chewed paper). Snuff boxes were covered with black primer and black lacquer, and classical scenes were used in the painting. Such snuffboxes were very popular in Russia, so in 1796 in the village of Danilkovo, 30 km from Moscow, merchant P.I. Korobov began the production of round snuff boxes, which were decorated with engravings pasted on their lids. The engravings were covered with transparent varnish. Since 1819 Korobov's son-in-law P.V. owned the factory. Lukutin. Together with his son A.P. Lukutin, he expanded production, organized the training of Russian masters, under him the production was transferred to the village of Fedoskino. Fedoskino masters began to decorate snuffboxes, beads, caskets and other items with pictorial miniatures made with oil paints in a classical pictorial manner. Lukutin's items of the 19th century depict views of the Moscow Kremlin and other architectural monuments, scenes from folk life in the technique of oil painting. Troika rides, festivities or peasant dances, tea drinking at the samovar were especially popular. Thanks to the creativity of Russian masters, Lukutin's varnishes have acquired originality and national flavor, both in plots and in technology. The Fedoskino miniature is executed with oil paints in three to four layers - painting is successively performed (a general outline of the composition), writing or repainting (more detailed study), glazing (modeling the image with transparent paints) and glare (completing the work with light colors that convey glare on objects). The original Fedoskino technique is "writing through": a reflective material is applied to the surface before painting - metal powder, gold leaf or mother-of-pearl. Translucent through transparent layers of glazing paints, these linings give the image depth, an amazing glow effect. In addition to snuff boxes, the factory produced caskets, eye cases, needle cases, covers for family albums, tea caddies, Easter eggs, trays and much more. Products of Fedoskino miniaturists were very popular not only in Russia, but also abroad.

Thus, in the second half of the 18th century, in the age of "Reason and Enlightenment", a unique, in many ways unique artistic culture was created in Russia. This culture was alien to national narrow-mindedness and isolation. With amazing ease, she absorbed and creatively reworked everything valuable that was created by the work of artists from other countries. New types and genres of art, new artistic trends, bright creative names were born.

1 «The reign of Catherine II began in

1) 1741 2) 1755 3) 1762 4) 1771

2. Moscow University was founded in

1) 1755 2) 1687 3) 1725 4) 1701

3. Crimea became part of Russia in

1) ХУ1c. 2) XVII century, 3) XVIII century. 4) XIX century.

4. The era of palace coups in Russia falls on

1) 20-60s of the XVIII century. 2) the end of the 17th century. 3) the middle of the XIX century. 4) the end of the XIX century.

5. Dates are associated with the sections of the Commonwealth

1) 1703, 1700, 1721 2) 1730, 1741, 1762 3) 1767, 1775, 1785 4) 1772, 1793, 1795 ,

6. What event ended in 1763?

1) Seven Years' War 2) the annexation of Crimea to Russia 3) sections of the Commonwealth

4) an uprising led by E. Pugachev

7. Which of the above events are associated with the dates: 1606-1607, 1670-1671, 1773-1775?

1) peasant-Cossack uprisings 2) stages of enslavement of peasants

3) sections of the Commonwealth 4) wars for access to the sea

8. Which of the following rows lists the dates of the wars between Russia and Sweden?

1) 1700-1721, 1788-1790 2) 1768-1774, 1787-1791

3) 1813-1814, 1816-1818 4) 1848-1849, 1853-1856

9. Which of the following events of the XVIII century. happened earlier than others?

1) death of Anna Ioannovna 2) accession to the throne of Peter II

3) the beginning of the disgrace of A.S. Menshikov 4) the beginning of the Seven Years' War

10. Which of the following events occurred earlier than the others?

1) the battle of Austerlitz 2) Suvorov crossing the Alps

3) Russia joining the continental blockade of England 4) Peace of Tilsit

11. Which of the following events occurred later than the others?

1) the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna 2) the "Great Embassy" of Peter I to Europe

3) the entry of Ukraine into Russia 4) the establishment of the patriarchate

12. Which of the following events took place in Russia in the 18th century?

1) the creation of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy 2) the opening of the Higher Women's Courses

3) the opening of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum 4) the foundation of Moscow University

13. “Insignificant heirs of the northern giant” - this is how A.S. Pushkin on successors 1) Peter I 2) Paul I 3) Nicholas I 4) Peter III

14. The largest popular performance of the XVII-XVIII centuries. took place under the leadership

1) Ivan Bolotnikov 2) Stepan Razin 3) Kondraty Bulavin 4) Emelyan Pugacheva

15. To the monuments of architecture of the XVIII century. applies

1) Pashkov's house in Moscow 2) Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin 3) St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow 4) Hagia Sophia in Novgorod

16. The establishment of the Free Economic Society is connected with

1) the policy of "enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II 2) the reforms of Peter I

3) reforms of the Chosen One 4) internal policy of Paul I

17. Which of the named persons was a statesman of the 18th century?

1) Mr. Potemkin 2) I. Peresvetov 3) A. Ordin-Nashchokin 4) A. Adashev

18. Moscow University was opened on the initiative

1) Peter I 2) Catherine II 3) M.V. Lomonosov 4) M.M. Speransky

19. To the monuments of architecture of the XVIII century. applies

1) Cathedral of the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg 2) Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin

3) St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow 4) Hagia Sophia in Novgorod

20. Princess E. Dashkova

1) a famous actress 2) the first female mathematician 3) the president of the Russian Academy of Sciences 4) the first wife of Peter I

21. Which of the Russian monarchs did Emelyan Pugachev pretend to be?

1) Paul I 2) Peter II 3) Ivan Antonovich 4) Peter III

22 Which of the listed architectural monuments was built according to the project B 0 I 0 Bazhenov?

1) Winter Palace 2) building of the Noble Assembly in Moscow 3) Pashkov's house

4) Ostankino Palace

23. In the 18th century, Russian troops entered Berlin during

1) Seven Years' War 2) Northern War 3) Suvorov's campaigns 4) Ushakov's campaigns

24. The fortress of Izmail was taken by Russian troops * during

1) Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. 2) Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791.

3) the Italian campaign of Suvorov 4) the Seven Years' War

25. During the Seven Years' War there was a battle at

1) Corfu 2) Sinop 3) Kromach 4) Kunersdorf

26. In the reign of Paul I, a document was adopted

1) decree "On a three-day corvee" 2) "Charter to cities"

3) "Table of Ranks" 4) "Sudebnik"

27. The policy of Catherine II reflects the event

1) liquidation of the hetmanship in Ukraine 2) establishment of the Senate

3) liquidation of the patriarchate 4) establishment of the Synod

28. What event took place in the second half of the 18th century?

1) annexation of Right-Bank Ukraine and Belarus 2) annexation of Eastern Siberia 3) participation in the Northern War 4) participation in the Livonian War

29. What event happened in the second half of the 18th century?

1) participation in the division of the Commonwealth 2) annexation of Western Siberia

3) the accession of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to Russia

4) Prut campaign

30. Indicate the correct correspondence between the name of the ruler of Russia and the authority created during her reign

1) Catherine I - Cabinet of Ministers 2) Anna Ioannovna - Conference at the Imperial Court 3) Elizabeth I - Supreme Privy Council

4) Catherine II - Laid Commission

31. The activity of which Russian military commander belongs to the 18th century?

1) D.I. Pozharsky 2) P.A. Nakhimova 3) F.F.Ushakova 4) A.A. Brusilova

32. Indicate the correct statement

1) The Winter Palace was built under the leadership of V.I. Bazhenov

2) The building of Moscow University was designed by V. Rastrelli

3) the building of the Noble Assembly in Moscow was built according to the project of M.F. Kazakova

4) Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg was designed by D. Ukhtomsky

33. Famous Russian historian of the XVIII century. was

1) V.N. Tatishchev 2) S.M. Solovyov 3) V.O. Klyuchevsky 4) K.D. Kavelin

34. Famous Russian theatrical figure of the XVIII century. was

1) F. Rokotov 2) F. Shubin 3) I. Argunov 4) F. Volkov

35. He worked in the Baroque style

1M. Kazakov 2) V. Bazhenov 3) I. Argunov 4) V. Rastrelli

36. Famous Russian portrait painter of the XVIII century. was

1) S. Ushakov 2) F. Rokotov 3) I. Repin 4) K. Bryullov

37. On the emergence in the XVIII century. revolutionary ideology in Russia is evidenced by the publication of the book

1) I. Krylova 2) K. Ryleeva 3) N. Novikova 4) A. Radishcheva

1) M. Lomonosov 2) G. Derzhavin 3) D. Fonvizin 4) A. Radishchev

39. "Peter the Great of Russian literature" V.G. Belinsky called

1) M. Lomonosov 2) G. Derzhavin 3) D. Fonvizina 4) A. Radishcheva

40. There are names on the map of Russian lands and seas

1) V. Bering, S. Chelyuskin 2) I. Polzunova, I. Kulibina

3) F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky 4) V. Bazhenov, M. Kazakova

41. Russian scientist-geographer XVIII in "is

1) V.N. Tatishchev 2) S.P. Krasheninnikov 3) M.V. Lomonosov 4) I. Argunov

42. Contemporaries was

1) P. A. Rumyantsev and Alexander I 2) M.I. Kutuzov and Alexander III

3) A.V. Suvorov and Nicholas II 4) F.F. Ushakov and Catherine II

43. The established commission, convened by Catherine II, was called

1) establish a new order of succession to the throne 2) abolish serfdom

3) develop a new code of laws 4) establish a State Council

44. Which of the following refers to the events held during the reign of Peter III?

1) the adoption of the "Code of Laws of the Russian Empire" 2) the creation of military settlements

3) exemption of the nobles from compulsory service 4) reduction of the term of soldier's service to 15 years

45. The era of palace coups includes activities

1) I.I. Shuvalova 2) S.S. Uvarova 3) B.I. Morozov 4) F. Lefort

46. ​​Allocation among the peasants of the poor and the rich is indicated by the term

1) stratification 2) landlessness 3) enslavement 4) striped

47. State peasants are

1) personally free peasants living on state lands 2) serfs

3) peasants who owned land on property rights 4) peasants assigned to manufactories

48. Peasants who left with the consent of the landowner to work in the city were called

1) freelancers 2) otkhodniks 3) capitalist 4) freedmen

49. The reign of Paul 1 characterizes the concept

1) “lesson years” 2) “three-day corvee” 3) “reserved years” 4) “free cultivators”

50. Secularization is

1) the policy of providing economic assistance to entrepreneurs

2) active state intervention in economic life

3) state policy aimed at supporting domestic production

4) conversion by the state of church property into state property

51. The phenomenon in state and public life, in which pets who do not have the abilities and knowledge necessary for service, are appointed to high positions, has received the name

1) Time of Troubles 2) enlightenment 3) palace coup 4) favoritism

52. What were the names of the societies of the "noble estate" that appeared under Catherine II, who chose their leader and had the right to inform the governor, the Senate and the Empress about their needs?

1) city magistrates 2) provincial boards 3) noble assemblies

4) zemstvo huts

53. Corvee economy of the 18th century characterized

1) the predominance of quitrent in kind over cash 2) the peasant has an allotment provided by the landowner 3) the development of small-scale production

4) the rapid improvement of tools

54. The policy of Catherine II characterizes

1) the adoption of a law on compulsory service for the nobles 2) the implementation of the provincial reform 3) the establishment of ministries 4) the establishment of the Synod

55. The political structure of Russia in the second half of the XVIII century. characterizes

1) implementation of the principle of separation of powers 2) the existence of zemstvo self-government bodies 3) the presence of a class-representative body 4) autocratic rule

56. The foreign policy of Catherine II is characterized by the desire

1) conclude "Eternal Peace" with Turkey 2) get access to the Baltic Sea

3) suppress the revolutionary movement in France 4) create the Holy Alliance of European Monarchies

57. The increase in cash dues in the second half of the XVIII century. testified to

1) the development of commodity-money relations 2) increased exploitation of dependent peasants 3) the growth of the living standards of the peasants 4) the elimination of the poll tax

58. The task of drafting new legislation was

1) noble assemblies 2) Free Economic Society 3) Legislative Commission 4) Academy of Sciences

59. Establishment by the government of the Noble Loan and Merchant Banks in the second half of the 18th century. testified to

1) the development of the estate system 2) the dominance of commodity-money relations 3) the mass ruin of the nobility and merchants 4) the promotion of entrepreneurial activity

60. The corvee system of economy is incompatible with

1) personal freedom of peasants 3) otkhodnichestvo

2) subsistence farming 4) quitrent in kind

61. A sign of the decomposition of the feudal-serfdom system in Russia at the end of the 18th century. It was

1) expansion of noble land ownership 2) an increase in the number of state-owned factories

3) mass transfer of peasants for a month 4) increase in the number of nobility

62. The phenomenon characterizing the process of decomposition of the feudal-serfdom system in Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

1) strengthening the peasant community 2) the growth of peasant prosperity 3) the stratification of the village into rich and poor 4) increasing the productivity of serf labor

63. By the end of the XVIII century. in Russia

1) the classes of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat have already taken shape

2) the first monopoly associations in industry are formed

3) continues to actively develop small-scale production

4) civilian labor dominates in the mining industry

64. "Charter to the nobility" 1785 gave the nobles

1) the right to elect governors

2) exemption from any criminal prosecution

3) unlimited freedom of speech

4) exemption from state taxes

65. What feature characterized the development of social thought in Russia in the second half of the 18th century?

1) spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment

2) the creation of the theory "Moscow - the Third Rome"

3) the emergence of populist ideology

4) the spread of the theory of "small deeds"

66. The concepts of "baroque", "classicism", "sentimentalism" characterize

1) the development of artistic culture in the XVIII century.

2) new phenomena in the culture of the 17th century.

3) changes in culture and life under Peter I

4) the emergence of new genres in the literature of the 19th century.

67. The reason for the transfer of peasants to cash rent in the second half of the XVIII century. was

1) development of commodity relations

2) the elimination of the privileges of the nobility

3) the impoverishment of the state treasury

4) construction of railways

68. "Eastern Question" in Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century. was associated with

1) deterioration of Russian-Iranian relations

2) the desire of European states to capture the eastern territories of Russia

3) the desire of Russia to get access to the shores of the Black and Azov Seas

4) Russia's desire to help the South Slavic peoples

69. The reform of local government, carried out by Catherine II in the second half of the HLGEP century, was aimed at

1) eliminate feeding

2) create zemstvos

3) strengthen state power in the field

4) liquidate provinces and counties

70. As a result of the spread of peasant otkhodnichestvo to cities in the second half of the 18th century. became

1) strengthening of serf oppression

2) the stratification of the village into rich and poor

3) growth in the number of capitalist manufactories

4) reduction in the area of ​​cultivated land

71. What events took place during the reign of Catherine II?

A) the uprising led by I. Bolotnikov B) the capture of the Izmail fortress by Russian troops C) the church reform of Patriarch Nikon D) the secularization of church lands E) the entry of Crimea into Russia F) the Battle of Poltava

Specify the correct answer.

72. What relates to the events of the 18th century?

A) transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg

B) reforms of the Chosen One

C) peasant war led by S. Razin

D) convening the Legislative Commission

D) the abolition of the locality system

E) the introduction of recruitment

Specify the correct answer.

1) ABD 2) AGE 3) BGD 4) VDE

73, What relates to the events of the 18th century?

A) sections of the Commonwealth

B) convocation of the Stoglavy Cathedral

C) peasant war led by E. Pugachev

D) palace coups

E) the entry of Left-bank Ukraine into Russia

E) Decembrist uprising

Specify the correct answer.

74. Read an excerpt from the peace treaty and indicate the results of which war it was signed. “Fortresses: Yenikale and Kerch, lying in the Crimean peninsula, with their attachments and with everyone located in them, as well as with counties ... remain in full, eternal and unquestioning possession of the Russian Empire.”

2) Caucasian 4) Crimean

75, Read an excerpt from the work of the historian E.V. Tarle and indicate the history of which war the naval battle named in it is connected with.

“Chesma made all of Europe shudder and take into account that Peter’s dream seemed to have come true and that the Russian ruler has both hands - not only the army, but also the fleet.”

1) Russian-Turkish 3) Seven-year

2) Northern 4) Crimean

76. Read an excerpt from the notes of Catherine II and indicate which institution is being convened.

"... She was in the meeting, gave me advice and information about the whole empire, with whom we are dealing and who we should care for."

1) Statutory commission 3) Elected glad

2) Boyar Duma 4) State Duma

77. Read the extract from the decree and indicate its title. “It is not only useful for the empire and the throne, but it is also fair to eat, so that the respectful state of the noble nobility is preserved and affirmed unshakably and inviolably; and for this, from time immemorial, now and forever, the noble dignity of the nobility is inalienable, hereditary and hereditary to those honest families who use it.

1) "Table of Ranks"

2) General Regulations

3) condition

4) "Charter to the nobility"

78. Read an excerpt from the work of the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky and indicate which empress in question.

“... In her life she read an immense number of books ... She wrote a lot ... It was as difficult for her to do without a book and a pen as it was for Peter I without an ax and a lathe ... Her correspondence with Voltaire and a foreign agent Baron Grimm - these are whole volumes.

1) Anna Ioannovna 3) Elizaveta Petrovna

2) Catherine the Second 4) Catherine the First

79. Read an excerpt from a report addressed to Catherine II, and indicate who was its author.

“The walls of Ishmael and the people fell before the feet of the throne of Her Imperial Majesty. The assault was long and bloody. Ishmael is taken, thank God! Our victory ... I have the honor to congratulate Your Grace.

1) M.D. Skobelev 3) A.D. Menshikov

2) P.S. Nakhimov 4) A.V. Suvorov Part 2 (B)

The tasks of this part require an answer in the form of one or two words, a sequence of letters or numbers, which should be written first in the text of the examination paper, and then transferred to the answer form No. 1 without spaces and other symbols. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.

1. Establish a correspondence between the names of historical figures and events with their participation. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table PARTICIPANT

A) Dmitry Bobrok

B) Kuzma Minin C) Hetman Mazepa D) Prince Potemkin

1) the liberation of Moscow from the Poles in 1612

2) Battle of Kulikovo

3) "standing" on the Ugra

4) Northern War

5) annexation of Crimea

2. Match dates and events. to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters. patch EVENT

1) opening of the Academy of Sciences

2) convocation of the Legislative Commission

C) 1767 3) the election of Mikhail Romanov to the kingdom D) 1785 4) the entry of Ukraine into Russia 5) the adoption of the “Letter of Letters to the Cities”

94Zo Establish a correspondence between dates and events. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

DATE EVENT

A) 1581 1) Northern War

B) 1682, 2) issuance of a decree on "reserved years"

C) 1755 3) the beginning of the reign of Peter I

D) 1774 0 4) the conclusion of the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace

5) opening of Moscow University4o Establish a correspondence between dates and events. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

A) 1565-1572 B) 1649, C) 1772

1) the beginning of the reign of Paul I

2) the first partition of Poland

3) the final enslavement of the peasants

4) oprichnina

5) the reign of Boris Godunov

5. Establish a correspondence between the names of wars and the geographical names of the places near which the battles related to these wars took place. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters"

NAME OF THE WAR

A) Northern War

B) Seven Years' War

C) Russian-Turkish war

D) Russian-French war

GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES

1) Fokshany, Izmail

3) Grengam, Lesnaya village

4) Gross-Jägersdorf, Kunersdorf

5) Saint Gotthard6. Establish a correspondence between the names of peace treaties and the territories that became part of the Russian Empire in accordance with these treaties. PEACE TREATY A) Peace of Nystadt B) Peace of Jassy C) Treaty of Georgievsky D) Truce of Andrusovo

TERRITORY

1) Baltic

2) Left-bank Ukraine

3) Finland

4) Eastern Georgia

5) the territory between the Bug and the Dniester

BUT	B	AT	G

7. Establish a correspondence between the names of the generals and the battles in which they led the troops. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

COMMANDERS A) P. A. Rumyantsev B) A. V. Suvorov C) F. F. Ushakov

D) A. G. Orlov, G. A. Spiridov

BATTLE

1) Battle of Poltava

2) assault on Ochakov and Ishmael

3) battles on the rivers Larga and Cahul

4) Chesme battle

5) the siege of the fortress of Corfu

BUT	B	AT	G

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

8o Establish a correspondence between the names of monarchs and their contemporaries.

For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

MONARCH A) Peter I B) Peter III C) Ivan IV D) Ivan III

CONTEMPORARY

1) Catherine II

2) Princess Sophia

3) Martha Boretskaya

4) Elena Glinskaya

5) noblewoman Morozova

[ BUT	B -	AT	- ---------- G
with:	----------	gs-	bpi

9 "Establish a correspondence between the names of sovereigns and documents adopted during the years of their reign. For each position of the first column, select the corresponding position of the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

A) Alexei Mikhailovich B) Peter I C) Ivan IV

D) Peter III

DOCUMENTATION

1) "Sudebnik"

2) "Cathedral code"

3) "Manifesto on the liberty of the nobility"

4) "Decree on uniform inheritance"

5) "Russian Truth"

BUT	B	AT	G

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

10. Establish a correspondence between the names of monarchs and the events associated with them.

For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

NAMES A) Ivan III

C) Catherine II

1) accession to Russia of the Kazan Khanate

2) annexation of Veliky Novgorod to Moscow

3) Russia getting access to the Baltic Sea

4) Russia getting access to the Black Sea

5) accession to Russia of Central Asia

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols). 12. Establish a correspondence between events and dates. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

EVENTS A) adoption of the "Table of Ranks"

B) the publication of the “Charter of the City of Ladies”

B) "Great Embassy"

D) opening of the Academy of Sciences and Arts

DATES 1) 1697 2) 1700

BUT	B	AT	G

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

13. Set the correct correspondence between the name of a geographical feature and the event associated with this name.

For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down to the table selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

NAME A) Lake Peipus B) Vorskla river C) Danube river D) Volga river

1) annexation of Novgorod to Moscow

2) the capture of Ishmael

3) Battle on the Ice

4) Battle of Poltava

5) the capture of Kazan

BUT	B	AT	G

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

14. Arrange the names of historical persons in chronological order of their lives and activities. Write the letters of the names in the correct order to the table.

A) B. Khmelnitsky B) G. Otrepiev C) K. Bulavin D) G. Potemkin

15. to the table.

A) the beginning of the reign of Peter I

B) the proclamation of Russia as an empire

C) adoption of the Council Code

D) Italian and Swiss campaigns of A.V. Suvorov

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

16. Arrange the documents of the XVIII century. in chronological order of their publication. Write the letters of the documents in the correct order to the table.

A) decree "On the secularization of church lands"

B) "Table of Ranks"

B) the decree "On single inheritance"

D) "Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility" 17. Arrange the following events in chronological order. Write the letters of the events in the correct order to the table.

A) opening of Moscow University

B) the opening of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy

C) foundation of the Academy of Sciences and Arts

D) publication of the first Russian newspaper Vedomosti

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

18. Arrange the following events in chronological order. Write the letters of the events in the correct order to the table.

A) the annexation of Crimea to the Russian Empire B) the conclusion of the Treaty of Nystadt C) the battle at Cape Kaliakria D) the Battle of Poltava

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

19. Arrange the following names of monarchs in the chronological order of their reign. Write the letters of the names in the correct order to the table.

A) Catherine II B) Elizabeth I C) Anna Ioannovna D) Peter III

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

20. Place the following events in chronological order. Write the letters of the events in the correct order to table> A) the conclusion of the Deulino truce with Poland B) the uprising of Tadeusz Kosciuszko in Poland C) the conclusion of the Andrusovo truce with Poland D) the first partition of Poland

21. Arrange the following events in chronological order. Write the letters of the events in the correct order to the table. A) the accession of the Romanovs C) the Pugachev rebellion B) the church schism D) "Trouble"

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

22. Place the following events in chronological order. Write the letters of the events in the correct order to the table.

A) Battle of Poltava

B) Seven Years' War

C) the capture of the fortress of Izmail

D) Gangut naval battle

23. Arrange the names of historical persons in chronological order of their lives and activities. Write the letters of the events in the correct order to the table.

A) Elena Glinskaya B) Elizaveta Petrovna C) Sophia Paleolog D) Princess Sophia

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

24. Arrange the names of architectural monuments in chronological order of their creation. Write down the letters that denote the names of architectural monuments in the correct sequence to the table. A) The Great Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo B) the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye C) the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow D) the building of the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

25. Arrange the following events in chronological order. Write the letters of the events in the correct order to the table. A) "standing" on the Ugra River B) A.V. Suvorov C) Prut campaign D) Chesme naval battle

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

26. The list below shows the names of generals and naval commanders of Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries. Choose from the list of names related to the 18th century. Circle the appropriate numbers and write them down to the table.

1) Mikhail Skobelev

2) Ivan Gurko

3) Alexander Suvorov

4) Peter Bagration

5) Fedor Ushakov

6) Petr Rumyantsev

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

27. The list below contains the names of figures of Russian culture. Choose from the list of names related to the 18th century. Circle the appropriate numbers and write them down to the table.

1) A.N. Radishchev

2) I.P. Kulibin

3) M.I. Glinka

4) D.I. Fonvizin

5) V.G. Perov

6) O.A. Kiprensky

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The second half of the 18th century was associated with the reign of Catherine II and the progress of her reforms. Absolutism was established in the country, which was the highest stage in the evolution of the state superstructure of feudal society. Russia in the 18th century, thanks to the efforts of Peter I, turned into a powerful European power, where the capitalist way of economic development of the state was established. But the absolutist system, serfdom, the expansion of the rights and privileges of the ruling classes prevented it from developing to the fullest extent. Absolutism impeded the progressive development of the country, which in turn exacerbated social contradictions. On the one hand, the growth of capitalist relations strengthened the importance of the merchants, on the other hand, the autocracy deprived them of a free labor market and hindered the development of cities and trade. The result was an aggravation of contradictions between the merchants and the nobility. Drawing the latter into commodity-money relations, strengthening the ties of the landowner economy with the market, depending on it, forced the landowner to increase the duties of the serfs, which contributed to the growth of peasant unrest and protests, which resulted in the last third of the 18th century in the most powerful peasant war in Russian history led by Pugachev . Russia was faced with the question of which way to go further: either to keep the existing system unshakable, or somehow, perhaps through reforms, adapt it to new developing relations, or to completely eliminate autocracy and serfdom. This question arose in full measure during the reign of Catherine II. She ascended the throne in a palace coup on July 28, 1762 and ruled for 34 years. She was a highly educated, intelligent, businesslike, energetic, ambitious and hypocritical woman. Since the time when she was Sophia Frederica Augusta, princess of the provincial principality of Anhalt-Zerbst in Germany, Catherine II "knew only passion." Her whole life was burned by lust for power, and, having achieved power, she tried to keep it by any means. What was the socio-economic state and development of Russia during the reign of Catherine II? Territory. In the second half of the 18th century, the territory of Russia expanded significantly and had borders that were sufficiently secured and stretched to the north, west, and south to the shores of the four seas adjacent to the plain of European Russia, and also included Belarus, Courland and Lithuania. The international position of Russia was such that not only could there not be any fear for the inviolability of borders, but, taking advantage of the position of a powerful great power, exploiting the weakness of its neighbors, Russia could exert a huge influence on the international relations of the entire civilized world. In the second half of her reign, Catherine II, together with Potemkin, made grand plans for the expulsion of the Turks from Europe and the restoration of the Greek empire, and the new imperial crown was to go to Catherine's grandson Constantine. In economic terms, the territorial acquisitions of Catherine II were of great, one might say, colossal significance for the development of Russia in the future. The acquisition of new black earth spaces in the south and southwest in connection with the establishment of complete security of the southern border and with the intensified colonization of these spaces introduced a factor of tremendous importance into the economic life of the country. Only since then has Russia become not only an agricultural country by name, but also one of the breadbaskets of Europe. Indeed, already in 1779 the export of wheat from the main ports (except for the Baltic) exceeded the export of 1766 by more than nine times. Despite the strong spread of arable farming in the south of Russia, bread prices were held quite firmly thanks to the development of the grain trade. And this circumstance, in turn, encouraged the further development of agriculture in the south, which was now heavily colonized. As for the means of communication, in this respect, in the 18th century, waterways of communication and, in particular, canals connecting river systems were of great importance. Of these, the Vyshnevolotsk and Ladoga canals were built under Peter I. Under Catherine II, the Vyshnevolotsk system was significantly improved, connecting the Volga with the Baltic Sea. The rest of the canals, and partly begun under Catherine, Syassky, Novgorodsky, Berezinsky, Oginsky, Shlisselburgsky and Mariinsky, were completed under Paul I and Alexander I. The population of Russia in the second half of the 18th century grew continuously. In 1763 (according to the third revision) its population was 18 million, and by the end of Catherine's reign it had reached 36 million. The bulk of the population at that time were Russians, although Catherine treated foreign colonization very favorably, and during her time there was a significant immigration of Germans, Western and Southern Slavs to the Novorossiysk Territory and the Saratov Governorate. Under her rule, up to 50 decrees were signed aimed at the return of the so-called fugitives, i.e. Russians who went abroad in the old days from religious persecution and various oppressions of serfdom. The return resettlement of the fugitives was furnished with various benefits. Basically, in Russia during the era of Catherine II, the rural population prevailed (about 55% - private landlord peasants, 40% - state, or state, about 6% - belonged to the palace department). Urban dwellers accounted for less than 10% of the total population of the country. Among the entire population of Russia, the dominant position was occupied by the nobility. Actually, the decisive emancipation of the nobility began even before Catherine II by the decree of Peter III of February 18, 1762, which freed the nobles from compulsory service. The charter to the nobility of 1785, summing up all the benefits previously granted to the nobility, gave self-government to the nobility of each province, freed the nobility from corporal punishment and granted them the right to petition for public affairs and needs. Even earlier, the nobility was recognized as having the exclusive right to own populated estates and to have full ownership not only of the surface, but also of the bowels of the lands that belonged to it. The Regulations on the provinces of 1775 made the nobility the ruling estate in the provinces. The nobility, freed from compulsory service, retained, thanks to this provision, the preferential rights of the civil service and, in particular, the wide right to elect officials in provincial state institutions. After the introduction of the regulation on the provinces, more than 100 thousand people took elected positions in the provinces and districts. Thus, not only was each landowner in essence an almost unlimited sovereign on his estate, the nobility, by placing their elected officials in important places in the provincial government and in court, strengthened and elevated their enormous socio-political significance for a long time after the reform of Catherine II. in Russian folk life. In order to become a powerful political class and powerfully influence the fate of the Russian people and the Russian state, the nobility lacked only one thing - limiting the rights of the autocratic power of the monarch and participating in legislation and supreme state administration. This nobility failed to achieve under Catherine II. Russian society. In the second half of the 18th century, especially after the Seven Years' War, society, represented by the second generation of the intelligentsia formed after Peter the Great, discovered an independent desire for enlightenment and the development of its own ideology. The development of such aspirations was facilitated by increased communication with the West, the constant influence of Western ideas, which at that time penetrated into Russia along two channels: on the one hand, these were the ideas of the French encyclopedists - materialists and such universal enlighteners as Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau and Mably, and on the other hand, these were the ideas of the German idealist Masons (Rosicrucians). Their representatives in our country were Novikov and Schwartz, who formed the well-known "Friendly Society", which had great merit in spreading enlightenment and awakening self-consciousness in Russian society. Catherine II did not expect such a rapid and independent development of representatives of Russian society. At the beginning of her reign, she still believed that, in addition to the spread of school education, it was necessary to educate civic feelings in society with the help of literature and journalism. For these purposes, in 1769, she undertook the publication of the magazine "Vssakaaya zshachina". Also, under Catherine, it was allowed to establish private printing houses, etc. So, we see that the development of the intelligentsia by the end of the 18th century was already quite significant, if we take into account the state of Russian society in which it was at the beginning of the century. As for the ideology of the masses, there is a split in the religious sphere of life, but by the time of Catherine II, the split had already experienced a period of bloody and cruel persecution, a time, one might say, of some religious tolerance begins with her reign. Agriculture. The country continued to strengthen, as never before, serf relations, which spread to new territories and new strata of the population. In general, already by 1785, the enslavement of peasants took place in the Left-Bank Ukraine, in 1796 in the south of Ukraine, in the Crimea and Ciscaucasia. Using sparsely populated and fertile lands, the landowner, settling peasants on them, could receive from the state ownership from 1.5 to 12 thousand acres of land. Anyone (except for privately owned serfs) received 60 acres of land, including foreign colonists, whom Catherine II began to settle in Russia. They were Germans, Greeks, Armenians. The development of the fertile lands of the center and the newly developed territories of the country led to the beginning of the export of Russian grain abroad through the Black Sea ports of Kherson, Nikolaev, and Odessa. In agriculture, corvée (working off rent) and obrok (cash or food rent) dominated. Corvee reached six days a week. In the black earth regions, the peasants mostly paid dues. At the same time, fishing activities and the departure of peasants to work were widespread here. The landowners mercilessly exploited the peasants, took away their land plots, transferred the peasants to the corvée farms for months (in an effort to increase the production and sale of grain), and they had to work for the landowner for a meager monthly allowance. Constantly increased (up to 5 times by the end of the century) cash dues. It was possible to earn money either by fishing or by going to work. And this led to the fact that the peasant was increasingly losing touch with the land, which led to the destruction of peasant farms, families, agricultural skills and traditions. Under Catherine II, serfdom reached its apogee. The serf already differed little from the slave, the landowner, by decree of 1765, could exile his peasants without trial or investigation to Siberia for hard labor with these peasants counted as recruits. Trade in peasants flourished, they could be played at cards, punished innocently, and often use the "right of the first night." Peasants, by decree of 1767, did not have the right to file complaints against their landlords to the empress. Industry. In Russia, in the era of Catherine II, cities and fishing villages developed, where manufactories developed - textile, metallurgical, woodworking, ceramics, kazhevnicheskoe, soap-making and other industries. As a result, by the middle of the XVIII century in the country there were more than 600, and by the end of the era of Catherine - 1200 manufactories, which after 1762 (founded by persons of non-noble origin) already worked, as a rule, on civilian labor. In 1767, farming and monopolies in industry and trade were abolished. A further impetus to the development of handicrafts and industry was given by the decree of 1775, which allowed the peasant industry. This led to an increase in the number of breeders from merchants and peasants who invested their capital in industry. Thus, capitalism was rapidly developing in the country, but its full-fledged development was hampered by feudal relations, which affected the forms, ways and pace of development in Catherine's Russia. Finance. As regards finances in the 18th century, it should generally be noted that the funds at the disposal of the government were extremely scarce. It was said above what consequences this had under Peter I. During his reign, the scarcity of funds that the people could give with all the pressure on him, and the mismatch of these funds with the ever-expanding needs of the state reformed by Peter, led to the complete exhaustion of the country, to ruin and decline population. Meanwhile, the budget grew incredibly fast. Before the beginning of the reign of Peter I, in 1680, state revenues did not exceed 1.5 million rubles, in 1724 they already amounted to 8.5 million rubles, therefore, within 44 years, nominally the budget increased six times. If, however, we take into account the fall in the value of the ruble during this time and compare both budgets, then the budget will nevertheless increase by almost 3.5 times. Under the closest successors of Peter I, despite the extravagance of the court, on its desire to spend as much as possible, the budget did not grow so much, since there were no such exhausting wars. During the forty years (between the reign of Peter I and Catherine II) the budget increased by less than half. When Catherine II came to the throne, the country's finances were rather confused. At that time, the Seven Years' War was taking place, in which Russia took part for unknown reasons, and it turned out that the soldiers were not satisfied with their salaries for a whole year. And when the empress appeared in the Senate, the Senate reported to her what needed to be produced for 15 million rubles. urgent expenses, while the treasury is empty. Catherine very cleverly took advantage of this and most appropriately showed great generosity, immediately releasing from the funds of the imperial cabinet intended for the personal needs of the reigning emperor, a significant amount for immediate state needs, which immediately gained popularity. Then she carried out a very successful reform - a reduction in the tax on salt. This tax has its own history. Salt is a product that no one can do without, and the tax on it was extremely difficult for the population... this salt tax, having allocated 300 thousand rubles from cabinet funds. to cover potential shortfalls. But the reduction in the tax led to an increase in salt consumption, as a result of which the income from the state salt monopoly even increased. However, despite the successful first steps, in the end, after all, Catherine II did not lead any correct financial system, with her the state of finances remained as deplorable as before. However, there was still no such tension of folk remedies, as under Peter I, under Catherine II. In urgent cases, when there was a need for large emergency expenses (starting with the first Turkish war), she used the assignation bank founded before her accession to the throne. Until then, there was no state credit. During the Seven Years' War, Elizabeth tried to resort to an external loan of only 2 million rubles, but the attempt was a complete fiasco. Catherine, with the help of a assignation bank, was able to make large internal loans. At first, this operation went pretty well. In 1769, banknotes for 17 million rubles were already issued. 841 thousand rubles, and the rate of banknotes was al pari, i.e. the paper ruble was equal to the silver one. Subsequent, relatively small releases also went off safely. Even when, following the declaration of war, a huge issue of banknotes worth 53 million rubles immediately began - almost equal to the then annual budget, this issue did not noticeably affect the depreciation of banknotes: the total number of banknotes issued at that time reached 100 million . rub., and their exchange rate fell only by 97 kopecks. silver per ruble banknotes. But the issues of banknotes that followed then entailed a constant further fall in the exchange rate. For the entire reign of Catherine II, banknotes were issued for 157 million rubles, and by the end of her reign, their rate fell below 70 kopecks. This state of affairs threatened state bankruptcy in the future. In the meantime, expenses have grown at an enormous rate. During the reign of Catherine II, government spending increased (nominally) almost five times: at the beginning of her reign, they amounted to 16.5 million rubles, and at the end - already 78 million rubles. Such was the state of finance under Catherine II. This situation worsened due to the terrible theft of high officials. (Later, this would cause the young Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich to cry out in a letter to La Harpe: "It is incomprehensible what is happening, everyone is robbing, you almost never meet an honest person.") Foreign policy. In external relations and clashes, Catherine II did not seek to imitate her predecessors, but at the same time she knew how to understand the primordial tasks of Russian politics. Of the three questions that stood still under Peter I - Swedish, Polish and Turkish, Peter resolved only the first. The other two were decided by Catherine II, although with unnecessary sacrifices and deviations from the direct path. Under Catherine, Russia conquered the Crimea and the Black Sea coast from the Dniester to the Kuban, returned all Russian regions from Poland (except Galicia). The southern Russian steppes entered into agricultural circulation, opened up for settled colonization and culture. A new political force was added to the economic benefits: the military fleet in Sevastopol, which arose with the annexation of the Crimea, provided coastal possessions and served as a support for the Russian protectorate over Eastern Christians. In 1791, Ushakov successfully fought the Turkish fleet in view of the Bosphorus, and the idea of ​​​​going straight to Constantinople lit up in the head of Catherine II. On the other hand, almost all of Western Russia was reunited, and the titular form of All Russia acquired a meaning that is in contact with reality. The diplomatic victory of Russia at the Teschen Congress in 1779 contributed to the establishment of diplomatic relations with Hungary, Genoa, Malta, trade relations with Austria, France, the Ottoman Empire, Denmark, and Portugal. Behind Russia's foreign policy successes was the activity of Catherine II herself and her advisers - Panin, Rumyantsev, Obreskov, Potemkin, Orlov, Repnin ... Catherine skillfully chose assistants and guides to her foreign policy. His main support was Nikita Ivanovich Panin. Panin's relationship with the empress evolved as follows: he selected the most important papers from the diplomatic mail and sent them with remarks in the margins to the empress, who usually agreed with them. Then a rescript was drawn up in the Collegium, which Catherine, as a rule, approved. Stopping preparations for war with Denmark and maintaining neutrality in the Seven Years' War, Catherine II destroyed the Prussian influence at the Russian court and tried to place herself outside of all alliances and diplomatic obligations. She wanted peace in order to secure her position and avoided commitments in order to free her hands with respect to Poland. "With all the states of Europe, I behave like a skillful coquette," 10 - said Catherine. She aspired to be l "arbitre de l" Europe - the arbitrator of Europe. But in Europe at that time it was difficult to play such a role. During the 34 years of her reign, Catherine managed to quarrel Russia with almost all the major states of Western Europe. She entered into an alliance with Prussia, waged war with Poland, was forced to accept the war with Turkey. However, the political world recognized for Catherine II "a great name in Europe and the power that belongs to her exclusively"11. Catherine II was not guided only by chance and fleeting considerations. From the very first years of her reign, she developed a certain political system. She was born in the head of a Russian German diplomat Korf, was developed by Panin and adopted by Catherine. It is known as the "Northern Accord" and was very utopian. With the constant influence of the Western powers, very complex political difficulties, Russian diplomacy could not always achieve what it aspired to. The simplest general impression of the foreign policy of Catherine II was expressed by Bezborodko, the most prominent diplomat of that time after Panin. Already at the end of his career, he said, instructing young diplomats: “I don’t know how it will be with you, but with us, not a single gun in Europe dared to fire without our permission”12. Estates. Becoming a privileged class, the nobility before the reign of Catherine II did not yet have a class organization. The nobility of each county became a whole cohesive society and managed all the affairs of the county. Both the police and the administration were in the hands of the nobles. With the decline of the old aristocracy, the nobles became the closest assistants to the supreme power. Thus, since 1775, all of Russia - from the highest to the lowest levels of government - was under the leadership of the nobility. The reforms of 1775 gave the nobility a class organization and a dominant administrative position in the country. In 1785, the "Letter of Letters" was adopted. The main innovation in this letter was that the whole society with the character of a legal entity recognized the nobility of not one county, but the whole province. This charter completed the process of addition and elevation of the nobility, which was observed throughout the 18th century. The policy of Catherine II led to the fact that the nobility received exclusive personal rights, a broad right to class self-government and a strong influence on local government. Under Catherine II, who ascended the throne with the help of the nobility and supported him, serfdom grew. But at the same time, thoughts about its destruction grew in the empress herself and in people who followed the course of the century. During the reign of Catherine, the peasants had practically no rights and were considered the full property of the nobility. But in the eyes of the law, the peasant was both a private slave and a citizen. This duality of legislation indicated the absence of a firm view of the problem from the government. There were two questions about the peasantry in the government: Catherine wanted the liberation of the peasants, and the government was in favor of strengthening the rights of the landlords. Researchers note that in the era of Catherine II, serfdom reached its peak and at the same time, public thought turned to a fierce condemnation of serfdom. Catherine II wanted to create a "middle kind of people" in Russia, like the middle class in the West. This class was also called philistines. According to the Nakaz, it included people engaged in arts, sciences, navigation, trade and crafts, as well as children of ordered people. "Instruction" and "Commission of the Code" (1767-1768). In 1762, Catherine II's adviser, Count Nikita Panin, submitted a thoroughly motivated project for the approval of the Imperial Council for consideration by the Empress. But he offered the old means - "supreme places" (the Supreme Privy Council and the Cabinet), which did not protect against favorites and did not protect the rule of law. On the other hand, the "supreme place" would hamper the supreme power, for the protection of which Panin intended it. Having signed this project, Catherine hesitated and, after questioning government officials, did not see much sympathy for him. She was expressed (Villebois) the opinion that Panin was thus leaning towards a more aristocratic rule. The obligatory and state law established imperial council and its influential members may, in the course of time, rise to the status of co-rulers. Thus, Catherine was told that by accepting this project, she could turn Russia from an autocratic monarchy into a monarchy ruled by an oligarchic council of bureaucratic aristocracy. Catherine could not take such a step and rejected Panin's project. But, having rejected Panin's project, Catherine II made a very original decision. She sought to create new legislative norms that would help establish law and order in the state. Catherine wanted to create new legislation, and not bring the old into a system. As early as 1765, Catherine II set about laying down legislative principles and worked without saying a word about it for a year and a half (as the Empress herself reports). “Having succeeded, in my opinion, enough in this work, I began to show in parts the articles I had prepared, to different people, to each according to his abilities”14. These articles were her famous "Order". Most of the articles in the "Instruction" are a retelling of Montesquieu's "On the Spirit of the Laws". Along with general liberalism, Catherine II put and motivated in the "Nakaz" a clear assertion that the only form of power possible for Russia is autocracy - both in terms of the vastness of the country, and because it is better to obey one power than different masters. She wrote: “Russia is a European power. The proof of this is the following: the changes that Peter the Great undertook in Russia were all the more successful because the customs that were at that time did not at all resemble the climate and were brought to us by a mixture of different peoples and the conquests of alien areas. Peter I, introducing European customs and customs among the European people, then found such conveniences that he himself did not expect "15. Only the fourth part of the "Instruction" was published. Part of the articles Catherine II destroyed herself in the process of working on the "Instruction". When the deputies of the Commission of the Code came to Moscow, she called on "several people with great dissent" for a preliminary discussion of the "Instruction". “Here, with each article, a debate was born, I gave them the freedom to blacken and black out everything they wanted, they blacked out more than half of what was written by me, and the “Instruction of the Code” remained as if printed”16. Most of all, the chapters on serfdom were destroyed, where it was said about the liberation of the peasants. This was what the censors-deputies from the nobility feared most of all. Catherine, brought up on the liberation theories of the 18th century, could not but wish for the liberation of the peasants. Interesting projects for the gradual abolition of serfdom were found in her papers. But for the complete liberation of the peasants, Catherine had neither the courage nor the desire. She was, as it were, forced to change her views, yielding to her conservative advisers. But this "apostasy" was not sincere. However, Nakaz, even peer-reviewed, aroused great excitement both in Russia and abroad. In France, it was even banned for distribution. "Instruction" contains twenty chapters (the twenty-first and twenty-second chapters were attributed by Catherine after 1768) and more than five hundred paragraphs. "Instruction", as Catherine desired, is only a statement of the principles by which a statesman who writes laws should be guided. According to the results of a study by the Academy of Sciences (1907), "Instruction" is a compilation compiled from some works of educational literature of that time. The main ones are "On the Spirit of the Laws" by Montesquieu and the works of the Italian criminologist Beccaria "On Crimes and Punishments" (1764). In total, there are 655 articles in the "Instruction", of which 294 are borrowed from Montesquieu. Also, some articles of the "Order" are borrowed from the French "Encyclopedia" and the writings of the German publicists of that time Bielfeld and Justi. Starting to create "Nakaz", Catherine set herself two goals. She wanted to create a set of fundamentally new legislative principles (in general terms), and then proceed to work out the "details". However, the first part of her plan was not fully carried out because of the conservatism of her advisers, and the second part - the development of details - completely failed: they were never worked out. The first Commission of the Code was drawn up as early as 1700 to revise the Code of 1649. Since then, several commissions have worked unsuccessfully on this problem, but it has not been resolved. The deputies elected by the special commissions of 1754 and 1761 were dissolved in 1763, but the Commission lasted until the convocation of new deputies in 1767. Catherine II had to finish a long-standing business. In many ways, she acted differently than before. She began solving this problem with a manifesto of December 14, 1766, on the convocation of deputies to draft a new Code. The Senate, the Synod, the colleges and the main offices of the central government sent one representative each. Four deputies from different sections of the population were nominated from each province. The number of deputies from the Cossacks was determined by their top commanders. Thus, the Commission was represented by central government agencies, some estates, foreign tribes and places of residence. The commission did not capture all sections of the then population of the empire. Proportional ratio of representations by classes - government agencies about 5% - the nobility 30% - cities 39% - rural inhabitants 14% - Cossacks, foreigners, other classes 12% The deputies were assigned a salary. They were under the "own protection" of the empress, for life they were exempted from the death penalty, torture and corporal punishment, they were deprived of their property only for debts. None of the subjects in those days enjoyed such privileges. The most important innovation of the Commission of 1767 was the deputy orders. In them, voters had to add their "social needs and burdens"17. The deputy could also intercede in excess of the order, he could not only contradict him. In case of disagreement with the order, he was obliged to resign. In the details of the structure of the Commission and the conduct of business, the parliamentary customs of the constitutional countries of Western Europe served as a model. Public education. In order to create a new society, it is necessary "to first produce, by way of education, a new breed, or new fathers and mothers, morally perfect," so to speak. To achieve this goal, educational institutions were opened where children were brought up in isolation from the family - Educational Homes in Moscow (1763) and St. Petersburg (1767), closed institutes separately for girls of noble women and girls of townspeople (since 1764) and cadet corps. Catherine II also took care of the spread of open schools. In each county town, small public schools were to appear, in each provincial town, main public schools, and universities were to be established in Yekaterinoslav, Penza, Chernigov, and Pskov. This plan was not fully implemented due to lack of funds, but still Catherine did a lot for the development of public education in Russia. Peasant war of 1773-1775 led by E. I. Pugachev. Pugachev Emelyan Ivanovich (1742-1775) was from ordinary Cossacks of the village of Zimoveyskaya on the Don (it was also the birthplace of S. T. Razin). From the age of 17, he took part in the wars with Prussia and Turkey, had a junior officer rank of cornet for bravery in battle. E. I. Pugachev constantly spoke out in defense of ordinary Cossacks and peasants, for which he was arrested by the authorities, but in 1773, when he was only 31 years old, he fled from the Kazan prison to Yaik, where he introduced himself to the local Cossacks as Emperor Peter III . With a detachment of 80 Cossacks, he moved to the Yaitsky town - the center of the local Cossack army. Two weeks later, Pugachev's troops already numbered about 3 thousand people, with artillery of several dozen guns. The peasant war began with the capture of small fortresses and the siege of Orenburg. However, this largest fortress in the south-east of Russia was defended for six months and was not taken by the rebels. The authorities sounded the alarm and sent troops against Pugachev, but they were twice defeated. Among the tsarist troops was the Bashkir cavalry led by Salavat Yulaev, but he went over to the side of Pugachev. The army of the rebels was organized on the model of the Cossack army. Near Orenburg, the headquarters of the rebels was formed - the Military Collegium. The discipline and organization in Pugachev's army were relatively high, but in general the movement, as in previous peasant wars, remained spontaneous. In the Orenburg Territory, in the Urals, in Bashkiria, large detachments of associates of E. I. Pugachev-I acted. N. Zarubina-Chiki, I. N. Beloborodova, Khlopushi and others, who captured Kungur, Krasnoufimsk, Samara, besieged Ufa, Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk. In the spring of 1774, the Pugachevites suffered heavy defeats from the tsarist troops under the command of the former head of the Legislative Commission, General A. M. Bibikov. Catherine II herself declared herself a "Kazan landowner", emphasizing the closeness of the interests of the tsarist government and the nobility. After the defeat, Pugachev left the Orenburg region for the Urals, where he was joined by new detachments of the rebels. His army once again became a formidable force. From the Urals, Pugachev's troops headed for the Volga, where Kazan was taken in July 1774. Government troops led by Colonel I. I. Mikhelson here inflicted a severe defeat on Pugachev. The third and final stage of the uprising began. The rebels crossed to the right bank of the Volga, where their army was replenished with the local population - state peasants from the Tatars, Chuvash, Mari and Mordovians, as well as serfs. The uprisings covered hundreds of villages, the landowners' estates were on fire. Having taken several cities on the right bank of the Volga, Pugachev's troops headed south, pressed by government troops, to the Don steppes in order to get the support of the Don Cossacks. Along the way, they captured Alatyr, Saransk, Penza, Saratov. Pugachev suffered his last defeat after an unsuccessful attempt to take Tsaritsyn from the Salnikov plant. He himself crossed the Volga with a small group of rebels. But among his entourage, a conspiracy of a group of wealthy Cossacks arose, who, seeking to receive awards from Catherine II, seized Pugachev and handed him over to the authorities. In shackles and in an iron cage, he was taken to Moscow, where on January 10, 1775, together with his closest supporters, he was executed on Bolotnaya Square. Tsarism brutally dealt with the rank and file participants in the uprising. The peasant war led by E. I. Pugachev ended in defeat for the same reasons as other major uprisings of the masses - spontaneity, locality of movement, heterogeneity of the social composition, poor armament, naive monarchism, lack of a program and the necessary discipline and training. In conclusion of the chapter, it should be noted that in the era of Catherine II, the results of the previous history were summed up, the historical processes that had developed earlier were completed. Her ability to bring to the end, to the full resolution of the questions that history posed to her, makes us recognize in her a primary historical figure, regardless of her personal mistakes and weaknesses. Of course, it would be a mistake to say that the personal views of Catherine II passed without a trace for her government activities. On the one hand, they affected the general methods, enlightened and liberal, of Catherine’s entire state activity and, in many respects, her individual events, and on the other hand, they were reflected in Russian society itself and greatly contributed to the spread of education in general and the humane-liberal ideas of the 18th century in particular. . A distinctive feature of Catherine's character was that no matter what society she moved in, she always felt as if on stage and thought more about what they would say about her than about what would come out of the planned business. Hence her weakness for advertising, noise, flattery, which clouded her mind and seduced her far from dreamy heart. She valued the attention of her contemporaries more than the opinion of her descendants, and therefore she herself is remembered longer than her deeds. However, from the foregoing, we can conclude that these traits of Catherine's character are more determined by the difficult conditions of her youth than by nature. Catherine was never rude to people, even if they were below her. True, in her old age she grumbled at her maids, but almost always apologized, citing fatigue. However, the merits of Catherine II to Russia are much more significant than the shortcomings of her character. Some of Catherine's institutions still function in the old forms, but in the spirit of new needs and concepts. Catherine laid the foundation for the development of public education, and it is not her fault that Russia never had enough money for good undertakings. Thanks to her concerns about hygiene, qualified doctors appeared in Russia who could alleviate human suffering at least a little. Many of Catherine's proposals and dreams were realized after her, and some were abolished by life itself as inexpedient. Thus, Catherine II is one of the most prominent statesmen of the 18th century.

The policy of "enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II (1762-1796)

The period of the second half of the 18th century is called the Catherine period.

Catherine II - Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was chosen by Elizabeth Petrovna as a bride in 1744 to her nephew Peter Fedorovich. She came to Russia, converted to Orthodoxy here and was named Ekaterina Alekseevna. For 17 years she lived at the Russian court as the wife of Grand Duke Peter, and then for six months - the wife of Emperor Peter III. At the age of 34, as a result of a palace coup in 1762, Catherine ascended the throne. In order to force everyone to recognize the legitimacy of her power, she is crowned in September 1762 and after that she rules Russia for 34 years. More details about the personality of Catherine II will be discussed at the lecture and seminar.

The reign of Catherine II is called the "policy of enlightened absolutism" in Russia. The policy was based on the ideas of French philosophers - Enlighteners. These ideas were as follows: all people are equal and free; only an enlightened society can establish just laws. An unenlightened, dark society, having received freedom, will only come to anarchy; enlightenment is possible through a wise ruler; laws determine the welfare of the state. Legislative, executive, judicial power must be separated so that there is no despotism.

European rulers used these ideas, putting into them their understanding, which consisted in strengthening the rights and privileges of the ruling class.

The assertion of absolutism was caused by external and internal causes. This will be discussed in detail in the lecture. Russian absolutism had its own characteristics.

In the reign of Catherine II, 2 periods are distinguished: 1 - the period of reforms before Pugachev's peasant war; 2 - a period of reaction, a departure from reforms.

The growth of the anti-serf struggle of the peasants and the influence of Western ideas forced Catherine II to eliminate the most obsolete laws in order to preserve the monarchy and absolutism.

In the foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 18th century, the "imperial", i.e. a forceful approach to solving territorial and national problems.

The first direction in foreign policy was aimed at expanding the territory of Russia in the south to the Black Sea. The second direction was connected with the solution of the national question in the west, where, as a result of the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian state - the Commonwealth - there was a political unification of the Russian people and reunification with Belarusians and Ukrainians.

The country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, Crimea, Right-Bank Ukraine, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

The acquisition of new lands in the south and west increased the economic resources and political weight of Russia. In 1760 Russia was the most populated state in Europe. The main source of population growth in Russia during this period were annexations, conquests and the natural increase of the non-Russian population.

Since 1791, the first unofficial anthem of the Russian Empire began to be performed - O. A. Kozlovsky’s polonaise march “Thunder of victory, resound” to the words of G. R. Derzhavin, created in honor of the capture of Izmail by Russian troops in December 1790. Later, by 1801 , the national Russian anthem was created to the words of M. M. Kheraskov “How glorious is our Lord in Zion”.

Catherine II attached great importance to legislation. On average, during that period, 12 laws were published per month. In 1767, a Commission was created to create a new set of laws to replace the outdated ones, but this task was not solved.

The reforms of Catherine II in the field of governance: the number of colleges was reduced, the Senate was reorganized, the legislative functions were removed from the Senate, they were retained only by the monarch, thus, all legislative and administrative power was concentrated in the hands of Catherine.

The secularization of church properties was carried out. Due to this, the treasury was replenished and the influence of the church on the life of society was reduced.

In 1775, a provincial reform was carried out - the reform of local authorities. 50 provinces were formed, which were divided into counties with their own authorities. New judiciaries were created. Each estate received its own judgment. The judiciary was separated from the executive. All estates, except for serfs, could participate in local government. The reforms led to the decentralization of management, strengthening local power. This system of government lasted for about a century.

In 1785, the "Charter to the nobility" was published - a document that gave rights and privileges to the nobles. The time of Catherine II is called the "golden age of the nobility."

"Charter to cities" divided the population of cities into 6 groups - categories - and determined the rights of each group. The bulk of the city dwellers were people belonging to the 3rd and 6th categories, they were called philistines (the place is the city). By the end of the 18th century, 4% of the population lived in cities. By the beginning of the 19th century, there were 634 cities in Russia, in which about 10% of the country's population lived. Self-government bodies were introduced in the cities.

These reforms determined the boundaries of the estates, their rights and privileges, and formalized the social structure of society.

The population of Russia in the middle of the XVIII century was 18 million people, and by 1796 - 36 million people.

The bulk of the population were peasants. 54% of the peasants were privately owned and belonged to the landlords, 40% of the peasants were state-owned and belonged to the treasury, the rest - 6% belonged to the palace department.

Catherine II initially wanted to give a letter of commendation to the peasants, but the peasants also abandoned these plans by decrees of 1765-1767. (the exile of the peasants to Siberia for disobedience to the landowner and for complaining about him) were even more enslaved and became more defenseless against the arbitrariness of the landowners, the serf was already little different from the slave. It was during this period that serfdom reached its greatest development.

Education reform.

New educational institutions were opened, a system of general education schools was created. By the end of the century, there were 550 educational institutions in Russia with a total of 60-70 thousand students.

The formalization and further development of capitalism was hampered by serfdom, which exerted a tremendous influence on the forms, ways and rates of development of capitalism.

The main sources of state revenues were various taxes and fees. They gave 42% of the state's cash income. At the same time, 20% were drinking taxes. The treasury's revenues quadrupled in the second half of the 18th century. However, the costs increased even more - 5 times. Lack of funds forced the government to start issuing paper money - banknotes. For the first time since 1769, paper money appeared. Since that time, there were 2 monetary units in Russia: the ruble in silver and the ruble in banknotes. For the first time under Catherine, Russia turned to foreign loans. The first of them was made in 1769 in Holland.

The second period in the reign of Catherine II begins after the peasant war of E. Pugacheva (1773-1775) - the period of reaction. Assessing this war, historians note that the peasant war undermined the feudal system and accelerated the development of new capitalist relations. But this war led to the destruction of a huge number of the population, upset the economic life in the Ural region, and slowed down its development. Violence and cruelty were on both sides. The war could not solve any of the problems. Moreover, after this rebellion, the authorities began to persecute Russian enlighteners, tightened censorship and repression.

In 1796, after the death of Catherine II, her son Paul I (1796–1801) ascended the throne.