1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 … 32
Causes of occurrence:
- Among the Eastern Slavs, tribal, kinship relations are replaced by military, political and territorial ties.
- Threats from the Pechenegs, Khazars pushed to unite
- By the middle of the IX century. they already had bodies that were the prototype of state institutions (prince, squad, meeting of tribal representatives - the future veche)
- The route “From the Varangians to the Greeks”, which ran from north to south, became the main core of the economic and political life of the East Slavic ethnos.
Anti-Norman and Norman theory
Statehood was brought to Russia from outside and the Eastern Slavs could not create their own state on their own, calling on Rurik. (Norman theory)
Modern researchers recognize this theory as untenable. They pay attention to the following: among the Eastern Slavs by the middle of the 9th century. there were bodies that were the prototype of state institutions (the prince, the squad, the assembly of representatives of the tribes - the future veche); the invitation of a foreigner as a ruler is an important indicator of the maturity of the prerequisites for the formation of a state. The tribal union is aware of its common interests and is trying to resolve the contradictions between individual tribes by calling the prince who stands above local differences. The Varangian princes, surrounded by a strong and combat-ready squad, led and completed the processes leading to the formation of the state; large tribal superunions, which included several unions of tribes, were formed among the Eastern Slavs already in the 8th-9th centuries. - around Novgorod and around Kyiv;
Stages of development:
- 9th-second half of the 10th century Formation of the state, national authorities and administration.
Prince, he has an older and a younger squad. The ancient Russian Kievan state gradually subjugated a number of tribal unions, but the southern streets, Tivertsy, Croats in the Carpathian region, Vyatichi, Radimichi and Krivichi remained independent. The reign of Rurik, Oleg, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav.
- Calling Rurik to Novgorod 862
- Unification of Kyiv and Novgorod by Prince Oleg
- Naval campaign against Byzantium 907
- Campaigns of Svyatoslav against the Khazars, the Volga Bulgars, against the Pechenegs.
- End of the 10th - 11th century Heyday in the development of Old Rus. states.
Watering time. stability. The structure of a single early feudal state was formed, the onslaught of the Pechenegs was neutralized.
Gradual involvement in dependence on Kyiv East Slavic tribal principalities. The Vyatichi fought the longest.
The reign of Svyatoslav, Vladimir, Yaroslav
- Adoption of Orthodoxy as the state religion in 988.
- Victories over the Pechenegs
- City Growth
- Creation of a code of laws "Russian Truth"
- Rise of trade
The strife of the princes, the Princely Congress in Lyubech in 1097, at which the specific princes received the right to own their patrimony (land inherited), the reign of Vladimir Monomakh, Mstislav, the collapse of Russia into independent Russian principalities in 1132.
Old Russian state: economic and political development. The social structure of ancient Russia
In the Old Russian state, trade was poorly developed. In the Russian economy of that time dominated by subsistence farming. Foreign trade began to develop rapidly after the formation of the Russian state. This was due to the fact that the state began to protect trade routes and ensure the safety of Russian merchants. Russia developed special trade relations with Byzantium. Contributed to this trade route from "Varangians to Greeks". From Russia to Byzantium in huge quantities imported such goods as honey and wax, tar, furs, grain, furs, a dancer, as well as products of Russian artisans, gunsmiths and jewelers (goldsmiths). These goods were a great success in the Empire. To Russia, but from Byzantium they brought luxury items, grape wines, silk fabrics, incense, spices and expensive, beautiful weapons. Russian crafts and trade were concentrated in cities. Russian chronicles say that in ancient RUSSIA there were more than 200 cities. The head of state bore the title of Grand Duke, Prince of Kyiv. Princely power was hereditary. The prince was the supreme judge. In addition to the princes, the grand ducal boyars and "husbands" participated in the administration of the territories. The principle of inheritance of power in the IX-X centuries is unknown. In the XI century, princely power in Russia was transferred along the "ladder", that is, not necessarily the son, but the eldest in the family. The form of taxes in Ancient Russia was tribute, which was paid by subject tribes. The form of collecting tribute was polyudie, the prince with a retinue from November to April toured his subjects. Russia was divided into several taxable districts. In 946, after the suppression of the uprising of the Drevlyans, Princess Olga carried out a tax reform, streamlining the collection of tribute. She set " lessons”, that is, the size of the tribute, and created “graveyards”, fortresses on the path of polyudya, in which princely administrators lived and where tribute was brought. This form of tribute collection and the tribute itself was called "cart". The reform contributed to the centralization of grand ducal power and the weakening of the power of tribal princes. "Russkaya Pravda" calls free community members the main population of the country - lyudinov or people (hence: the collection of tribute from the peasants - community members - polyudye). The second largest group of the population stinks. These are not free or semi-free princely tributaries. Smerd had no right to leave his property to indirect heirs. It was given to the prince. With the development of feudal relations, this category of the population increased at the expense of free community members. The third group of the population - slaves, serfs. "Russian Truth" shows the slaves completely disenfranchised. The slave had no right to be a witness at the trial. The owner was not responsible for his murder. Not only the slave was punished for escaping, but also everyone who helped him. Purchase- this is a ruined community member who went into debt bondage for a certain loan (kupa). He worked as a servant or in the field. Zakup was deprived of his personal freedom, but he kept his own household and could redeem himself by repaying the debt. A small group of the dependent population of Russia were Ryadovichi. Judging by Russkaya Pravda, they were petty administrative agents. Another small group outcasts, people who have lost their social status: serfs set free, community members expelled from the rope, etc. A fairly large group of the population of Russia were artisans. As the social division of labor grew, cities became centers for the development of handicrafts. With the growth of cities, the development of handicrafts, the activities of such a group of the population as merchants. It is also necessary to single out such a group of the population of Ancient Russia as warriors ("men"). The combatants lived in the princely court, participated in military campaigns, in the collection of tribute. The princely squad is an integral part of the administrative apparatus. The squad was heterogeneous. The most close warriors made up a permanent council, a “thought”. They were called boyars. The prince consulted with them on important state affairs. Senior combatants could have their own squad. Subsequently, the boyars acted as governor. Junior combatants performed the duties of bailiffs, collectors of fines, etc. The princely warriors formed the basis of the emerging class of feudal lords. At the local level, princely power dealt with tribal self-government in the form of a veche and "city elders".
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Background and reasons for the emergence of the ancient Russian state.
The moment of the emergence of the Old Russian state cannot be determined with sufficient accuracy. Obviously, there was a gradual development of those political entities that we spoke about earlier into the feudal state of the Eastern Slavs - the Old Russian state. In the literature, different historians date this event in different ways. However, most authors agree that the emergence of the Old Russian state should be attributed to the 9th century.
The question of how this state was formed is not entirely clear. And here we are faced with the so-called Norman theory.
The fact is that we have at our disposal a source that, it would seem, to some extent answers the question of the origin of the Old Russian state. This is the oldest annalistic code "The Tale of Bygone Years". The chronicle makes it clear that in the IX century. our ancestors lived in conditions of statelessness, although this is not directly mentioned in the Tale. We are only talking about the fact that the southern Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars, and the northern ones paid tribute to the Varangians, that the northern tribes once drove the Varangians away, but then changed their minds and called on the Varangian princes. This decision was due to the fact that the Slavs quarreled among themselves and decided to turn to foreign princes to establish order. It was then that the famous phrase was uttered: “Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no dress in it. Yes, go and rule over us.” Varangian princes came to Russia and in 862 sat on the thrones: Rurik - in Novgorod, Truvor - in Izborsk (near Pskov), Sineus - in Beloozero.
This interpretation raises at least two objections. Firstly, the factual material cited in The Tale of Bygone Years does not give grounds for the conclusion that the Russian state was created by calling the Varangians. On the contrary, like other sources that have come down to us, she says that the statehood of the Eastern Slavs existed even before the Varangians. Secondly, modern science cannot agree with such a primitive explanation of the complex process of formation of any state. The state cannot organize one person or several even the most prominent men. The state is the product of a complex and long development of the social structure of society. Nevertheless, the annalistic mention in a certain sense was adopted as early as the 18th century. Thus was born the notorious Norman theory of the origin of the Old Russian state.
Already at that time, Normanism met with objections from leading Russian scientists, among whom was M.V. Lomonosov. Since then, all historians dealing with Ancient Russia have been divided into two camps - Normanists and anti-Normanists.
Modern domestic scientists mostly reject the Norman theory. They are joined by the largest foreign researchers of the Slavic countries. However, a certain part of foreign authors still preach this theory, although not in such a primitive form as it was done before.
The main refutation of the Norman theory is the rather high level of social and political development of the Eastern Slavs in the 9th century. The ancient Russian state was prepared by the centuries-old development of the Eastern Slavs. In terms of their economic and political level, the Slavs stood above the Varangians, so they could not borrow state experience from the newcomers.
The chronicle story contains, of course, elements of truth. It is possible that the Slavs invited several princes with their retinues as military specialists, as was done in later times in Russia, and in Western Europe as well. It is reliably known that the Russian principalities invited squads not only of the Varangians, but also of their steppe neighbors - the Pechenegs, Karakalpaks, Torks. However, it was not the Varangian princes who organized the Old Russian state, but the already existing state gave them the corresponding state posts. However, some authors, starting with M.V. Lomonosov, doubt the Varangian origin of Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, believing that they could also be representatives of any Slavic tribes. In any case, there are practically no traces of the Varangian culture in the history of our Motherland. Scientists, for example, calculated that for 10 thousand square meters. km of the territory of Russia, only five Scandinavian geographical names can be found, while in England, which the Normans conquered, this number reaches 150.
We do not know exactly when and how exactly the first principalities of the Eastern Slavs arose, preceding the formation of the Old Russian state, but in any case they existed until 862, before the notorious "calling of the Varangians." In the German chronicle, since 839, the Russian princes are called Khakans - kings.
But the moment of the unification of the East Slavic lands into one state is known for certain. In 882, Prince Oleg of Novgorod captured Kyiv and united the two most important groups of Russian lands; then he managed to annex the rest of the Russian lands, creating a huge state for those times.
The Russian Orthodox Church is trying to link the emergence of statehood in Russia with the introduction of Christianity.
Of course, the baptism of Russia was of great importance for strengthening the feudal state, since the church sanctified the subordination of Christians to the exploiting state. However, the baptism took place no less than a century after the formation of the Kievan state, not to mention the earlier East Slavic states.
In addition to the Slavs, the Old Russian state also included some neighboring Finnish and Baltic tribes. This state, therefore, from the very beginning was ethnically heterogeneous. However, it was based on the ancient Russian nationality, which is the cradle of three Slavic peoples - Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians and Belarusians. It cannot be identified with any of these peoples in isolation. Even before the revolution, Ukrainian nationalists tried to portray the Old Russian state as Ukrainian.
This idea has been taken up in our time in nationalist circles, which are trying to quarrel the three fraternal Slavic peoples. Meanwhile, the Old Russian state neither in territory nor in population coincided with modern Ukraine, they had only a common capital - the city of Kyiv. In the 9th and even in the 12th century. it is still impossible to talk about specifically Ukrainian culture, language, etc. All this will appear later, when, due to objective historical processes, the ancient Russian nationality will break up into three independent branches.
Also, the Old Russian state arises in a heterogeneous society and is a way of regulating relations between various social strata, classes, etc.
- Social division of labor . The sources from which people drew their livelihoods became more diverse; thus, military booty began to play a large role in the life of the clan. Over time, professional artisans and warriors appeared. Frequent migrations of clans, the emergence and disintegration of inter-clan and inter-tribal unions, the separation from the clan of groups of seekers of military booty (brigades) - all these processes forced us to deviate from traditions based on custom, old solutions did not always work in previously unknown conflict situations.
- Economic development . Not only the changed individual and group self-consciousness and the established intertribal relations, but also economic, economic activity encouraged people to search for more suitable forms of common existence. The importance of the economic factor in the emergence of the state is usually exaggerated in the studies of supporters of Marxism and other teachings that consider production (or distribution of what is produced) to be the basis of social life. The relationship between the economy and the ideas that guide people, between economic activity and the methods of organizing power is much more complicated than it seems to Marxists. Without going into the details of the long-standing dispute between the "materialists" who highlight the economic needs of people, and the "idealists" who consider ideas to be the main factor in social development, we will limit ourselves to recognizing the close relationship between the material world and human consciousness. Private property could not arise until a person realized his remoteness from the clan, but the further development of the self-consciousness of the individual, undoubtedly, was influenced by the practical, material results of the fragmentation of the common clan property. Economic factors influenced the formation of the state, but this influence was neither direct nor decisive. The state arose when property differences directly related to the economy were not too significant; the emerging state power initially almost did not pretend to be a serious participant in economic life. The bearers of the new, pre-state and state power (princes, warriors) stood out from society not on property, but on professional grounds. At the same time, the often coinciding professions of a warrior and a ruler (who stood above the traditional, patriarchal power of tribal elders) were almost unanimously recognized as socially useful.
- The interest of society in the emergence of the state . The state arose because the overwhelming majority of members of society were interested in its appearance. It was convenient and profitable for the community farmer to appear that the prince and combatants with weapons in their hands protected him and saved him from burdensome and dangerous military affairs. From the very beginning, the state solved not only military, but also judicial tasks, especially those related to inter-clan disputes. The princes and their warriors were relatively objective mediators in conflicts between representatives of different clans; elders, who from time immemorial had to take care of the interests of their kind, their community, were not suitable for the role of impartial arbiters. The resolution of intercommunal disputes by force of arms was too burdensome for society; as the general usefulness of power, standing above private and generic interest, was realized, conditions were created for the transfer of the most important judicial powers historically.
Hence it turns out that the created Kievan Rus was one of the largest states in the Middle Ages of the 9th-12th centuries. Unlike the Eastern and Western countries, the process of formation of statehood in it had its own specific features - spatial and geopolitical. The geopolitical space in which Kievan Rus was located was at the junction of different worlds: nomadic and sedentary, Christian and Muslim, pagan and Jewish. In the course of its formation, Russia acquired the features of both Eastern and Western state formations, since it occupied a median position between Europe and Asia and did not have pronounced natural geographical boundaries within the vast plains. The need for constant protection from external enemies of a large territory forced peoples with different types of development, religion, culture, language to unite, to create a strong state power.
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Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………….3
1. The reasons for the emergence of the ancient Russian state………………………3
2. The origin of the ancient Slavs………………………………………………………….6
3. Development of nationality and trade……………………………………………………………8
4. The main stages of the formation of the Old Russian state……………….10
4.1. First stage
4.2. Second phase
4.3 Norman theory of the origin of the ancient Russian state
4.4 Third stage.
5.Features and historical significance of the formation of the state………13
Conclusion
Bibliography
Appendix
Introduction
The history of the state and law of Russia studies the emergence and development of historically established state formations that have existed on the territory of our country since ancient times. During the 6th-8th centuries. unions of tribes were formed that were not yet a state, at that time the conditions were only being prepared for its emergence. The first state formations were the Principality of Kiev, as well as Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk, etc. Archpriest Lev Lebedev writes: "... in the 4th-7th centuries, the formation of the first Russian statehood, known to us, took place - the cultural and political unification of tribal unions of Polyans and Northerners under the general leadership tribe "Rus" with the princely dynasty of the Krivichi "(from the annals). State formations were formed on the basis of an alliance of Slavic tribes in order to protect the property interests of the wealthy part of society, forcibly compel the population to obey this nobility, and also protect the territory of the tribes from outside attacks.
At the end of the ninth century, a powerful Old Russian state was formed on the territory of Eastern Europe. (Appendix 1). In terms of the level of development of the economy, culture and state organization, it occupied an outstanding place among other European states. The Old Russian state maintained lively trade and diplomatic relations with Byzantium and the countries of Western Europe. It lasted until the middle of the twelfth century, after which the local feudal centers that grew up in its bowels achieved independence, and a period of feudal fragmentation began.
At the current stage of research on state-legal history, the need has ripened and conditions have arisen for the transition from the study of individual political and legal realities of Ancient Russia to their comprehensive, systemic analysis. Such an analysis of the political and legal system of Ancient Russia in the domestic historical and legal literature is formally devoted to a limited number of studies. But the actual volume of works, which in one way or another touch upon various aspects of Russian historical state studies and jurisprudence, is very wide.
Here we should mention the works of P.I. Belyaeva, M.F. Vladimirsky-Budanov, A.A. Gorsky, B.D. Grekov, I.N. Danilevsky, M.A. Dyakonova, A.A. Zimina, N.M. Karamzin, V.O. Klyuchevsky, N.F. Kotlyara, V.V. Mavrodina, E.A. Melnikova, A.V. Nazarenko, A.P. Novoseltseva, V.T. Pashuto, A.E. Presnyakova, O.M. Rapova, V.A. Rogova, B.A. Rybakov, A.N. Sakharova, M.B. Sverdlov, V.I. Sergeevich, S.M. Solovyeva, M.N. Tikhomirova, P.P. Tolochko, A.P. Tolochko, A.N. Filippova, I.Ya. Froyanova, L.V. Cherepnina, Z.M. Chernilovsky, O.I. Chistyakova, B.N. Chicherina, Ya.N. Shchapova, S.V. Yushkov and others.
Many fundamental provisions of the problem under study continue to be debatable up to the present time. In particular, there is no consensus regarding the time, nature and specific historical conditions for the transition of the Eastern Slavic society to the state.
The purpose of this work is consider the emergence of the ancient Russian state.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks are solved in the work: tasks:
- consider the prerequisites, causes of the emergence of the ancient Russian state;
- to consider the stages of the formation of the ancient Russian state;
To reveal the concepts of "polyudye", "squad", "prince".
Causes of the emergence of the Old Russian state
The Old Russian state was formed as a result of a complex interaction of a whole complex of both internal and external factors, socio-economic, political and spiritual.
This raises the question of the real relationship of the Slavs with their neighbors. These relationships were very tense. The Slavs were under pressure from two sides: from the north they were pressured by the Scandinavian tribes, from the south they had to resist the attacks of the steppe nomads.
The economic development of the Slavs was heavily affected by the invasion of the Huns. As a result, their own development was also delayed. According to M.N.Tikhomirov, the reasons for the emergence of the state were "the development of agriculture and crafts in the field of economy, the development of feudalism - in the field of social relations." The development of agriculture, especially arable farming in the steppe and forest-steppe region of the Middle Dnieper, led to the appearance of an excess product, which created conditions for the separation of the princely retinue group from the community (there was a separation of military administrative labor from productive labor). In the north of Eastern Europe, where, due to harsh climatic conditions, agriculture could not become widespread, crafts continued to play an important role, and the emergence of an excess product was the result of the development of exchange and foreign trade. So in the 7th-8th centuries. in connection with the growth of labor productivity, individualization of production became quite possible. Conditions were being prepared for the transition from early class relations to feudalism. The economic progress of the Eastern Slavs was the driving force behind their social development. Given the existence of individual farms, the additional product obtained in them and reaching a significant size became the property of the producer and could be a source of enrichment. On the vast forest territory of the East Slavic world, undercutting was preserved, and because of its laboriousness, it required the efforts of the entire clan team. There was an uneven development of individual tribal unions, first property, and then social inequality arose. At this time, private property was formed and grew among wealthy members of the community. The social top of the society was formed.
Unions of tribes were of great importance for the formation of the state. At the beginning of the existence of such unions of tribes, military democracy was the form of organization of government. For a long time, people's assemblies and the council of elders were preserved. But the people's assembly turned into an assembly of warriors, to whom the military leader, surrounded and supported by his retinue, imposed his will, gaining more and more influence and power at the expense of other elders. The process of transformation of public self-government bodies into state bodies began. Military democracy gradually ceased into military-hierarchical rule-reigning. The organs of public self-government turned into organs of domination and oppression directed against the people. The formalization of the state system was completed, the most important feature of which was the emergence of management, extending to a certain territory. The military leader of a large union of tribes turned into a ruler - a prince. The supremacy of the princes acquired the character of the exercise of power class functions ( application2). Approximate prince became his advisers and governors. legends tell about the princes of Kyiv in the 9th and 10th centuries. - Oleg, Igor, Svyatoslav, Yaropolk, Vladimir. The squad turned into an association of several alliances of tribes or principalities, into an "alliance of alliances", into a military force that suppressed the resistance of the exploited masses and waged aggressive and defensive wars. "Unions of unions", which united several unions of tribes-principalities, became new formations and reflected a higher stage in the process of East Slavic consolidation. Approximately at the turn of the VIII-IX centuries. the Dnieper union of unions of tribes "Rus" develops even more into a powerful association with the name "Russian Land", which included a significant number of unions of Slavic tribes. The chronicle lists them: Russia, Polyany, Drevlyane, Polchan, Dregovichi, North. This is already almost half of the Eastern Slavs.
The specified process of transformation of public self-government bodies into state bodies was not a one-time act for all unions of East Slavic tribes. In the 8th century conditions of the fight against nomads in the Middle Dnieper region was called "Rus", the capital of which was Kyiv. Kyiv could not remain the capital city of one of the local Varangian principalities: it had an all-Russian significance, as a key point of the commercial and industrial movement. It became the center of the political unification of the whole earth.
The reason for the unification of the masses was also protection from the pressing nomads and getting rid of wars between local princes. This explains the comparative ease and speed of integration. It happened as a result of the campaign of the Novgorod prince Oleg against Kyiv, which he captured in 882, and the subordination of a number of other eastern principalities to him; in 883 the Drevlyans were conquered, in 884 the northerners, in 885 the Radimichi. By the beginning of the XI century. all tribes Eastern Slavs were brought under the arm of the Kyiv prince. The Old Russian state was one of the most powerful in Europe at that time. Already in 907, Oleg undertook a successful campaign against Byzantium, according to legend, hoisting his shield on the gates of Constantinople (appendix 3). Russia carried out lively diplomatic and trade relations with many Western European states and countries of the East.
The struggle for the expansion of the territory of the Old Russian state, campaigns against Byzantium continued by Oleg's successors - Igor, Olga and Svyatoslav ( application4). As a result of the campaigns, Russian-Byzantine treaties were concluded that regulated trade and political relations between states.
Expanding their possessions, the princes of Kyiv established state order in the subject countries, first of all, of course, the administration of taxes. The old urban areas served as a ready basis for the administrative division of the land. In the subordinate urban areas in the cities of Chernigov, Smolensk and others, the princes planted their governors, the posadniks, who were either their hired combatants, or their own sons and relatives. These governors had their own, squads, special armed detachments, acted quite independently, stood only in weak connection with the state center, with Kyiv, were, like the prince of Kyiv, who was considered only the eldest among them and was called the "Grand Duke of Russia" in contrast to local princes, governors. To increase the importance of the Kyiv prince, these deputies were also called "grand princes" in diplomatic documents. So, according to a preliminary agreement with the Greeks in 907, Oleg demanded "orders" for the Russian cities of Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereslavl, Polotsk, Rostov, Lyubech and other cities. These were still Varangian principalities, only allied with Kyiv: the prince then retained his former military-druzhina significance, having not yet had time to acquire dynastic significance.
The political factors in the formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs include the complication of intra-tribal relations and inter-tribal clashes, which accelerated the formation of princely power, increased the role of princes and squads both defending the tribe from external enemies and acting as an arbiter in various kinds of disputes. The power of the prince, which he sought to turn into hereditary, depended less and less on the will of the veche assemblies, strengthened, and his interests became more and more alienated from the interests of his fellow tribesmen.
The evolution of the pagan ideas of the Slavs of that era also contributed to the formation of the power of the prince. As the military power of the prince, who brought the booty of the tribe and defended it from external enemies, who took on the problem of resolving internal disputes, grew, his prestige grew and, at the same time, alienation from free community members occurred.
As a result of military successes, his performance of complex managerial functions, the prince’s removal from the usual circle of affairs and concerns for the community members, which often resulted in the creation of a fortified intertribal center of the residence of the prince and squad, he began to endow his fellow tribesmen with supernatural powers and abilities, they increasingly saw him as a pledge the well-being of the entire tribe, and his personality was identified with a tribal totem. All this led to the sacralization of princely power, created the spiritual prerequisites for the transition from communal to state relations. External prerequisites include the “pressure” exerted on the Slavic world by its neighbors, the Khazars and the Normans.
On the one hand, their desire to take control of the trade routes linking the West with the East and South accelerated the formation of princely retinue groups that were drawn into foreign trade. Taking, for example, products of crafts, in the first place, furs from their fellow tribesmen and exchanging them for prestigious consumption products and silver from foreign merchants, selling them captured
foreigners, the local nobility more and more subjugated tribal structures, enriched themselves and isolated themselves from ordinary community members. Over time, she, having united with the Varangian warrior-merchants, will begin to exercise control over trade routes and trade itself, which will lead to the consolidation of previously disparate tribal principalities located along these routes.
On the other hand, interaction with more advanced civilizations led to the borrowing of certain socio-political forms of their life. It is no coincidence that for a long time the great princes in Russia were named after the example
Khazar Khaganate. The Byzantine Empire was considered for a long time to be the true standard of the state-political structure.
The existence in the Lower Volga of a powerful state formation - the Khazar Khaganate, protected the Eastern Slavs from the raids of nomads, who in previous eras (the Huns in the 4th-5th centuries of the 7th century) hampered their development, interfered with peaceful labor and, as a result, the emergence of a "germ" statehood.
In Soviet historical science, for a long time, priority in the formation of the state was given to internal socio-economic processes; some modern historians believe that external factors played a decisive role; however, it seems that only the interaction of both internal and external, with insufficient socio-economic maturity of the East Slavic society, could lead to the historical breakthrough that occurred in the Slavic world in the 9th-10th centuries. Thus, we can say that the prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state were:
- the ethnic community of the ancient Russian people who spoke the same language;
The desire to join forces in the fight against the nomads and Byzantium;
The economic interests of the ancient Russian principalities along the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks", the desire of the Russian princes to establish their control along the entire length of this trade route;
The gravitation towards Russia of a number of northern and Baltic peoples, who sought her help in the fight against external enemies;
- the adoption of a single Christian religion.
Causes of the emergence and features of the formation of the ancient Russian state. "Norman theory".
Formation of the Old Russian state
The study of the problem of state formation among the Eastern Slavs for a long time was inseparable from the story of The Tale of Bygone Years, usually referred to as the "legend of the calling of the Varangian princes" (or the "Norman" legend). It tells about the events of the early 60s. 9th century, when sharp disagreements arose among a number of northern Slavic tribes (“family to generation arose”). It turned out that it was possible to resolve this conflict only with the help of an appeal to one of the Varangian princes (kings) Rurik, a representative of the tribe known to the chronicler as "Rus", who agreed to "prince and rule" in Novgorod. Following this, two of his boyars Askold and Dir settled in Kyiv, which meant the mastery of the main East Slavic centers by the Varangians. According to the chronicle, this happened in 862. Twenty years later, the Novgorod and Kyiv lands were united by Prince Oleg.
It was this story, discovered by German scientists who worked in Russia in the first half of the 18th century. (G.-F. Miller, G.-Z. Bayer, A.-L. Schlozer) formed the basis of the theory that was called Normanism, and became the starting point of a long and bitter dispute, the echoes of which are heard to this day. Scientists (and not only) divided into two camps - Normanists and anti-Normanists on the issue of the formation of the Old Russian state. Some of them with a great deal of confidence related to the chronicler's message (N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Solovyov, etc.), while others sharply refuted a number of facts cited by The Tale of Bygone Years, such as, for example, ethnicity Rurik (he was called both a Slav, a Finn, a Goth, etc.) or the origin of the name "Rus" from the name of the Scandinavian tribe "Rus" (among the most famous anti-Normanists is M.V. Lomonosov). However, today these disputes have noticeably lost their relevance (although traces of them are still found from time to time, as a rule, in pseudo-scientific literature). Today, the focus of the discussion is shifting more and more from secondary problems, which undoubtedly are the questions of Rurik's genealogy or tribal name, to more significant issues - to the real reasons for the emergence of early state formations.
And here, first of all, the question arises about the real relationship of the Slavs with their neighbors.
These relationships were very tense. The Slavs were under pressure from two sides: from the north they were pressured by the Scandinavian tribes, from the south they had to resist the attacks of the steppe nomads. But if the latter were not only hostile to the Slavs, but also alien in their way of life, then they also had common interests with the Varangians: they were connected by a common desire to carry out predatory campaigns against the rich possessions of Byzantium. Thus, conditions were created for the conclusion of a kind of agreement between them, which would establish a certain balance of power in this part of Europe: a Slavic-Varangian association with the aim of jointly attacking Byzantium and confronting the nomads. Of course, this "agreement" was very conditional, it was largely "concluded" under pressure, but still the mutual interest of the Slavs and the Varangians in each other was undeniable. In addition, as can be seen even from the chronicle story, Slavic society was increasingly plunging into the abyss of conflicts, which became increasingly difficult to resolve on their own. There was a need for an external arbiter who could not be suspected of sympathy for one or another conflicting side.
Thus, the Old Russian state arose as a result of the growth of contradictions within Slavic society, which could not be resolved from within this society itself and therefore, for the purpose of self-preservation, had to resort to the help of an external force, with which it, moreover, had joint interests.
Norman Theory Norman Theory
- a direction in historiography, whose supporters consider the Normans (Varangians) the founders of the Slavic state ) with a proposal to take the princely throne. As a result, Rurik sat down to reign in Novgorod, Sineus - in Beloozero and Truvor in Izborsk "Norman theory" was put forward at 18 in the German historians G. Bayer and G. Miller, invited by Peter I to work at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. They tried to scientifically to prove that the Old Russian state was created by the Varangians. The extreme manifestation of this concept is the assertion that the Slavs, due to their unpreparedness, could not create a state, and then, without foreign leadership, they were not able to manage it. In their opinion, statehood was introduced to the Slavs from outside (Bayer Gottlieb Siegfried (1694 - 1738) - German historian and philologist Graduated from Königsberg University From 1725, he held the chair of antiquities and oriental languages at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Bayer's works on Oriental studies, philology, and historical geography were of great scientific importance; in particular, the dictionary of the Chinese language Miller Gerard Friedrich (1705-1783) was born in Westphalia Since 1730, professor and member of the Academy of Sciences Since 1732, editor of the first Russian historical journal "Collection of Russian Histories" published at his suggestion In 1733, he joined the Kamchatka expedition to Bering and spent almost ten years in Siberia, studying its geography, ethnic composition of the population, archival materials In 1747, Miller became a Russian citizen and was appointed Russian historiographer and rector of the university In 1749, he delivered a speech at a solemn meeting of the Academy of Sciences in connection with the anniversary of Elizabeth Petrovna to the throne, in which he formulated the main provisions of the "Norman theory" of the emergence of the Russian state. The main theses of his report were that: 1) the arrival of the Slavs from the Danube to the Dnieper can be dated no earlier than the reign of Justinian; 2) the Varangians are none other than the Scandinavians; 3) the concepts of "Varangians" and "Rus" are identical. Of historical works, it is considered to be his largest work "History of Siberia". However, in addition to this book, he is also the author of another publication - "Experience in Recent History of Russia", which he considered as a continuation " History of the Russian "VN Tatishchev Miller's great merit lies in the publication of many of the most important sources on Russian history) MV Lomonosov was the first to speak out against this theory. He and his supporters began to be called anti-Normanists. situations in Europe The fascists who came to power in Germany used the existing theoretical concepts to substantiate their aggressive plans. Trying to prove the inferiority of the Slavs, their inability to develop independently, German historians put forward the thesis about the organizing role of the German beginning in Poland, the Czech Republic, and Russia. Today, a significant part of researchers tend to conn interpret the arguments of the "Normanists" and "anti-Normanists", noting that the prerequisites for the formation of the state among the Slavs were realized with the participation of the Norman prince Rurik and his squad (For more details, see the anthology, section "Problems of the origin of statehood among the Eastern Slavs")
In the 30-40s of the 18th century, German scientists Johann Gottfried Bayer and Gerard Friedrich Miller, who worked at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, tried for the first time to prove in their scientific works that the ancient Russian state was created by the Varangians. They laid the foundation for the Norman theory of the origin of the Russian state. The extreme manifestation of the concept was the assertion that the Slavs, due to their inferiority, could not create a state, and then, without foreign leadership, they were not able to manage it. Normanists are unanimous on 2 fundamental issues. 1-they believe that the Normans achieved dominance over the Eastern Slavs by external military seizure or by peaceful subjugation. 2-they believe that the word "Rus" is of Norman origin.
Causes and prerequisites: the expansion of the tribal system among the Eastern Slavs, property inequality, the emergence of classes and private property.
The formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs was a logical result of a long process of decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society.
The process of property and social stratification among the community members led to the separation of the most prosperous part from their midst. The tribal nobility and the prosperous part of the community, subjugating the mass of ordinary community members, needs to maintain their dominance in state structures.
The embryonic form of statehood was represented by the East Slavic unions of tribes, which united in superunions, however, fragile ones. One of these associations was, apparently, the union of tribes headed by Prince Kiy (VI century). There is information about a certain Russian prince Bravlin, who fought in the Khazar-Byzantine Crimea in the VIII-IX centuries, passing from Surozh to Korchev ( from Sudak to Kerch). Eastern historians talk about the existence on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state of three large associations of Slavic tribes: Kuyaba, Slavia and Artania. Kuyaba, or Kuyava, then called the area around Kyiv. Slavia occupied the territory in the area of Lake Ilmen. Its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania - the third major association of Slavs - has not been precisely established.
According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the Russian princely dynasty originates in Novgorod. In 859, the northern Slavic tribes, who then paid tribute to the Varangians, or Normans (according to most historians, immigrants from Scandinavia), drove them across the sea. However, soon after these events, internecine struggle began in Novgorod. To
to stop the clashes, the Novgorodians decided to invite the Varangian princes as a force standing above the opposing factions. In 862, Prince Rurik and his two brothers were called to Russia by the Novgorodians, laying the foundation for the Russian princely dynasty.
Norman theory
The legend about the calling of the Varangian princes served as the basis for the creation of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. Its authors were invited in the XVIII century. to Russia, German scientists G.Bayer, G.Miller and A.Schletser. The authors of this theory emphasized the complete absence of prerequisites for the formation of a state among the Eastern Slavs. The scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory is obvious, since the determining factor in the process of state formation is the presence of internal prerequisites, and not the actions of individual, even outstanding, personalities.
If the Varangian legend is not fiction (as most historians believe), the story of the calling of the Varangians only testifies to the Norman origin of the princely dynasty. The version about the foreign origin of power was quite typical for the Middle Ages.
The date of formation of the Old Russian state is conditionally considered to be 882, when Prince Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod after the death of Rurik (some chroniclers call him the governor of Rurik), undertook a campaign against Kyiv. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, for the first time he united the northern and southern lands as part of a single state. Since the capital was moved from Novgorod to Kyiv, this state is often called Kievan Rus.
12. Mongol invasion. Golden Horde and Russia: problems of mutual influence.
The period of Mongol-Tatar rule in Russia lasted about two and a half centuries.
The first clash with the Mongol-Tatars on the river. Kalka on May 31, 1223 showed: the futility of attempts by Russian troops to help the allies, the lack of a unified organization, the weakness of command.
All together made the further battle with the invaders pointless for the Russians. AT December 1237 The Mongols, led by Batu, launched an offensive against the Russian principalities.
"Batu's ruin" of Russia took place in two stages: in 1237 - 1238- through the Ryazan principality to the Vladimir-Suzdal land (northeast) and in 1239 - 1240- to South Russia. AT 1237 after the defeat of the Volga Bulgaria, the troops of Batu went to the Ryazan principality. After the pogrom of Ryazan, the Mongols moved to the northeast, where in February 1238 Kolomna, Moscow, Suzdal, Rostov and Vladimir fell under their onslaught. The decisive battle took place on the River City, March 4, 1238, which ended in disaster for the Russian troops. After that, the troops of Batu Khan began to freely occupy individual principalities, moving north. However, the advance to Novgorod was stopped for almost two months by fierce resistance from the inhabitants of the small town of Kozelsk. From Kozelsk, the Mongols moved south, where the main camps of Batu were located between the Volga and the Don.
In the spring of 1239 the second stage of the invasion began - this time on the southern Russian principalities. Pereslavl, Glukhov, Chernigov were captured. AT 1240 g. The Mongols laid siege to Kyiv and took the city after a long siege, subjecting it to complete destruction. After the capture of Kyiv, the hordes of Batu continued to move west, captured the Galicia-Volyn principality, which occupied a prominent place among the advanced states of Europe.
The war did not touch the Orthodox Church.
The Mongols, being pagans, were distinguished by religious tolerance and understood the great ideological role of the clergy, trying to win them over to their side. Therefore, during the conquest, the Mongols did not touch the church, which was the main spiritual organization of the Russians.
In Russia, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was established:
1)
Russia fell under the rule of the Horde protectorate. Golden Horde- Ulus of Jochi, a powerful state created by the Mongol khans. 2)
khan handed label for a great reign Vladimirskoye and controlled the situation throughout the territory. The label was a desirable target for the Russian princes and the cause of feudal strife. 3)
the conquerors encouraged feudal fragmentation in every possible way, pitting the descendants of Rurik against each other. 4)
main form of addiction from the Horde was collection of tribute, "horde output". Khan officials (Baskaks) were engaged in them in Russia. Tribute was collected from the house-farm. The actions of the Baskaks were distinguished by extreme cruelty. They took people prisoner and copied the entire population of North-Eastern Russia in 1257–1259. The "Great Baskak" had a residence in Vladimir, where at that time the political center of the country practically moved.
The main reasons for the defeat of Russia and the establishment of the Horde yoke were:
1)
the feudal fragmentation that existed at that time, since each principality found itself alone with the forces of the conquerors. Thus, the Russian princes were defeated one by one by the enemies. 2)
Mongol-Tatars used advanced military equipment (stone throwers, wall-beating machines, gunpowder). 3)
numerical superiority of the enemy.
Results of the conquest: cities and villages were burned, skilled artisans were taken into slavery, fields fell into disrepair, and Russia's foreign economic relations were disrupted for many years. The change and significance of the prince in the state - the formation of the despotic power of the prince, the continuation of the process of forming a dependent population.
Russia and the Horde: problems of mutual influence.
In historical science, the problem of the influence of the Golden Horde on the development of medieval Russia was considered from different positions.
First point of view:
CM. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov, M.N. Pokrovsky and other historians believed that the Mongol yoke brought ruin, death of people, delayed development, but did not significantly affect the life and life of Russians, their statehood. During the period of Mongol rule, Russia continued to develop along the European path, but lagged far behind due to large-scale destruction, human losses, the need to pay tribute, etc.
Second point of view:
N.M. Karamzin, N.I. Kostomarov, V.V. Leontovich, N.P. Zagoskin, V.I. Sergievich and the Eurasianists insisted on the thesis that the Mongols had a significant impact on the social and social organization of the Russians, on the formation and development of the Muscovite state. Eurasians believed that Muscovy was part of the Great Mongolian state. The main borrowings of Russia from the Mongols were despotism in the political sphere and serfdom in the socio-economic sphere.
Third point of view: V.A. Kuchkin, B.V. Kobrin, L.I. Semennikova and other modern historians note that during the period of the Mongol invasion, North-Eastern Russia depended on the Golden Horde, which entailed an indirect Mongol influence on the formation of the Russian people and the Muscovite state. The legal code of the Mongols - "Yasa" of Genghis Khan - did not operate on the territory of the Russian principalities. Special laws were not created for Russia, which lived on the basis of its own legal norms, which were later reflected in the Sudebniks. In addition, the Mongols did not remove the Russian princes from power and did not create their own dynasty in Russia, as was the case in Iran they conquered. Nor did they have a permanent governor or governors with specific functions. Baskaks were appointed sporadically to separate places, they did not perform managerial functions, but only observed the collection of tribute. And, finally, Russia retained its spiritual basis - Orthodoxy, since the Mongols did not insist on a change of faith.
Read in the same book: History as a science. The subject and sources of the study of history.
Branches of historical science. | Civilizational approach to the study of history: Western, Eastern civilizations, natural communities. | State foundations of Great Russia. Ivan Sh - "Sovereign of All Russia". | Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible): the main directions of domestic and foreign policy. | Grounds for the legitimacy of power and political ideas | Role of the Boyar Duma, the Zemsky Sobor and the Consecrated Cathedral | The value of custom, tradition and law in public administration | The Crisis of the Muscovite State at the Turn of the 16th–17th Centuries. "Trouble". | Stages of enslavement of the Russian peasantry. Cathedral Code of 1649 | Prerequisites for Peter's reforms. |mybiblioteka.su - 2015-2018. (0.183 sec.)
4. Old Russian state (Kievan Rus): prerequisites for formation, flourishing, causes of collapse.
The question of the origin of the ancient Russian state comes from two main theories: Norman and anti-Norman (Slavic).
The Norman theory was substantiated by Miller and Bayer in the 18th century, supported by Klyuchevsky and Solovyov. The basis for this theory was the message in the "Tale of Bygone Years" about the call by the Slavs of the Varangians with their squads to reign in Russia.
The anti-Norman (Slavic) theory was put forward by Lomonosov in the 18th century and was most fully developed by Academician Rybakov. According to this theory, the origin of Kievan Rus has a southern origin.
Evidence: in the region of Kievan Rus, the Ros River flows, where the Rossolani tribes lived.
Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state:
Ethnic community of the Old Russian people speaking the same language.
The desire to join forces in the fight against nomads.
Economic interests of ancient Russian princes along the river route from the Varangians to the Greeks.
The unification of the ancient Russian state took place during the campaign of the Novgorod prince Oleg against Kyiv at the end of the 9th century.
The territorial growth of Kievan Rus had largely ended by the beginning of the 11th century under Vladimir I.
In the history of the Old Russian state, three stages can be distinguished:
second half of the 9th - 10th centuries The main content is the unification of the entire ancient Russian people in a single state, the creation of a power apparatus and a military organization;
the end of the X - the first half of the XI century. Its basis was a new significant growth in large-scale feudal landownership, an increase in urban centers, an increase in the number of trade and crafts population;
second half of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. It is characterized by the onset of feudal fragmentation and the collapse of Kievan Rus.
In Kievan Rus, the state was the supreme owner of the land. Since the middle of the XII century, princely, boyar and monastic land ownership has been successfully developing. Parallel to this, there was an increase in the feudal dependence of numerous categories of direct producers: smerds, purchases, ryadoviches, outcasts. In the X-XI centuries. there was an intensive growth of cities, which became the most important centers of crafts and trade, political and cultural life.
The feudal way of life existed together with slavery and primitive patriarchal relations. Under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054), Kievan Rus reached its highest power. He managed to protect Russia from Pecheneg raids, establish Russian positions in the Baltic states and take possession of the lands east of the Dnieper. Yaroslav became the sovereign prince of Kievan Rus. Under Yaroslav the Wise, Russia achieved international recognition.
With the development of feudal relations, the strengthening of local political centers, the importance of the Kyiv nationwide political center fell, and the tendency towards the isolation of principalities intensified. On the initiative of Vladimir Monomakh, the Lubech Congress of Princes was convened in 1097, at which it was decided to stop the strife and the principle “Everyone keeps his fatherland” was proclaimed. Vladimir Monomakh and his eldest son Mstislav still held power over all the ancient Russian lands. However, after the death of Mstislav, feudal strife intensified. As a result, the united Old Russian state broke up into a number of sovereign principalities, and a period of fragmentation, or specific period, began.
Causes and stages of the emergence of the Old Russian state
Kievan Rus is one of the largest states of the Middle Ages of the IX-XII centuries. Unlike Eastern and Western countries, the process of statehood formation had its own specific features - spatial and geopolitical. The geopolitical space in which Kievan Rus was located was at the junction of different worlds: nomadic and sedentary, Christian and Muslim, pagan and Jewish. In the course of its formation, Russia acquired the features of both Eastern and Western state formations, since it occupied a median position between Europe and Asia and did not have pronounced natural geographical boundaries within the vast plains. The need for constant protection from external enemies of a large territory forced peoples with different types of development, religion, culture, language to unite, to create a strong state power.
The Old Russian state arises in a heterogeneous society and is a way of regulating relations between different social strata, classes, etc.
Statehood among the Slavs begins to take shape from the 6th century, when there is a transition from a tribal and tribal community to a neighboring community, property inequality is formed. There are many reasons for the formation of the Old Russian state, here are the main ones:
1. Social division of labor.
The sources from which people drew their livelihoods became more diverse; thus, military booty began to play a large role in the life of the clan. Over time, professional artisans and warriors appeared. Frequent migrations of clans, the emergence and disintegration of inter-clan and inter-tribal unions, the separation from the clan of groups of seekers of military booty (brigades) - all these processes forced us to deviate from traditions based on custom, old solutions did not always work in previously unknown conflict situations.
2. Development of the economy.
Not only the changed individual and group self-consciousness and the established intertribal relations, but also economic, economic activity encouraged people to search for more suitable forms of common existence. The importance of the economic factor in the emergence of the state is usually exaggerated in the studies of supporters of Marxism and other teachings that consider production (or distribution of what is produced) to be the basis of social life. The relationship between the economy and the ideas that guide people, between economic activity and the methods of organizing power is much more complicated than it seems to Marxists.
Without going into the details of the long-standing dispute between "materialists" who put the economic needs of people in the foreground, and "idealists" who consider ideas the main factor in social development, we confine ourselves to recognizing the close relationship between the material world and human consciousness. Private property could not arise until a person realized his separation from the clan; but the further development of the self-consciousness of the individual was undoubtedly influenced by the practical, material results of the fragmentation of common tribal property. Economic factors influenced the formation of the state, but this influence was neither direct nor decisive. The state arose when property differences directly related to the economy were not very significant; the emerging state power initially almost did not pretend to be a serious participant in economic life. The bearers of the new, pre-state and state power (princes, warriors) stood out from society not on property, but on professional grounds. At the same time, the often coinciding professions of a warrior and a ruler (who stood above the traditional, patriarchal power of tribal elders) were almost unanimously recognized as socially useful.
3. The interest of society in the emergence of the state.
The state arose because the overwhelming majority of members of society were interested in its appearance. It was convenient and profitable for the community farmer to appear that the prince and combatants with weapons in their hands protected him and saved him from burdensome and dangerous military affairs. From the very beginning, the state solved not only military, but also judicial tasks, especially those related to inter-clan disputes. The princes and their warriors were relatively objective mediators in conflicts between representatives of different clans; the elders, who from time immemorial had to take care of the interests of their kind, their community, were not suitable for the role of impartial arbiters. The resolution of intercommunal disputes by force of arms was too burdensome for society; as the general usefulness of power, standing above private and generic interest, was realized, conditions were created for the transfer of the most important judicial powers historically.
Stages of formation of the Old Russian state
The process of disintegration of primitive communal relations and the emergence of feudal relations among the Eastern Slavs went so far by the 9th century that a state inevitably had to arise, since the state arises where conditions are created for its appearance in the form of a division of society into classes. The property and social stratification among the community members led to the isolation of the most prosperous part from their midst. The tribal nobility and the prosperous part of the community, subjugating the mass of ordinary community members, needs to maintain their dominance in state structures. The processes of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the split of society into classes precede the formation of the ancient Russian state and proceed immanently, of course, in connection with the outside world, evidence of which is also foreign trade, but without its decisive participation in the internal life of the Slavic population of Eastern Europe.
The beginning of the formation of the ancient Russian nationality should be considered the 9th - 10th centuries. - the time of the emergence of feudal relations in Russia and the formation of the Old Russian state.
8th - 9th centuries in the history of the Slavs were a time of decomposition of primitive communal relations. At the same time, the transition from one social system (primitive communal) to another, more progressive, namely feudal society, was ultimately the result of the development of productive forces, the evolution of production, which in turn was mainly the result of a change and development of tools of labor, tools production.
Along with the development of productive forces in the field of agricultural production and the improvement of agricultural technology, the social division of labor, the separation of handicraft activities from agriculture, played a huge role in the decomposition of primitive communal relations.
When the division of labor penetrated into the commune and its members each single-handedly began to produce some one product and sell it on the market, then the institution of private property became an expression of this material isolation of commodity producers.
Settlements become centers of handicraft production and exchange, turn into cities. Cities grow on the basis of old settlements of the times of the primitive system, appear as handicraft and trading settlements. Finally, the princely prison is often overgrown with an urban-type settlement. This is how cities in Russia arose: Kyiv, Peryaslavl, Ladoga, Pskov, Novgorod, Polotsk, Chernigov, Lyubech, Smolensk, Gurov, Cherven, etc.
The city is a phenomenon characteristic not of the primitive communal system, but of the feudal system. Merchant caravans stretched along rivers and land roads. Along the Neva, Lake Ladzhskoe, Volokhov Lake, Lovat and the Dnieper, a waterway passed “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. Trade routes led through the Carpathians to Riza and German cities.
The growth of trade caused the development of money circulation. In Russia, they used mainly eastern silver coins, but there were also Byzantine and Western European coins. Once in Russia, fur money was used as money, which was pieces of fur (kuns, cut, pogats, etc.). Over time, they were replaced by iron money, which retained the old names (muzzles, vekshas, etc.). From the end of the 10th century, Russia began to mint its own gold and silver coins. Then the minted coin gives way to silver bars - hryvnia.
Trade corrupted the community, further strengthening economically powerful families. The ruling elite in ancient Russian sources is called princes, warriors, boyars, old children, etc. It grows from the old tribal nobility and from the local rich elite.
Accumulating valuables and land, creating a powerful squad organization, making campaigns ending with the capture of military booty and captives turned into slaves, accumulating tribute, collecting requisitions, trading and engaging in usury, the ancient Russian nobility breaks away from tribal and communal associations and turns into a force standing above society and subjugating formerly free community members.
The basis of feudal society arises and develops - feudal ownership of land. We know the cities belonging to the princes: Izyaslavl, Vyshgorod, Belgorod; princely villages: Olzhichi, Berestovo, Rakoma. Around the villages lay fields (arable land), meadows, hunting - fishing and fishing grounds, side cares. On stones, trees, pillars marking princely lands, princely tomgas were applied - signs of property. The princes either developed free lands, or seized them from previously free community members, turning the latter, on the basis of non-economic coercion, into their own labor force and estates.
Various groups of dependent people are formed. Some of them, serfs, lost their freedom as a result of the sale of debt obligations, family or official status, other servants became slaves as a result of captivity. Over time, the term servants begins to denote the entire set of people dependent on the master. At the initial stage of the history of Kievan Rus, slavery played a very significant role.
A huge mass of the rural population was made up of free community members, taxed only with tribute. In the sources they appear under the name - people, but most often they are called smerds. Smerds were considered princely people, but as their lands and lands were seized by princes and boyars, they retained their old name - smerds, turned into feudal dependents and their duties in favor of the master began to bear a feudal character. The tribute turned into a quitrent. Among the dependent population, there were many hardened people who lost their independence as a result of debt obligations. This bonded people appears in sources called ryadovichi and purchases. There were numerous outcasts, obsolete people (goit - live), that is, people knocked out of the usual life rut, breaking with their social environment. This is how dependent groupings of direct producers in Kievan Rus were formed. In Russia, a class early feudal society began to form.
The formation of feudal relations among the Eastern Slavs could not but determine the formation of an early feudal state. Such in Eastern Europe was the Old Russian state with the capital city of Kyiv.
The fight against the Scandinavian Vikings, the Varangians in the northwest, with the Khazars, and later with the Pechenegs, Turks and other nomadic tribes in the southeast and south, accelerated the process of folding powerful territorial associations that replaced tribal unions.
The merger of Kyiv and Novgorod completes the formation of the Old Russian state. The chronicle connected this event with the name of Oleg. In 882 as a result of the campaign of squads led by Oleg from Novgorod to Kyiv on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks", both of the most important centers of Russia were united. The Kyiv prince began to create strongholds in the lands of the Eastern Slavs, collect tribute from them and demand their participation in campaigns. But many lands of the Eastern Slavs were not yet connected with Kyiv, and the Old Russian state itself stretched in a relatively narrow strip from north to south along the Great Waterway along the Dnieper, Lovat, and Volkhov.
Kyiv became the capital of the Old Russian state. This happened because it was the oldest center of East Slavic culture, with deep historical traditions and connections. Located on the borderland of forests and steppes with a mild, even climate, black earth soil, dense forests, beautiful pastures and deposits of iron ore, rich rivers, the main means of transportation of those times, Kyiv was the core of the East Slavic world. In addition, Kyiv was equally close to Byzantium, to the east and west, which contributed to the development of trade, political and cultural ties of Russia.
The end of the 10th century was marked by the completion of the unification of all the Eastern Slavs within the state borders of Kievan Rus. This unification takes place during the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich. In 981, the region of the Cherven cities of Przemysl, that is, the East Slavic lands up to San, was annexed. In 992, the lands of the Croats, which lay on both slopes of the Carpathian Mountains, became part of the Old Russian state. In 989, Russian combatants went to the Yatvyags and the Russian population, which settled the region up to the borders of the Prussian possessions, laid the foundation for Black Russia. In 981, the Vyatichi land joined the Old Russian state, although traces of its former independence remained here for a long time. Three years later, in 984, after the battle on the Pishchana River, the power of Kyiv extended to the Radimichs. Thus, the unification of all Eastern Slavs in a single state was completed.
1. Formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus
The state of Kievan Rus was created at the end of the 9th century.
The emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs is reported by the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" (XIIin.). It tells that the Slavs paid tribute to the Varangians. Then the Varangians were expelled across the sea and the question arose: who would rule in Novgorod? None of the tribes wanted to establish the power of a representative of a neighboring tribe. Then they decided to invite a stranger and turned to the Varangians. Three brothers responded to the invitation: Rurik, Truvor and Sineus. Rurik began to reign in Novgorod, Sineus on Beloozero, and Truvor - in the city of Izborsk. Two years later, Sineus and Truvor died, and all power passed to Rurik. Two of Rurik's squad, Askold and Dir, went south and began to reign in Kyiv. They killed Kiy, Shchek, Khoriv and their sister Lybid who ruled there. Rurik died in 879. His relative Oleg began to rule, since the son of Rurik, Igor, was still a minor. After 3 years (in 882), Oleg and his retinue seize power in Kyiv. Thus, under the rule of one prince, Kyiv and Novgorod were united. This is what the chronicle says. Were there really two brothers - Sineus and Truvor? Today, historians believe that they were not. "Rurik blue hus truvor" means, translated from the ancient Swedish language, "Rurik with a house and a squad." The chronicler took incomprehensibly sounding words for personal names, and wrote that Rurik arrived with two brothers.
Exist two theories of the origin of the ancient Russian state: Norman and anti-Norman. Both of these theories appeared in the XYIII century, 900 years after the formation of Kievan Rus. The fact is that Peter I - from the Romanov dynasty, was very interested in where the previous dynasty appeared - the Rurikovich, who created the state of Kievan Rus and where this name came from. Peter I signed a decree establishing the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. German scientists were invited to work at the Academy of Sciences.
Norman theory . Its founders are the German scientists Bayer, Miller, Schlozer, who were invited under Peter the Great to work at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. They confirmed the calling of the Varangians and made the assumption that the name of the Russian Empire was of Scandinavian origin, and that the state of Kievan Rus itself was created by the Varangians. “Rus” is translated from Old Swedish as the verb “to row”, the Rus are rowers. Perhaps "Rus" is the name of the Varangian tribe from which Rurik came. At first, the Varangians-druzhinniks were called Rus, and then this word gradually passed to the Slavs.
The calling of the Varangians was confirmed at a later time by the data of archaeological excavations of burial mounds near Yaroslavl, near Smolensk. Scandinavian burials in the boat were found there. Many Scandinavian items were obviously made by local Slavic craftsmen. This means that the Varangians lived among the locals.
But German scientists exaggerated the role of the Varangians in the formation of the ancient Russian state. As a result, these scientists agreed to such an extent that, allegedly, the Varangians are immigrants from the West, which means that it is they - the Germans - who created the state of Kievan Rus.
Anti-Norman theory. She also appeared in the XYIII century, under the daughter of Peter I - Elizabeth Petrovna. She did not like the statement of German scientists that the Russian state was created by immigrants from the West. In addition, she had a 7-year war with Prussia. She asked Lomonosov to look into this issue. Lomonosov M.V. did not deny the existence of Rurik, but began to deny his Scandinavian origin.
Anti-Norman theory intensified in the 30s of the twentieth century. When the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, they tried to prove the inferiority of the Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks), that they were not able to create states, that the Varangians were Germans. Stalin gave the task of refuting the Norman theory. This is how the theory appeared, according to which, to the south of Kyiv, on the Ros River, the Ros (Rossy) tribe lived. The Ros River flows into the Dnieper and it is from here that the name of Rus comes from, since the Russians allegedly occupied a leading place among the Slavic tribes. The possibility of the Scandinavian origin of the name of Russia was completely rejected. The anti-Norman theory tries to prove that the state of Kievan Rus was created by the Slavs themselves. This theory penetrated into textbooks on the history of the USSR, and was prevailing there until the end of "perestroika".
The state appears there and then, when opposing, mutually hostile interests, classes appear in society. The state regulates relations between people, relying on armed force. The Varangians were invited to reign, therefore, this form of power (reigning) was already known to the Slavs. It was not the Varangians who brought property inequality to Russia, the division of society into classes. The Old Russian state - Kievan Rus - arose as a result of a long, independent development of Slavic society, not thanks to the Varangians, but with their active participation. The Varangians themselves quickly became Slavic, they did not impose their own language. The son of Igor, the grandson of Rurik, already bore the Slavic name - Svyatoslav. Today, some historians believe that the name of the Russian Empire of Scandinavian origin and the princely dynasty begins with Rurik, and was called the Rurikovichi.
The ancient Russian state was called Kievan Rus.
2 . Socio-economic and political system of Kievan Rus
Kievan Rus was an early feudal state. It existed from the end of the 9th to the beginning of the 12th century (about 250 years).
The head of state was the Grand Duke. He was the supreme commander, judge, legislator, recipient of tribute. Conducted foreign policy, declared war, made peace. Appointed officials. The power of the Grand Duke was limited to:
Council under the prince, which included the military nobility, the elders of the cities, the clergy (since 988)
Veche - a popular assembly in which all free people could take part. Veche could discuss and resolve any issue that interested him.
Specific princes - local tribal nobility.
The first rulers of Kievan Rus were: Oleg (882-912), Igor (913-945), Olga - Igor's wife (945-964).
The unification of all East Slavic and part of the Finnish tribes under the rule of the great Kyiv prince.
The acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and the protection of trade routes that led to these markets.
Protection of the borders of the Russian land from the attacks of the steppe nomads (Khazars, Pechenegs, Polovtsy).
The most important source of income for the prince and the squad was the tribute paid by the conquered tribes. Olga streamlined the collection of tribute and set its size.
The son of Igor and Olga - Prince Svyatoslav (964-972) made trips to the Danube Bulgaria and Byzantium, and also defeated the Khazar Khaganate.
Under the son of Svyatoslav - Vladimir the Holy (980-1015) in 988, Christianity was adopted in Russia.
Socio-economic structure:
The main branch of the economy is arable farming and cattle breeding. Additional industries: fishing, hunting. Russia was a country of cities (more than 300) - in the XII century.
Kievan Rus reached its peak under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). He intermarried and made friends with the most prominent states of Europe. In 1036, he defeated the Pechenegs near Kyiv and ensured the security of the eastern and southern borders of the state for a long time. In the Baltic states, he founded the city of Yuryev (Tartu) and established the position of Russia there. Under him, writing and literacy spread in Russia, schools were opened for the children of the boyars. The higher school was located in the Kiev-Pechersk monastery. The largest library was in St. Sophia Cathedral, also built under Yaroslav the Wise.
Under Yaroslav the Wise appeared the first set of laws in Russia - "Russian Truth", which operated during the XI-XIII centuries. 3 editions of Russkaya Pravda are known:
1. Brief truth of Yaroslav the Wise
2. Spacious (grandchildren of Yar. the Wise - Vl. Monomakh)
3. abbreviated
Russkaya Pravda consolidated the feudal property that was taking shape in Russia, established harsh penalties for attempts to encroach on it, and defended the lives and privileges of members of the ruling class. According to Russkaya Pravda, one can trace the contradictions in society and the class struggle. Russkaya Pravda by Yaroslav the Wise allowed blood feuds, but the article on blood feuds was limited to defining the exact circle of close relatives who have the right to take revenge: father, son, brother, cousin, nephew. Thus, the end of the endless chain of murders that exterminate entire families was set.
In Pravda Yaroslavichi (under the children of Yar. the Wise), blood feud is already prohibited, and instead a fine for murder has been introduced, depending on the social status of the murdered, from 5 to 80 hryvnias.
According to some researchers, the formation of the Old Russian state was the result of the unification of the East Slavic tribes. However, disputes arose between many historians on the issue of the formation of the state. This is due to the so-called "Norman theory" that originated about 200 years ago.
In the oldest chronicles, the year 862 is mentioned as the time with Rurik dominating over them in the Slavic lands. This need arose in connection with the spread of internal strife. Inhabitants of Scandinavia (princes-Varangians) are called in some sources "northern people" - Normans.
Discussions about their vocation began in the 18th century after the founding of the Academy of Sciences and the transformations of Peter 1. At that time, invited to serve in the St. Petersburg Academy, Schlozer, Miller and Bayer became the founders of the assumption about how the formation of the Old Russian state took place. The "Norman theory" assumed that the Scandinavians brought statehood. Thus, the state was formed not by the Slavs, but by the Varangian princes. At the same time, another, "anti-Norman suggestion" began to spread. Its founders, Lomonosov and Trediakovsky, argued that the formation of the Old Russian state was the merit of the Slavs.
To one degree or another, most of the historians in the 19th century were supporters of the assumption that the Varangians formed the state. However, the historical science of the 20th century subjected the Norman theory to serious criticism. As a result, today most of the scholars-researchers of history do not deny some influence of the Normans on the formation of Russian statehood, but the degree of this influence is not exaggerated.
The leaders were called princes. The genealogy of the kings and princes of the state was conducted from the prince of the Varangians Rurik.
After the death of Rurik, who reigned in Novgorod, the Varangians came to the Dnieper. The first real ruler was Oleg. Reliable information has been preserved about him. Oleg took up the unification of the lands. In 882, he captured Kyiv, killed Dir and Askold, who reigned in it. Having made the capital of the city, Oleg called it "the mother of Russian cities." Thus, the formation of the Old Russian state of Kievan Rus took place.
During the reign, Oleg fought several successful battles with powerful Byzantium, twice he went on campaigns to Constantinople. As a result of this activity, in 907 and 911, Russia concluded favorable peace agreements.
The formation of the Old Russian state continued even after Igor ascended the throne after Oleg. According to some sources, he was the son of Rurik. During the reign of Igor, the inclusion of various tribal formations into Kievan Rus continued. So, he contributed to the emergence of Russian settlements on the Taman Peninsula, subjugated the street dwellers. In addition, Igor very actively continued Oleg's foreign policy activities. After military campaigns against Byzantium, he concluded a mutually beneficial agreement with her in 944. One of the first encountered the Turkic folk group - the Pechenegs.
The first ruler known to history was Olga, the widow of Prince Igor. The princess managed to retain power not only over Kyiv, but over all of Russia. During the reign of Olga, tribute duties were strictly regulated.
The formation of the Old Russian state continued until the very time of the reign of Yaroslav (1019-1054). This ruler was nicknamed "The Wise". Yaroslav united almost all ancient Russian lands with his power. The prince adopted "Russian Pravda" the first legislative code. During his reign, the state reached its highest power.
The main stages in the formation of the Old Russian state
In the process of formation of the Old Russian state, three main stages can be distinguished:
Stage I (VIII-mid-IX centuries). going on maturation of the prerequisites for statehood in the East Slavic tribes. Internal factors played a decisive role in this process:
ethnic community,
A certain similarity of economic interests,
Proximity of the area
The need for protection from external enemies (neighboring tribes and states),
The need to expand the territory through military campaigns.
Starting from the VI century. among the Eastern Slavs, power is isolated and strengthened tribal aristocracy, primarily military leaders, relying directly on real armed force - squad. This type of social organization is called "military democracy".
Against this background, there are tribal unions and their centers are highlighted. By the 8th century the Eastern Slavs had certain state forms. Historical sources testify to the existence of unions of East Slavic tribes:
- Valinana (among the Volhynians in the upper reaches of the Bug River),
- Kuyavia (identified with Kyiv),
- Slavia (associated with Novgorod),
· - Artania (location unknown, possibly in the area of the modern city of Ryazan).
Appears polyudya system(collection of tribute from community members in favor of the leader-prince, so far voluntarily, perceived as compensation for military expenses and administrative activities).
Stage II (II half of the IX-mid-X centuries). The process of folding the state accelerated largely due to the active intervention of external forces - the Khazars and the Normans (Varangians), who forced the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes to pay tribute.
But one can speak about the real principles of ancient Russian statehood first of all when prince's power came to be seen as special state power(second half of the 9th-first half of the 10th centuries). Its character can be judged, first of all, by the organization of the collection of tribute and people, by an active foreign policy, especially in relation to Byzantium.
Vocation Rurik Novgorodians (862) and unification by his successor Oleg (879-912) Northern and Southern Russia under the rule of Kyiv in the 9th century. allowed to concentrate the power of the Kyiv princes over the territory from Ladoga to the lower reaches of the Dnieper.
There was a kind of federation of tribal principalities, headed by Prince of Kyiv. His power was manifested in tribute collection from all the tribes included in this association.
Oleg, relying on the power of the Slavic-Norman squad and "wars" (armed free community members), commits successful campaigns against Byzantium in 907 and 911. As a result, they signed beneficial agreements for Russia, providing her with the right to duty-free trade on the territory of the empire and a number of other privileges.
Igor(912-945)
and also defended its borders from the formidable nomads who appeared - Pechenegs.
In 944-945. he committed two trips to Byzantium, which violated its agreements with Russia, but, having suffered defeat, was forced to conclude a less favorable agreement with the empire.
In an agreement with Byzantium in 945, the term itself is found "Russian land". In the same year, during the polyudya, he was killed by the Drevlyans for demanding tribute in excess of the usual.
Stage III (II half of the X-beginning of the XI centuries). It begins with the reforms of the princess Olga (945-964). Having avenged the Drevlyans for the death of her husband, in order to prevent what happened to Igor in the future, she established a fixed rate of tribute collection (“lessons”), and to collect it set special places ("graveyards"), where the boyar with a small retinue "sat" (i.e. watched the collection of tribute).
"Polyudye" turned into "reason».
Graveyards become the backbone of local princely power.
Politics of Olga's son, Prince Svyatoslav (964-972) was aimed mainly at fight against an external enemy. The defeat of Khazaria and campaigns on the Danube required a lot of effort, money and time. In connection with this, the prince-warrior (that was the name of Svyatoslav both among the people and in the annals) practically did not deal with issues of the internal structure of the state.
New steps in the development of the Russian state is associated with the activities of the illegitimate son of Svyatoslav - Vladimir I (980-1015), who came to power as a result of a cruel, bloody struggle with his brothers for the throne of Kyiv.
1. He expanded the territory of Kyiv states, adding to it the southwestern (Galicia, Volyn) and western (Polotsk, Turov) Slavic lands.
In addition, feeling the danger to the strength of his power, associated with the inferiority of his origin (the son of the slave Malusha - the housekeeper of Princess Olga), Vladimir sought strengthen princely power basically -
Introduction monotheistic religion (monotheism) .
Introduction institute of governors
It first does this by creating pantheon of 5 gods headed by Perun, which was especially revered by warriors. But this reform did not take root, and he went for radical changes - he introduced monotheism, accepting himself and forcing all of Russia to accept Christianity.
The introduction of Christianity not only created the basis for the spiritual unity of the Russian people, but also strengthened the supreme power in the state ("one god in heaven, one prince on earth"), increased the international prestige of Kievan Rus, which ceased to be a barbarian country. In addition, Christian morality called for humility, which justified the feudal exploitation of ordinary community members by the prince, his entourage, and the landowning boyars, who were the backbone of princely power.
The next decisive step, completing the creation of the state, was the replacement of the tribal princes by Vladimir governors (they were 12 sons of Vladimir and approximate boyars), appointed by the Kyiv prince. Governors should have
defend the new faith
and to strengthen the power of the prince in the field, being the "eye of the sovereign."
The strengthening of power gave Vladimir the opportunity to organize the population of the country for creating powerful defensive lines on the southern borders state and resettle part of the population here from more northern territories (Krivichi, Slovenes, Chudi, Vyatichi). This made it possible to successful fight with raids Pechenegs . As a result, the prince, as epics testify, began to be perceived in the popular mind not just as a warrior-defender, but as the head of state, organizing the protection of his borders.
The final step in the formation of Russian statehood was made by the son of Vladimir I, Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054), which marked the beginning of Russian written legislation. He created the first part of the first written code of laws - "Russian Truth" ("The Truth of Yaroslav"). It was written back in 1015, when he was his governor in Novgorod, and was intended for Novgorodians. Having entered the throne of Kyiv in 1019, Yaroslav extended it to the territory of the entire state. Subsequently, for a century and a half, Yaroslav's Truth was supplemented by his sons ("The Truth of the Yaroslavichs"), Vladimir Monomakh ("Charter of Vladimir Monomakh") and subsequent rulers of the Russian state and existed as a legislative basis until the adoption of the first Sudebnik in 1497.
The emergence of a written code of laws in the early ninth century. became necessary because disintegration of the tribal community many ordinary people lost their status and suffered insults, not being able to turn to tribal groups. The only protection for community members and ordinary citizens was the prince and his squad. This further increased the power of the prince.
Russkaya Pravda, as a developing monument, gives an idea of the increasingly complex social structure, categories of free and dependent population, i.e. actually objects and subjects of state administration.
Being predominantly a procedural collection, Russkaya Pravda said little about judicial organization (the prince and judges are mentioned as court bodies, and the prince's court as a place of court). The fact is that many disputes were resolved out of court, by the forces of the interested parties themselves.
The significance of Russkaya Pravda lies in the fact that it influenced the development of local legislation and, in the future, national legislation.
In addition, it carried the idea of the responsibility of the authorities in court cases, primarily before God, and the self-serving court in the interests of the authorities itself was qualified as wrong.
In general, the first written legislative code of Russia is important evidence of the maturity of the state.
Thus, by the beginning of the XI century. Kievan Rus had the main features of the formed statehood:
A single territory covering the place of residence of all Eastern Slavs;
Ticket 1.1. Origin and development Old Russian state (XI- StartXIIcenturies)
The first information about the Slavs. Eastern Slavs lived in large areas from the Carpathians to the Baltic Sea, the upper reaches of the Oka and the middle reaches of the Dnieper. They founded large settlements with a free layout, were engaged in hunting and fishing, farming, various forestry activities, blacksmithing and foundry, and livestock breeding were developed. The predecessors of the Slavs in the days of Ancient Greece and Scythia were engaged in grain trade with the Greek settlement cities on the Black Sea coast. In the 7th century Byzantine chroniclers noted the countless attacks of the Slavs who settled the modern Balkans.
Settlement of the Eastern Slavs. According to the "Tale of Bygone Years" by the monk Nestor, the Eastern Slavs in the 9th century. were a numerous people with a tribal organization. On the territories of tribal unions, cities and settlements arose that played an important role in transit trade between the "north" and "south" - "the path from the Varangians to the Greeks" (from the Baltic to Constantinople), as well as between the "west" and "east" - the northern continuation of caravan routes from the Caspian Sea to Western Europe. Kyiv was the center glade, living along the middle reaches of the Dnieper. Korosten is the capital Drevlyansky tribe. Smolensk and Gnezdovo were major centers on the territory Krivichi and Polochan. Novgorod near Ilmen Lake was the capital Slovenian settled in the east Vyatichi(Moscow-river and upper reaches of the Oka). Other notable tribes include - Dregovichi, Radimichi, northerners and in the south Buzhans, Volhynians, Dulebs, Tivertsy, street.
Slavic life. Already at that time, the organization of the Slavs had features inherent in the state: the power of elected elders and military leaders-princes, armed squads and "outposts", the organization of trade and military campaigns in the Black Sea, the Caucasus and the Caspian, ensuring order and security on trade routes and centers trade. In the ninth century in the Slavic lands there were a large number of settlements with earthen ramparts, ditches and fences made of pointed logs. The Vikings called Russia "Gardariki" - a country of cities.
Formation of the Old Russian state. Invited in 862 by the Novgorodians to protect trade routes, the Varangians, led by the prince Rurik seized power in Novgorod. In subsequent years, Rurik subjugated Beloozero and Izborsk. After the death of Rurik (879), the Novgorodians were headed by his relative Oleg. In 882, Oleg captured Kyiv and became the first Grand Duke of Kievan Rus.
The first Russian princes and the development of the Russian state. Oleg subjugated the Drevlyans, Tivertsy and Radimichi. He fought with the Khazar Khaganate and Byzantium. Oleg's military campaigns against Tsargrad (Constantinople) in 907 and 911 went down in history, when Kievan Rus forced the Byzantines to pay tribute to themselves and signed trade agreements with the empire. Next Grand Duke Igor(912-945) rules were no longer so successful. His two campaigns against Byzantium were defeated, and he himself was killed by the rebellious Drevlyans. His wife, Grand Duchess Olga, proved to be a wise ruler. Under her rule, graveyards (places of trade and tribute collection) were created on all lands (tribal territories), tribute collection was streamlined, she herself traveled around the subject territories, where she “gave judgment and truth”, visited Constantinople and converted to Christianity. Her son and heir Svyatoslav during his short reign (969-972) he defeated the "masters of the Don steppes" Pechenegs, defeated the Khazar Khaganate and fought against Byzantium. After the death of Svyatoslav in Kievan Rus, a war broke out between his sons, the winner of which was Vladimir(). He continued to strengthen the state, subjugating a number of Slavic tribes to his power. His most important step was the state-religious reform - the adoption of Christianity (888-889). Thanks to this, Kievan Rus was included in the pan-European cultural and political life.
After the death of Vladimir, war broke out again between his sons. The winner was Yaroslav, called Wise. () - the heyday of Kievan Rus. His state became one of the strongest states in Europe; an alliance with him, his patronage and friendship were sought by many European sovereigns. Yaroslav became related to the kings of France, Norway, Poland, Hungary, the emperors of Rome and Byzantium. His daughter Anna became Queen of France. Under Yaroslav, the first set of laws appeared - "".
Ticket 2.1. Political fragmentation in Russia. Russia specific (XII- XIIIcenturies)
Kievan Rus was a powerful and strong state. In terms of territory, it has not been equal in Europe since the time of Charlemagne. The trade routes passing through it ensured its economic prosperity. But after the death of Yaroslav the Wise, who divided the Russian land between his sons, troubles began again, which led to feudal fragmentation.
Causes of feudal fragmentation in Russia. The growing feudal fragmentation in Russia had political and economic reasons. Most important in the political structure of the Kievan state was the seat of the Kievan Grand Duke, the de facto head of state. The procedure was adopted according to which the grand princely Kiev throne was occupied by the "eldest in the family", and not the eldest son of the deceased. The vacated inheritance was again given not to his eldest son, but to the next in age among the princes, the descendants of Rurik. The princes thus did not consolidate in their original destinies, but gradually moved according to the “ladder right” to richer lands. These transitions gave rise to all sorts of intrigues, quarrels, and caused military clashes. Some did not want to leave their homes, while others, on the contrary, rushed to foreign princedoms. They often entered into alliances with foreigners: they called Hungarians, Poles, Polovtsy for help. There were more and more princes, cities and princely thrones were not enough for everyone. The authority of the power of the Kyiv prince was constantly falling. Even the best of the princes, who understood the perniciousness of civil strife, could not oppose anything to the course of events. If in the middle of the XII century. on Russian land, there were 15 large and small specific principalities that argued among themselves, then on the eve of the invasion of Batu Khan into Russia () there were already about 50 of them, and a century later there were 250 of them.
Economically, the process of fragmentation was supported by the growth of agricultural productivity, the emergence of new cities, the development of handicrafts, and a general rise in culture. Global changes also affected: Kievan Rus flourished while there was active trade along the "path from the Varangians to the Greeks." The weakening of the Byzantine Empire and its capture by the crusaders (1204) put an end to this most important all-Russian economic activity. This also contributed to fragmentation.
Russian feudal lands.Kiev principality remains one of the largest, although its importance has fallen significantly. It occupied the Right Bank of the Dnieper and the basins of its tributaries - Teterev, Irpen and Ros. The princes in Kyiv changed very often, and the territory of the principality was constantly decreasing. On the eve of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, Kiev remained one of the largest cities in Russia. Chernihiv and Seversky principality for almost a century and a half belonged to the descendants Oleg Svyatoslavich, grandson of Yaroslav the Wise. All this time, the Chernigov princes held power and fought for Kyiv, relying on their Polovtsian neighbors, with whom they were friends and related. The author of the ancient Russian work - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - brilliantly guessed the terrible threat lurking in the disunity of the Russian lands, and called for the unity of all Russian forces. Other major independent principalities and lands of that time were Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, Polotsk, Smolensk, Muromo-Ryazan, Veliky Novgorod. The absence of a strong centralized authority contributed to the economic upsurge of individual lands, the development of culture and art. Territories competed with each other, actively developed. The number of cities grew - in the 13th century there were already more than 300. Local markets developed, commodity production grew. But at the same time, the fragmentation of Russia into several principalities independent of each other significantly weakened the military power of the Russian land, its ability to repel external aggression.
Bitlet 3.1. Culture of Ancient Russia (X- XIIIcenturies). Significance of adopting Christianity
The culture of Kievan Rus became the highest manifestation and expression of the Slavic culture of that time. It developed together with the state under the influence of the rapid growth of crafts, the inclusion of Kievan Rus in the system of international relations and trade. It was she who became the common foundation of the culture of three close Slavic peoples - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.
Cultural achievements of Kievan Rus. An important factor in cultural development was the formation in the era of Kievan Rus of a single ancient Russian people and the emergence of a single Russian literary language. The culture of Kievan Rus was based on the paganism of the Slavs of previous eras. A significant part of this culture has been preserved in the form of epics, tales, ritual and lyrical songs, traditions and customs of folk life. Initially, Slavic culture was open, it actively interacted and adopted many of the cultures of those peoples with whom Russia fought, reconciled and traded.
Acceptance of Christianity. The adoption of Christianity played a huge role in the development of common Slavic culture. Orthodoxy allowed the Russians to enter the circle of civilized peoples of their time, to establish cultural interaction with them. Together with Christianity, Byzantine writing and art came to the Russian land, church schools were created. 13th century students along with prayers, they studied literacy, "tsifir", commercial office work. The highest educational institution of the Russian Middle Ages was the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, which trained church hierarchs - abbots, bishops, metropolitans. They studied theology, Greek, ecclesiastical literature, and "eloquence". With Orthodoxy, stone construction, icon painting, wall painting, stone carving and wooden sculpture came to Russia from Byzantium.
Spread of writing. From the beginning of the X century. writing spreads in Russia. Thanks to Bulgarian missionaries Kirill and Methodius a single Slavic alphabet appears - "Cyrillic", based on a number of East Slavic "alphabets" of an earlier period. The population of Kievan Rus was highly educated. This is evidenced by numerous finds of birch bark writings in Novgorod, Smolensk, Vitebsk and Pskov, chronicles, lives of saints, travel descriptions, religious and philosophical writings that have come down to us. These are the "Sermon of Law and Grace" Bishop Hilarion,“The Journey of Abbot Daniel to Holy Places”, “The Tale of Igor's Campaign” (1185) is an outstanding patriotic literary and publicistic work. In the XI century. in Russia, the first libraries appear at monasteries and princely courts.
The development of architecture. Old Russian architecture reached an outstanding level. Many buildings of the 12th and later centuries have survived to our time - temples, princely palaces, boyar chambers and other structures. They are distinguished by beauty and harmony, originality of architectural design and design.
The development of art. With the adoption of Christianity, other forms of art - painting, sculpture, music - also underwent changes. The samples of art taken from the harsh and ascetic Byzantium were reworked and acquired new, more life-affirming qualities. Frescoes and mosaics were used to decorate temples, princely residences and boyar houses. The old art of wood and stone carving was perfected. Jewelry art developed, gold and silver craftsmen created genuine masterpieces that adorned the salaries of icons and gospels, the outfits of Russian beauties. In musical art, a characteristic feature was the performance of various epics, tales and songs.
Military affairs, development of crafts. Russian blacksmiths were able to make strong chain mail from several layers of steel rings, forged armor - “armor”, Russian swords and blades (sabers) were widely known. They also made horse armor. All this made it possible to form not only a lightly armed cavalry capable of fighting on equal terms with the steppe warriors, but also a heavy cavalry, which could compete with the knightly cavalry of the Europeans. In addition to bows, powerful crossbows appeared. Improved military tactics and strategy. Urban artisans produced almost all the necessary household and cultural items: they made silver jewelry and utensils, furniture and horse harness, household tools, built boats and plows, huts and estates, sewed clothes. The level of agricultural production grew, new varieties of garden and horticultural crops were grown, borrowed in Byzantium, from other neighbors.
Life of Kievan Rus. In the countryside, every peasant took part in the life of the rural community - "peace", knew the calendar, weather signs well, continued to perform many pagan cults and rituals. He knew agriculture, confidently navigated the forest, hunted, skillfully used an axe, knew how to build, care for livestock, cook, possessed military skills, could protect himself from the raids of the steppes, and from the injustice of the boyars, princely combatants, wealthy merchants and their servants. He was an obedient Christian and often attended church, knew how to read. He went to the market, where he bargained recklessly, selling his products and buying things needed in the household. Men often spent winter evenings at home feasts with guests, listened to and sang songs, told stories from life. It is no coincidence that the epics of that time preserved the bright and joyful attitude of people who perceived life as a holiday, where there was a place for princes and heroes, warriors and "honest Christians".
Ticket 4.1. The struggle of Russia against external invasions inXIIIin.
Kievan Rus and the Steppe. The southeastern Slavs, and then Kievan Rus, were constantly subjected to raids by steppe warriors and nomadic tribes. Huns and Avars, Bulgars and Ugrians (Hungarians), Pechenegs and Cumans were a constant threat to the settled Slavic population. At the same time, Kievan Rus carried on trade with the steppes, the main subject of which were horses and cattle, caravans with oriental goods came to Russia through the steppe.
Defeat on the Kalka River. In 1223, a Polovtsian arrived in Kyiv Khan Kotyan and said that "unknown peoples" called Tatars appeared in the steppe, and asked for military assistance. For almost eight days, the united Russian-Polovtsian army pursued the enemies and on May 31, 1223, collided with the main forces of the Mongol commander Subedey Bogatyr near the Kalka River. The defeat of the Russian squads was terrible: most of the princes and warriors died in battle and during the flight; the captives were also killed; few survivors were able to tell in Russia about their defeat.
Mongol campaign against Russia. Death Genghis Khan(1227) did not stop the military aspirations of the Mongols. In 1235, at the kurultai of the Mongol khans, it was decided to continue the campaign to the west. It was headed by the grandson of Genghis Khan batu, and the military leader - Subedei. The total number of the Mongolian army was 60-120 thousand horsemen. In 1237 hostilities began. The first victim of the Mongols was Ryazan. After a six-day siege, the city was taken and plundered, most of the inhabitants were killed or taken in full. The same fate befell Kolomna, Moscow. In February 1238, Vladimir and other cities of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus were taken: Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Uglich, Galich, Dmitrov, Tver. Troops of the Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich were defeated at the Battle of the City River. The Mongols actually devastated North-Eastern Russia. In the years they fell upon southern Russia, taking Kiev and other cities. Soon the troops of Batu and Subedei began hostilities against Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Moldova. But the Mongols were no longer strong enough to continue their conquests, and in 1242 Batu Khan returned to the steppe regions of the Lower Volga.
Threat to Russia from the West. Almost the only territory of Russia that was not subjected to the Mongol ruin was Novgorod and its allied Pskov. But these Russian lands were under threat from the west. The German military and spiritual orders - Livonian and Teutonic - at that time were actively colonizing the Baltic states. Denmark joined them. The German-Danish alliance agreement signed in June 1238 provided for an attack by the Danes on Novgorod. In the summer of 1240, the Swedes landed at the mouth of the Neva.
Alexander Nevskiy. At that time, the Novgorod prince was 19-year-old Alexander Yaroslavich, son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. Alexander proved himself to be a talented military leader. He quickly gathered his squad and the Novgorod militia and dealt a crushing blow to the landed Swedes. Returning to Novgorod, Alexander soon learned about the military operations of the German knights who occupied Izborsk and Pskov. With the help of the Vladimir-Suzdal army, Alexander liberated Pskov in 1242, and then defeated the main forces of the Livonian Order on the ice of Lake Peipsi. Northwestern Russia was liberated.
Russia and Horde. Nevertheless, the victories in the west did not completely solve the question of the fate of Russia. Having become in 1252 the Grand Duke of Russia, Alexander Nevsky led the only possible line at that time for allied subordination to the Golden Horde. With armed force, he crushed the scattered resistance of the Russian cities to the Tatar tribute collectors. In 1263, he managed to complete a difficult diplomatic mission. He obtained from the khans of the Golden Horde the transfer of the right to collect tribute to the Russian princes. The Grand Duke managed to ensure the security of the country and the people, saved Russia from final ruin, bought time to let it recover from the terrible defeat of Messrs. He became the ancestor of the policy of the Moscow princes, aimed at "gathering Russia." Alexander Nevsky died in 1263 at the age of 43.
Ticket 5.1. The unification of Russian lands around Moscow and the formation of a single Russian state inXIV- XVcenturies Opposition to the Horde
Russia after Batu's invasion. Russia was a sad sight after the invasion of Batu. Many cities and villages were devastated, life in them barely flickered. If before the princes fought with each other, now many of them sought to get into the khan's capital of the Golden Horde in order to get a label for the right to reign with money and humiliated requests. Those who received the khan's mercy often brought Tatar detachments to Russia in order to strengthen their power. Under these conditions, the art of diplomacy came to the fore - the ability to humble oneself before force, to conduct intrigues. A significant part of the Russian lands (Kyiv, Smolensk, Polotsk, all the southern Russian and western lands) became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The border between Russia and Lithuania was two hundred kilometers from Moscow.
Development of the Moscow principality. After the death of Alexander Nevsky, his youngest son Daniel got a run-down possession - Moscow with adjacent territories. During the nearly eighty years of the reign of Daniel and his sons Yuri and Ivan Kalita Moscow has changed. The population grew; new trade routes began to pass through Moscow; Moscow princes were famous for their Christian virtues, care for the peasants and their farms; through purchases of the surrounding lands, they constantly increased their possessions, not embarrassed by predatory actions: Daniil Alexandrovich “deceived” took away Kolomna from the Ryazan prince (1300), and his son Yuri Danilovich captured Mozhaisk (1303). Kalita "bought" Uglich, Galich and Belozersk with districts. Their successors continued to expand the territory of the Moscow Principality
The struggle of the Moscow princes for the great reign. The growth of the power and influence of Moscow already at the beginning of the XIV century. allowed Yuri Danilovich to start the struggle for the grand throne of Russia. The main rivals of Moscow in this were the princes of Tver. Yuri Danilovich spent several years in the Horde, married his sister Khan Uzbek and achieved his goal, having received the label of the Grand Duke of Vladimir. According to his own denunciation, in 1318 the Tver prince Mikhail Yaroslavich was executed in the Horde. Son of the slain - Dmitry Mikhailovich - managed to turn the Horde to his side. Yuri Danilovich was summoned to the khan's headquarters and killed there. The same fate soon befell Dmitry. The Prince of Tver became the Grand Duke - Alexander Mikhailovich. But Ivan Kalita, the younger brother of Yuri Danilovich, managed to take over. In 1327 Tver rebelled against the Baskak Chol Khan. Ivan Kalita stood at the head of the rebels. His reward was power over Novgorod and Kostroma. Ivan Kalita had great political talent. He correlated his actions with the circumstances, was cunning and cruel, he was distinguished by patience, foresight, purposefulness. In the Horde, he showed "humble wisdom", brought "a lot of gold and silver" to the khan, khanshams and murzas. He knew how to restore order in his native land. Tribute for the Horde was brought to Moscow to the Grand Duke, who skillfully used these funds. Under Ivan Kalita, the residence of the Metropolitan of All Russia was moved to Moscow Theognost. Thanks to this, Moscow has become the spiritual and religious center of Russia. , his sons Semyon Ivanovich() and Ivan Ivanovich(), in everything they continued the line of their father.
Dmitry Donskoy and victory at the Kulikovo field. Five generations of Moscow princes - from Daniil Alexandrovich to Dmitry Donskoy() - exalted Moscow, turned it into a true leader of Russia. launched an open challenge to the Golden Horde. In 1378, Dmitry's governors defeated a large army of Murza in the battle on the Vozha River Begich, sent Mamaem, the real owner of the Golden Horde, the recalcitrant Russians.
The decisive clash took place on the Kulikovo field in the upper reaches of the Don at the confluence of the Nepryadva River on September 8, 1380. The battle brought together the military forces of most of Russia and the Golden Horde. The Grand Duke personally took part in the battle and was seriously wounded. Military happiness fluctuated for a long time during the day, but the strike of the Russian ambush regiment in the rear of the advancing troops of Mamai decided the outcome of the battle. The destruction was complete. Mamai fled to the Crimea and was killed there by his former allies, the Italians.
The Battle of Kulikovo is a key, turning point in the history of Russia. Russia won the first big victory over its enemies. The Moscow prince turned into a national hero. The country began to rise in all spheres of life. Having lived only 39 years, Dmitry Donskoy handed over by will power over all of Russia to his son Vasily, without asking the permission of the Golden Horde khans.
Ticket 6.1. Moscow Russia in the era of Ivan the Terrible
"Russian kingdom". In January 1547, all of Moscow was amazed by the huge and solemn celebration of the wedding of the young Grand Duke of All Russia to the kingdom Ivan VasilyevichIV. The royal title made Ivan IV virtually equal to the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, equalized with the recent rulers of Russia - the Golden Horde khans, and placed him above the European kings. The crowning of the kingdom also strengthened the authority of the Russian Orthodox Church: the tsar received the crown from the hands of its head.
But after the magnificent celebrations and the marriage of Ivan IV to one of the Russian beauties Anastasia Romanova a series of terrible events unfolded. In April 1547, almost all of Moscow burned out in a fire. The common people of Moscow rebelled, accusing the tsar's relatives of arson. And although the uprising was crushed, the young king understood that the uprising was caused by the deep discontent of the people. Thus began the period of reforms of Ivan IV
The Elected Rada and the Reforms of the 1550s The Chosen Rada united around the tsar - an informal body consisting of close friends and relatives of Ivan IV. There were both persons of humble origin (nobleman Alexey Adashev and confessor of Ivan IV Sylvester), and prominent courtiers (princes Andrey Kurbsky, Kurlyatev, Vorotynsky, Silver, metropolitan Macarius). For 13 years, the Chosen Council was the government under the tsar, engaged in reforming the military forces, judiciary, and finances. In February 1549, the tsar convened the Zemsky Sobor - a full-fledged class-representative body of "all kinds of people" of the Muscovite state. Councils were convened as needed to resolve issues of national importance (1565, 1584, 1589 and later). The Council of 1549 expanded the rights of the nobility and limited the self-will of the princes and boyars, gave the task of developing and adopting a new Code of Laws (the work was completed in 1550). The new Sudebnik limited the rights of governors, the role of state courts and control by tsarist officials was strengthened, the presence of zemstvo elders and kissers representing the servicemen of the townspeople, "black" peasants, became mandatory in court. In 1550, military reform began. The military service of the nobles and archers was streamlined, the issues of their maintenance were resolved at the expense of the issued lands and money from the treasury. A new population census was carried out and special taxes were introduced - “food”, “polony”, etc. The Church Council (1551) did not allow land holdings to be taken away from the church, but in the future the transfer of land to monasteries without the consent of the king was prohibited.
The reforms gave a powerful impetus to the strengthening of the state, its army, raised the spirit of the people. 1550s were years of unprecedented success for Russia. The Kazan and Astrakhan kingdoms were annexed, the peoples of the Volga region - the Chuvash, Bashkirs, Udmurts, etc. - became part of Russia, and the development of the wealth of the Urals began.
Oprichnina. Ivan Vasilyevich IV the Terrible was a complex and outstanding personality. Impressive and educated, painfully proud and unrestrained, suspicious - he learned too many secrets of the behind-the-scenes political struggle during his childhood. In 1553, Ivan IV, having fallen seriously ill, faced a serious crisis in his power. The behavior of the boyars aroused in him doubts about their personal loyalty. He began to fear a conspiracy against himself. The death of the infant son Dmitry (1554) and his wife Anastasia (1560) finally convinced Ivan IV of the "boyar conspiracy". He dissolved the Chosen Rada, and expelled its active members from Moscow. Mass executions of those suspected of "treason" began in the country. Many boyars and nobles fled abroad, including one of the heroes of the capture of Kazan, Prince Andrei Kurbsky (1564). To cope with "treason", Ivan IV announced the creation oprichnina from among the people who were especially loyal to him. It was a new state reform. The king divided the country into two parts, the oprichnina lands made up his own lot. Oprichniki formed the personal guard of the king, they renounced their relatives and friends, swore allegiance only to the king. Many patrimonies and cities were subjected to oprichny defeat. Novgorod suffered the most (1569) - Ivan IV accused the Novgorodians of wanting to go "to the side of Lithuania" and destroyed half of the city, depriving it of the last remnants of its former liberty. But in 1571, the oprichnina army could not defend Moscow from the attack of the Crimean Tatars Devlet Giray. And then the severity of repression fell upon the guardsmen and their leadership.
Ivan's tragedyIV. The unbridled tsar turned into his personal tragedy. In 1581, during a quarrel, he hit his son and heir with a heavy staff on the head Ivan Ivanovich. Young Ivan died four days later. Ivan the Terrible left one son - narrow-minded Fedor. Although in 1583 Ivan IV had another son - Dmitry, The days of the dynasty were numbered. Ivan the Terrible died in 1584, Tsarevich Dmitry died in 1591, and Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich died in 1598 without leaving an heir. Thus ended the Rurik dynasty on the Russian throne. The history of Russia under Ivan IV falls into two periods - before 1560, when Russia achieved one success after another and developed rapidly, and after 1560, when the state suffered a series of serious defeats and setbacks.
Ticket 7.1. The main directions of foreign policy and the expansion of the territory of the Russian state inXV- XVIcenturies
Annexation of Kazan. At the center of foreign policy issues of the government IvanaIV there were relations with the Kazan and Crimean khanates, with scattered, but dangerous nomads of the Don steppes - the Nogais (named after Khan Leg). Kazan troops almost every year made devastating raids on Russian lands. Ivan IV decided to start the war: it was necessary to eliminate the center of aggression, put his protege on the khan's throne in Kazan, and establish control over the Volga route of trade with the countries of the East. In 1552, the 150,000th Russian army laid siege to Kazan. After six weeks of siege, the Russians broke into the city. The Kazan Khanate was included in the Russian state.
"Discovery" of Siberia. The fall of Kazan had another important consequence. A few years later, with the consent of Ivan the Terrible, merchants and industrialists entrenched themselves in the Urals. Stroganovs. The money that came from them, gold and furs, accounted for almost a quarter of the income of the Russian treasury. The detachments of Cossacks invited by the Stroganovs to protect the lands, led by Yermak made a trip deep into Siberia, defeated the troops of the Siberian Khan in several battles Kuchum and took its capital, Itil. This victory opened before the Russians the prospect of a peaceful conquest and development of the vast expanses of Western and Eastern Siberia, Yakutia and Primorye. In 1584, a delegation of Siberian Cossacks arrived at Ivan IV, who laid at his feet another huge possession - Siberia, which was then included in the Russian State.
Astrakhan and Crimea. In 1556, the governors of Ivan IV took Astrakhan. The Astrakhan Khanate arose, like Kazan, with the collapse of the Golden Horde. A year later, the ruler of the Great Nogai Horde voluntarily swore allegiance to the Russian sovereign Khan Ismail. With a request to accept their peoples into Russia, ambassadors from Chuvashia, Udmurtia and Bashkiria arrived in Moscow. The problem of Crimea remained unresolved. The Crimean khans repeatedly raided the south of Russia. In 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Giray attacked the Russian lands by surprise and burned Moscow. More than 100 thousand people were taken to full. But to conquer the Crimean Khanate, which was under the auspices of the Ottoman Empire and separated from the Russian border by lifeless expanses of the steppes, at that time was almost impossible.
Livonian war. In the west, the problem remained unresolved, which faced even the grandfather of Ivan IV - IvanIII. Russia did not have access to the Baltic Sea, it needed diplomatic, economic, cultural relations with Western Europe. An obstacle to this was a chain of states hostile to Russia - Sweden, the Livonian Order, Poland and the Ottoman Empire. The weak link in this chain was the Livonian Order: back in 1503, the Order undertook to pay tribute to Russia, but did not fulfill its obligation. Ivan IV in 1558 started a war against Livonia. Russian troops reached the coast of the Baltic Sea, took Narva and Derpt (Yuriev), laid siege to Revel and Riga. In 1561, the defeated Livonian Order ceased to exist, "unsubscribing" the lands captured by the Russians of Denmark, Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. At this time, Ivan IV and his diplomacy made a serious miscalculation. Instead of seeking an honorable peace, Ivan the Terrible decided to continue the war against new opponents. But military happiness turned away from the Russians. The war dragged on, the tsarist troops suffered defeat. In search of the guilty, Ivan the Terrible unleashed terror in the country and created an oprichnina to fight the "traitors". In 1581 the troops of the Polish king Stefan Batory invaded Russia and laid siege to Pskov. The heroic defense of Pskov saved Russia from complete defeat. Ivan IV offered peace to his enemies at the price of renouncing the conquered in Livonia and part of the original Russian lands. As a result, Sweden took over the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland.
Relations with England. Even during the Livonian War, Ivan IV actively tried to find allies in the West. Relations with England developed most successfully. The tsar granted numerous privileges to English merchants, invited a large group of specialists to Russia - geologists, doctors, specialists in melting metals and minting coins. But the development of relations ceased with the death of Ivan IV in 1584.
Under Ivan IV, Russia expanded unprecedentedly to the east and became the largest state in the world in terms of its territory. The Golden Horde yoke remained in the past, the heirs of the Horde were "brought under the arm of Moscow." But the establishment of political, economic and cultural contacts with the West failed. Despite the enormous tension of all the forces of the country, the "door" to the west did not open. Russia remained in the ring of states hostile to it, and the country's forces for many years were undermined by the internal policy of Ivan IV himself
Ticket 8.1. Culture and spiritual life of Russia inXV- XVIcenturies
In the 16th century, the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality and the formation of the Russian language, which differs not only from Belarusian and Ukrainian, but also from Church Slavonic, preserved in writing, take place. The basis of the Russian language proper was the Rostov-Suzdal dialect and the Moscow dialect.
Education and book case. With the formation of a single state, the need for educated people is growing. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 ordered priests to create "schools" in their homes to teach the children of priests and deacons. There were also secular teachers. In the second half of the 16th century, the first textbooks on grammar and arithmetic were created. The number of handwritten books grew, despite their high cost (in 1600, one handwritten book on 135 sheets was exchanged “for a self-made gun, and a saber, and for black cloth, and for a simple curtain”). From the middle of the XVI century. printing appeared in Moscow. The initiator of the printing business was IvanIV. The first printing house in Moscow began work in 1551; from 1563 he was engaged in printing books "in Moscow" Ivan Fedorov. in the development of printing business is invaluable. He himself made all kinds of printing equipment, was a talented author, an excellent engraver and woodcarver, edited and corrected texts. Chronicle continued. At the request of Ivan IV, the Front Chronicle Code was created - an encyclopedia of world and Russian history. On the initiative of Metropolitan Macarius, the "Fourth Menaion" was published - a 12-volume collection for popular reading by days of the week and months. Confessor of Tsar Ivan IV Sylvester wrote the secular book "Domostroy", which contained the life rules of the Russian Orthodox person, the business ethics of his time. In 1556, a guide was published for state scribes on measuring and describing land plots with rules for calculating areas of various shapes. In 1581, the first pharmacy in Russia was opened in the Kremlin. Iconography developed. An outstanding master icon painter and painter was Dionysius, monk of the Joseph-Voloko-Lama Monastery.
The development of architecture. Brick housing construction appeared, architecture developed. The hip style of folk wooden architecture penetrates into stone architecture. Tent churches of the 16th century - characteristic structures of that time. The crown of Russian architecture of the XVI century. St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow, built Barma and Postnik. The king created the Order of Stone Affairs, which was in charge of the construction of all stone structures. Russia had experienced craftsmen and builders capable of solving complex problems. Yes, master Ivan Vyrodkov in the Kazan campaign, he set up the Sviyazhsk fortress on the Volga in four weeks, and during the siege of Kazan he led the construction of assault towers.
