In the 17th century the fate of the Russian countryside has changed. going on the final enslavement of the peasants, and for almost 200 years Russia takes the path of serfdom. This changed the perspectives of the Russian countryside, depriving it of development opportunities. The village became an object for pumping out resources. Her way of life, economy, mode of production were mothballed.
The years of the civil war (Troubles) of the beginning of the 17th century had a severe impact on the Russian village. Almost the entire European part of the country was devastated from the Volga region to Smolensk, from the southern counties to Novgorod and Pskov. Documents show a sharp increase in the number (up to 40%) of bobyl households (i.e. households of impoverished peasants), as well as a reduction in arable land (in some counties it was only 4-5% of cultivated land) and an increase in fallow land. The crisis was overcome only in the 1620s. For almost a quarter of a century, the Russian village lay in ruins.
Subsequent years of the 17th century. characterized by an increase in agricultural production. This is primarily due to the colonization processes. Thanks to the construction of serif lines, there was a significant expansion of the economic territory of Russia to the south. The fertile lands of the Central Chernozem Region and the South of Russia entered the agricultural circulation. Russian colonization of the Volga region, regions of the Urals, Siberia continued.
At the end of the XVII century. Several tens of thousands of Russian peasants already lived in Siberia. Colonization here was of a focal nature; separate territories can be distinguished: Tobolsk district, Tomsk-Kuznetsk, Yenisei-Krasnoyarsk and Ilimo-Angara agricultural regions. The development of agriculture in Siberia was an important factor in the development of the region: it began to provide itself with bread, which facilitated the colonization processes, helped Russian explorers to explore new spaces of Eurasia and allowed the center to leave grain reserves for its own needs.
The predominant type of peasant settlements in the 17th century, according to A. A. Shennikov, was churchyard:"a village in which estates of representatives of the communal administration, a church with courtyards of the clergy and a cemetery were grouped near the market square, but there were few or no estates of ordinary peasants who lived in villages." Pogosts were centers of communal lands stretching for many kilometers (both cultivated arable land and undeveloped forest tracts). On these communal lands there were numerous peasant farms scattered far from each other. villages - small settlements of three to five households. If the village perished, instead of it remained wasteland. When the peasants founded a new village on virgin lands, this place was called repair. A similar organization of lands and settlements was common on the lands of the black-mossed North. The territory of the community in the documents was called "graveyard" or "volost".
This system dates back to the period of medieval colonization of the northern forest regions. In the 17th century villages were enlarged, numerous peasant households appeared in churchyards. Such a churchyard turned into village- a large settlement with a church, the center of an Orthodox parish. With the development of landownership in the villages, the estates of feudal lords spread (such a settlement was called village).
Thus, according to A. A. Shennikov, a settlement system was formed with three types of multi-family settlements: a village without a feudal estate and without a church, a village with a feudal estate but without a church, and a village with a church.
Agricultural technology continued to dominate three-field, effective for fertile chernozem, but not always satisfactory for poor podzolic soils. On them, the land in the three-field cycle did not have time to recover, it was necessary to manure: according to the calculations of A. Sovetov, manure from 3-6 cows was required per tithe. Peasant farms did not have such a large number of livestock, and the fields were gradually depleted. Attempts to introduce five- and six-fields with a rotational cycle in some large farms have not received distribution.
Despite the spread of the three-field system, important positions in land use were retained undercut. This was due to two factors. First of all, undercutting is necessary during colonization processes, when the land for new arable land must be cleared from the forest. The second factor, according to scientists, was the spread of peasant "unaccounted for arable land." The increase in taxes forced the peasant to start arable land in the forest that was not taken into account for tax collectors to feed them. They were cleared and processed with the help of undercutting. The exact number of such lands and their role in the peasant economy in the XVI-XVII centuries. cannot be accounted for, we cannot assess the scale and role of this "shadow" sector of the peasant economy.
A set of crops in the XVII century. has not undergone significant changes. It was still rye, wheat, barley, oats, buckwheat, millet, peas, flax, hemp. According to N. A. Gorskaya, at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. in the central Russian districts, rye occupied 50% of the sown area, oats - 41.9, barley - 6%. Wheat is rare, its sown area was no more than 2%. To the north of the central counties, rye and barley prevailed, to the south - rye and oats, with an increase in the share of wheat and buckwheat crops.
There was no significant evolution in the tools for cultivating the land: plows, plows, and harrows were still used. Some exception is the distribution in the XVII century. so-called roe deer with convex ploughshare, cutter and blade, turning over the plowed land. This tool was more effective than the traditional two-pronged plow.
Bread was threshed with flails. Grinded grain in mills, mostly water or manual. Windmills were in the XVII century. less spread. Grain yield in the 17th century. does not change compared to the previous time, and averages sam-three - sam-four. On the newly developed chernozem lands of the South, in productive years, the yield could reach sam-six to sam-seven.
In the 17th century It is the time of the heyday of Russian gardening and horticulture. In Moscow, special Ogorodnaya and Sadovaya settlements even arose, supplying fruits and vegetables to the court.
According to the historian I. E. Zabelin, at the end of the 17th century. The palace economy in Moscow owned 52 gardens, in which "there were 46,694 apple trees, 1,565 pears, 42 duli (pear varieties), 9,136 cherries, 17 vine bushes, 582 plums, 15 ridges of strawberries, 7 walnut trees, a cypress bush, 23 trees prunes, 3 bushes of blackthorn, “... in addition, many bushes and ridges of cherries, raspberries, red, white and black currants, kryzhu, bayberry, silverberry or rose hips of red and white” ...
Of the crops, cabbage, carrots, beets, turnips, onions, cucumbers, pumpkins were still bred. However, new crops also appear: celery, lettuce, etc. Melons were grown from exotic berries. Greenhouse gardening is gaining ground. Apples, pears, cherries, plums, gooseberries, currants, raspberries, and strawberries were grown in the orchards. Scientists have found that in the XVII century. such varieties of apples as “filling”, “titov”, “Bel Mozhaiskaya”, “Arkat”, “Scroup”, “Kuzminsky”, “white malets”, “red malets” were known. Gardeners learned to grow grapes, watermelons, even lemon and orange trees. True, I had to think about where to put them in the winter.
It is very significant that from the XVII century. We have received information about the systematic cultivation of flowers in flower beds. They grew peonies, roses, tulips, carnations. This indicates the emergence of an aesthetic component in the economy: agriculture was no longer treated only as a utilitarian source of income, at least in some aristocratic families.
In the 17th century cattle breeding, like agriculture, has undergone minor changes compared to the previous period. Farms still kept cows, pigs, sheep, goats, and poultry. The main draft animal for the peasants was the horse. Gradually, areas of specialization in breeding breeds of cattle are outlined (mainly in the North): Kholmogory, Arkhangelsk, Mezen lands. There will even be special breeds of cattle, such as Kholmogory.
Russian peasants in the 17th century lived on four categories of land:
- 1) secular property (patrimonial and local);
- 2) church andmonastic ;
- 3) palace (personal household of the monarch);
- 4) black-mallowed (state lands).
The division of peasants into categories was also corresponding.
Owning peasants(both secular landowners and ecclesiastical, monastic ones) performed a large amount of duties for the master (tire in food, cash quitrent, work in the feudal yard, etc.). The forms and sizes of duties differed quite significantly in the localities, but quitrent types of rent prevailed. Corvee was mostly assigned to rural serfs.
A special category was made up of personally free black peasants, bearing sovereign tax- a significant amount of taxes and duties on the state. In historiography, there is a point of view (L.I. Kopanev), according to which in the XVI-XVII centuries. Black-eared peasants considered themselves the owners of the land (although the land was state-owned, they could give it away, exchange it, bequeath it, etc.), it is in this social stratum that one can look for the first sprouts of entrepreneurship among the Russian peasantry. The prospects for the development of such new entrepreneurial relations in the native countryside were cut short by the introduction of serfdom ("black" lands were gradually distributed by the monarch to the feudal lords, turned into possessive ones).
The lower strata of the rural population were beans and rural serfs, and in the black-mossed lands - housekeepers, neighbors, hirelings and so on. Bobyls - ruined, poor peasants who rented an allotment - due to poverty, they could not bear the sovereign's taxes. However, since the 1620s, as B. D. Grekov showed, Bobyl’s households were taken into account along with peasant households when calculating the “living quarter”, i.e. taxable unit. The size of the tax was calculated according to the number of households, thus, in fact, the tax was extended to the beans (another question is how they paid it). In 1679, the bobs, who had their own, albeit rented, yard, were completely overlaid with state taxes. Rural serfs were quite widespread, they were actively involved in agricultural work on the master's farm, especially for corvee.
The entire first half of the 17th century. - the history of the tightening of serf legislation. The Code of Vasily Shuisky of 1607 introduced a 15-year term for detecting fugitive peasants. This was a serious attack on the peasantry: if hiding from the authorities for five years (according to the previous decree on lesson years of 1597) in the Russian expanses was not difficult, then a 15-year period doomed the fugitive peasant to a long journey, to the Don, from which "there is no extradition", to the North or to Siberia. It was impossible to hide in Central Russia for 15 years.
The nobility did not stop there, and the government of Mikhail Fedorovich repeatedly received collective petitions to extend the term for the investigation of fugitive peasants (in 1637, 1641, 1645, 1648). In 1642, a 10-year investigation was introduced for the fugitives and a 15-year investigation for those who were exported, those who were lured (“taken away”) by stronger landowners. The only thing that kept the authorities from introducing an indefinite investigation was the fact that after the Time of Troubles there were large migrations of the taxable population. The peasants fled from ruined estates to stronger owners. The return of such fugitives would mean the weakening of these strong farms, which would inevitably entail a drop in tax collection. But money was vital for the resurgent Russia, therefore, making concessions to the nobility, the government of Mikhail Fedorovich did not take the main step, it hesitated to introduce an indefinite investigation.
In 1645, the government of B. I. Morozov planned a peasant reform. By that time, it became clear that the path of an infinite increase in the lesson years was a dead end. The peasants continued to flee to the Don, from which "there is no extradition", at least in fact. The peasants fled from the poor estates of the nobility to the rich boyar estates, where they were sheltered and where they were inaccessible to any detachments of "detectives". Extending the search term did not solve the problem. At the same time, it was also impossible to endlessly ignore the demands of the nobility to provide their estates with labor while the boyar's son was fighting at the front. Once an unsuccessful solution to this problem has already become one of the factors in the emergence of a civil war - the Time of Troubles.
Morozov's government in 1645 agreed with the need to introduce an indefinite search for peasants, but with one amendment: first, new census books must be compiled, which will become new "fortresses". It is difficult to say what motivated the government: the unwillingness to get bogged down in the thousands of lawsuits that have accumulated over controversial issues about the ownership of fugitive peasants since the beginning of the 17th century, or the desire to protect large boyar estates. After all, as I. L. Andreev noted, the proposed order actually assigned runaway peasants to their new owners, and a huge mass of service nobility lost the chance of ever regaining their runaways. However, the Russian government since the end of the XVI century. was prone to compromise solutions to the peasant issue: on the one hand, it stood guard over the interests of the nobility, on the other hand, it did not want to drive a good taxpayer, a good taxpayer, even a fugitive, from his familiar place.
The Council Code of 1649 introduced an indefinite search for fugitive peasants. This is considered the point of final establishment of serfdom, although serf legislation was developed and refined throughout the second half of the century.
Having introduced an indefinite search, it was necessary to work out the mechanism for its implementation. Initially, the authorities took the primitive path of raids: teams were sent from the center to different counties detectives, which were supposed to identify settlers and fugitives and return them to their owners. The scope of the investigations expanded. In 1676–1678 a house-to-house census was carried out, which helped detective activities. Now the investigation of the fugitives could be put on a more solid documentary basis.
1. Mikhail Romanov.
2. The beginning of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich. Cathedral regulation.
3. Stages of enslavement of peasants in Russia.
1 . To strengthen his power, Mikhail sought to rely on the authority of Zemsky Sobors, so they were often convened. Much has been done to replenish the empty treasury. The government also managed to resolve foreign policy issues. In 1617, the Treaty of Stolbovsky was signed with Sweden, according to which the Novgorod lands returned to Russia, but she herself lost access to the Baltic Sea. In 1618, after the defeat of the troops of Prince Vladislav, the Deulino truce was concluded with Poland. Russia lost Smolensk and the Seversk lands, but Russian prisoners returned to the country, including the father of M. Romanov - Filaret, who, after being elevated to the patriarchate, became the actual co-ruler of his son.
2 . AT 1645 after the death of Michael, the throne was taken by his son Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) . Under him, the courtyard acquired a grandeur and splendor never seen before. The attitude towards the person of the sovereign became almost religious. The king was emphatically separated from his subjects and towered over them. Each appearance of the tsar was an event; when he went out to the people, he was led under the arms of the boyars. All this became an external manifestation of the formation of absolutism in the country. In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted the Council Code - a set of laws regulating all spheres of public life. Serfdom was finally legalized.
3 . The process of enslaving the peasants in Russia was lengthy and passed several stages. The first stage - the end of the XV - the end of the XVI century. The Sudebnik of 1497 confirmed the right of the peasants, after paying the "elderly", to leave the landlords for Yuriev day . This norm was also contained in the Sudebnik of 1550. However, in 1581, in the conditions of the extreme ruin of the country and the flight of the population, Ivan IV introduced reserved years prohibiting peasant output on the lands most affected by disasters. This measure was emergency and temporary. In 1592, a decree was issued prohibiting the exit already throughout the country and without any time limits. Decree of 1597 established lesson years (the term of the search for runaway peasants, defined as five years).
A new stage in the development of serfdom began at the end of the 16th century. and ended with the publication Cathedral Code of 1649 . "Lesson summer" was canceled and introduced perpetual search for fugitives. The property of the peasant was recognized as the property of the landowner. The serfs became legally disenfranchised. In Russia, serfdom was formalized.
Writing on the wall
A. Kamensky and name the empress in question.
“... This reign is one of the darkest pages of our history, and the darkest spot on it is the empress herself ... The Germans poured into Russia, like rubbish from a holey bag, stuck around the courtyard, sat down on the throne, huddled in the most profitable places in government ...”
Answer: _______ anna ioanovna __________
5. Establish a correspondence between the names of sovereigns and foreign policy events related to their reign. For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write it down.
Names of sovereigns Events
a) Ivan IV5 1) the Italian campaign of A.V. Suvorov
b) Elizaveta Petrovna3 2) annexation of Crimea to Russia
c) Catherine II2 3) Seven Years' War
d) Pavel I1 4) Northern War
5) Livonian War
Exam testing in the history of Russia Grade 7
Pupil(s) Grade 7 ____________________________________________________________
Option II
Part 1.
1. Manufactory is:
one). agricultural enterprise 2). an enterprise based on the division of labor and manual technology 3). association of shops 4). association of a number of owners of craft workshops
2. Which of the following refers to the results of the Troubles:
one). weakening of state structures 2) establishment of lesson years
3). the beginning of the creation of banking 4). the beginning of the convocation of Zemsky Sobors
3. The liberation of Moscow from the Polish interventionists was possible thanks to the actions of:
one). Seven Boyars 2). First militia 3). Second militia
4). Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov
4. Which of the above concepts characterizes the socio-economic development of Russia in the 17th century:
1.) industrial revolution 2). manufacture 3) monopoly 4). factory
5. The final enslavement of the peasants was legally formalized in:
1) "Cathedral code" of Alexei Mikhailovich 2) "Sudebnik" of Ivan III
3) "Sudebnik" of Ivan IV 4) "Instruction" of Catherine II
6. Select from the list the events that occurred during the reign of Peter I:
1) The Great Embassy, the Azov campaigns 2). The Crimean campaigns, the establishment of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy 3). Seven Years' War, establishment of Moscow University 4). schism of the Russian Orthodox Church, the uprising of S.T. Razin
7. The Battle of Poltava during the Northern War took place in:
one). 1721 2). 1714 3). 1720 4). 1709
8. Peter I introduced:
one). progressive tax 2). income tax 3). poll tax
4). land tax
9. The following were introduced into the system of state administration by Peter I:
one). Supreme Privy Council, Chancellery 2). orders, Palace, Treasury
3). Senate, Synod, colleges 4). Zemsky Cathedral, Boyar Duma
10. Which of the Russian discoverers discovered the Bering Strait:
one). S. Dezhnev 2). V. Atlasov 3) E. Khabarov 4). V. Poyarkov
11. Select from the proposed list the features that characterize the era of palace coups:
one). civil war and intervention 2). frequent change of rulers, reliance on the guard
3) rebellions in the army, dissatisfied with Peter's reforms 4). restriction of noble privileges
12. After the death of Peter II, the Russian throne passed to:
one). Peter III 2) Catherine I 3). Elizabeth Petrovna.4) Anna Ioannovna
13. Which of the named persons led the uprising in 1707-1708:
one). Stepan Razin 2) Emelyan Pugachev 3). Kondraty Bulavin
4) Ivan Bolotnikov
14. The accession to the Russian throne of Elizabeth Petrovna was the result of:
one). her invitation to the throne by members of the Supreme Privy Council 2). palace coup 3). appointment of her heir to the throne according to the will of Peter I
4). special resolution of the Senate
15. The era of palace coups in Russia ended with the beginning of the reign:
one). Peter II 2). Anna Ioannovna 3). Peter III 4). Catherine II
16. What Turkish fortress, which was considered impregnable, was captured by A.V. Suvorov:
1) Ochakov 2). Azov 3). Ishmael 4). Kinburn
17. How many sections of the Commonwealth (Poland) took place:
one). one 2). two 3). three 4) four
18. What century in the history of Russia was called the "rebellious century"? 1) 16th century 2) 17th century 3) 18th century 4) 19th century
Part 2.
1. Establish a correspondence between the names of figures of the 17th century and
History test for the 7th grade course
1 ) Manufactory is:
A. agricultural enterprise
B. an enterprise based on the division of labor and manual technology
B. union of shops
D. association of a number of owners of craft workshops
2) Which of the following refers to the results of the Troubles:
A. weakening state structures
B. establishment of lesson years
B. the beginning of the creation of banking
G. the beginning of the convocation of Zemsky Sobors
3 ) The liberation of Moscow from the Polish interventionists was possible thanks to the actions of:
B. First militia
B. Second militia
G. Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov
4) Which of the above concepts characterizes the socio-economic development of Russia in XVII in.:
A. industrial revolution
5) The final enslavement of the peasants was legally formalized in:
A. "Cathedral Code" of Alexei Mikhailovich
B. "Sudebnik" of Ivan III
V. "Sudebnik" of Ivan IV
G. "Instruction" of Catherine II
6) Select from the list the events that occurred during the reign of Peter I :
A. Great Embassy, Azov campaigns
B. Crimean campaigns, the establishment of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy
B. Seven Years' War, establishment of Moscow University
G. schism of the Russian Orthodox Church, the uprising of S.T. Razin
7 ) The Battle of Poltava during the Northern War took place in:
A) progressive tax
B) income tax
B) poll tax
D) land tax
9) Into the system of state administration by Peter I have been introduced:
A. Supreme Privy Council, Chancellery
B. orders, Palace, Treasury
B. Senate, Synod, colleges
G. Zemsky Sobor, Boyar Duma
10) Which of the Russian discoverers discovered the Bering Strait:
11) Select from the list of features that characterize the era of palace coups:
A. civil war and intervention
B. frequent change of rulers, reliance on the guard
B. rebellions in the army, dissatisfied with Peter's reforms
D. restriction of noble privileges
12) After the death of Peter II Russian throne passed to:
V. Elizabeth Petrovna
G. Anna Ioannovna
13) Which of the named persons led the uprising in 1707-1708:
B. Emelyan Pugachev
V. Kondraty Bulavin
G. Ivan Bolotnikov
14) The accession to the Russian throne of Elizabeth Petrovna was the result of:
A. inviting her to the throne by members of the Supreme Privy Council
B. palace coup
B. appointing her heir to the throne according to the will of Peter I
D. special resolution of the Senate
15) The era of palace coups in Russia ended with the beginning of the reign:
B. Anna Ioannovna
16) What Turkish fortress, which was considered impregnable, was captured by A.V. Suvorov:
17) How many sections of the Commonwealth (Poland) took place:
18. What year is the beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty:
19. The appearance of imposture in Russia was facilitated by:
A) the suppression of the Rurik dynasty
D) all of the above
20. Vasily Shuisky became king as a result of:
A) election by the All-Russian Zemsky Sobor
B) inherited power
B) taking power by force
D) election by the Zemsky Sobor from Muscovites
21. Match events and dates:
1) 1613 A) Salt riot
2) 1648 B) the election of Mikhail Romanov to the kingdom by the Zemsky Sobor
3) 1649 B) copper riot
4) 1662 D) opening of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy
5) 1687 E) publication of the Cathedral Code - the establishment of serfdom
22. Correlate the personality and its characteristics:
1) Alexander Menshikov A) Russian Emperor
2) Nikita Demidov B) the Swedish king
3) Karl XII B) the founder of Russian metallurgical plants
4) Ivan Mazepa D) the closest associate of the Russian emperor
5) Peter I D) Hetman of Ukraine
23. Determine what the "Table of Ranks" finally fixed:
a) the principle of bureaucratic, bureaucratic length of service
b) division of service into civil, military, court
c) change in the composition of the nobility
d) the opportunity to receive a noble title.
24. K. Minin and D. Pozharsky became famous in Russian history as leaders:
A) peasant uprising
B) the defense of Smolensk
C) the militia that liberated Moscow from the interventionists
25. Russia became an empire after :
A) the Azov campaign
B) Prut campaign
B) Great Northern War
1) Establish a correspondence between the names of figures XVII century and comes from occupations
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History simulator (grade 7) on the topic:
Test on Russia in the 18th century.
2 options. 8th grade
Preview:
1) An enterprise based on the division of labor and manual technology:
A. workshop B. workshop C. manufactory D. factory
2) In which city was the Second Militia created during the Time of Troubles:
A. in Ryazan B. in Yaroslavl C. in Smolensk D. in Nizhny Novgorod
3) Who was elected the new tsar at the Zemsky Sobor in 1613:
A. Vasily Shuisky B. Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov
V. Korolevich Vladislav G. Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov
4) What was the name of the commercial and industrial population of cities in the 17th century:
A. clerks B. yasak people C. townspeople
G. instrument people
5) The code of laws adopted during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich was called:
A. Sudebnik B. Law of the Russian state V. Russkaya Pravda
D. Cathedral Code
6) Select from the list the events that occurred during the reign of Peter I:
A. establishment of the Senate, Synod, boards B. Crimean and Azov campaigns
C. Seven Years' War, establishment of Moscow University D. schism of the Russian Orthodox Church, S. Razin's uprising
7) The Northern War ended with a peace treaty, which was called:
A. Prutsky B. Nishtadsky V. Caspian G. Baltic
8) For the socio-economic development of Russia in the XVIII century is not typical:
A. Preservation and strengthening of serfdom B. Active foreign trade
C. introduction of the poll tax D. weakening of absolutism
9) What educational institution was opened in 1687:
A. Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy B. Academy of Sciences C. Moscow University D. First digital school
10) How was Russia lagging behind the advanced countries of the West at the beginning of the 18th century:
A. lack of a regular army B. poor development of manufacturing
B. lack of a fleet D. all of the above
11) What document under Peter I determined promotion at the expense of personal length of service:
A. revision B. new military regulations C. table of ranks D. spiritual regulations
12) After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Russian throne passed to:
A. Peter III B. Catherine I C. Peter II G. Anna Ioannovna
13) Russia began to be called an empire with:
A. 1709 B. 1714 V. 1721 G. 1725
14) Which of the following refers to the prerequisites for palace coups in Russia:
A. Termination of the activities of Zemsky Sobors B. Creation of punitive state bodies - fiscal prosecutors C. Liquidation of the patriarchate in Russia D. Change in the traditional system of succession to the throne
15) Which of the named persons could become the Russian Empress only by signing the "conditions":
A. Catherine I B. Catherine II C. Anna Ioannovna G. Anna Leopoldovna
16) Which of the Russian commanders especially distinguished himself in the Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791:
A. D. Pozharsky B. A. V. Suvorov V. M. I. Kutuzov G. A. D. Menshikov
17) What estate in the 18th century. was virtually useless.
A. philistinism B. serfs C. hired workers
D. clergy
Part B.
1) Establish a correspondence between the names of figures of the 17th century and occupation
The final enslavement of the peasants in Russia in the XVI-XVIII centuries.
While in Western Europe the rural population was gradually freed from personal dependence, in Russia during the 2nd half. XVI-XVII centuries the opposite process took place - the peasants turned into serfs, i.e. attached to the land and the personality of their feudal lord.
Prerequisites for the enslavement of peasants
The natural environment was the most important prerequisite for serfdom in Russia. The withdrawal of the surplus product necessary for the development of society in the climatic conditions of vast Russia required the creation of the most stringent mechanism of non-economic coercion.
The establishment of serfdom took place in the process of confrontation between the community and the developing landownership. The peasants perceived arable land as God's and royal property, considering at the same time that it belongs to the one who works on it. The spread of local landownership, and especially the desire of service people to take part of the communal land under their direct control (i.e., to create a “lordly plow”, which would guarantee the satisfaction of their needs, especially in military equipment, and most importantly, would make it possible to directly transfer this land to as an inheritance to his son and thereby secure his family practically on patrimonial rights) met with the resistance of the community, which could be overcome only by completely subjugating the peasants. In addition, the state was in dire need of a guaranteed income of taxes. With the weakness of the central administrative apparatus, it transferred the collection of taxes into the hands of the landowners. But for this it was necessary to rewrite the peasants and attach them to the personality of the feudal lord. The action of these prerequisites began to manifest itself especially actively under the influence of disasters and destruction caused by the Oprichnina and the Livonian War. As a result of the flight of the population from the ruined center to the outskirts, the problem of providing the service class with labor force, and the state with taxpayers, sharply escalated. In addition to the above reasons, enslavement was facilitated by the demoralization of the population caused by the horrors of the oprichnina, as well as peasant ideas about the landowner as a royal man sent from above to protect against external hostile forces.
The main stages of enslavement
The process of enslaving the peasants in Russia was quite lengthy and went through several stages. The first stage - the end of the 15th - the end of the 16th century. Back in the era of Ancient Russia, part of the rural population lost personal freedom and turned into serfs and serfs. In conditions of fragmentation, the peasants could leave the land on which they lived and move to another landowner. The Sudebnik of 1497 streamlined this right, confirming the right of the peasants after the payment of the "elderly" to the possibility of "exit" on St. George's day in autumn (the week before November 26 and the week after). At other times, the peasants did not move to other lands - employment in agricultural work, autumn and spring mudslides, and frosts interfered. But the fixation by law of a certain short transition period testified, on the one hand, to the desire of the feudal lords and the state to limit the right of the peasants, and on the other hand, to their weakness and inability to fix the peasants to the personality of a certain feudal lord. In addition, this right forced the landowners to reckon with the interests of the peasants, which had a beneficial effect on the socio-economic development of the country.
This norm was also contained in the new Sudebnik of 1550. However, in 1581, in the conditions of the extreme ruin of the country and the flight of the population, Ivan IV introduced “reserved years” that prohibited peasants from leaving the territories most affected by disasters. This measure was emergency and temporary.
A new stage in the development of serfdom began at the end of the 16th century and ended with the publication of the Cathedral Code of 1649. In 1592 (or in 1593), i.e. in the era of the reign of Boris Godunov, a decree was issued (the text of which has not been preserved), forbidding exits throughout the country and without any time limits. In 1592, the compilation of scribe books began (i.e., a population census was conducted, which made it possible to attach peasants to their place of residence and return them in case of flight and further capture by the old owners), “whitewashed” (i.e., exempted from taxes) smell.
The compilers of the decree of 1597, who established the so-called. “lesson years” (the term for detecting fugitive peasants, defined as five years). After a five-year period, the fleeing peasants were subject to enslavement in new places, which was in the interests of large landowners and nobles of the southern and southwestern counties, where the main streams of fugitives were directed. The dispute over labor hands between the nobles of the center and the southern outskirts became one of the reasons for the upheavals of the beginning of the 17th century.
At the second stage of enslavement, there was a sharp struggle between various groupings of landowners and peasants on the issue of the term for detecting the fugitives, until the Council Code of 1649 canceled the “lesson years”, introduced an indefinite search, and finally enserfed the peasants.
At the third stage (from the middle of the 17th century to the end of the 18th century), serfdom developed along an ascending line. The peasants lost the remnants of their rights, for example, according to the law of 1675, they can be sold without land. In the eighteenth century landowners received the full right to dispose of their person and property, including exile without trial to Siberia and hard labor. Peasants in their social and legal status approached the slaves, they began to be treated like "talking cattle."
At the fourth stage (the end of the 18th century - 1861), serf relations entered the stage of their decomposition. The state began to take measures that somewhat limited feudal arbitrariness, moreover, serfdom, as a result of the spread of humane and liberal ideas, was condemned by the advanced part of the Russian nobility. As a result, for various reasons, it was canceled by the Manifesto of Alexander 11 in February 1861.
Consequences of enslavement
Serfdom led to the establishment of an extremely inefficient form of feudal relations, preserving the backwardness of Russian society. Serf exploitation deprived direct producers of interest in the results of their labor, undermined both the peasant economy and, ultimately, the landlord economy. Aggravating the social split of society, serfdom caused mass popular uprisings that shook Russia in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Serfdom formed the basis of a despotic form of power, predetermined the lack of rights not only from the bottom, but also from the top of society. The landowners faithfully served the tsar also because they became “hostages” of the feudal system, because their security and possession of “baptized property” could only be guaranteed by a strong central authority.
Dooming the people to patriarchy and ignorance, serfdom prevented the penetration of cultural values into the people's environment. It was also reflected in the moral character of the people, gave rise to some slavish habits in it, as well as abrupt transitions from extreme humility to an all-destroying rebellion.
And yet, in the natural, social and cultural conditions of Russia, there probably was no other form of organization of production and society.
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Winner of the competition "Electronic textbook in the classroom".
7th grade
The purpose of the lesson:
- study and primary awareness of chemical phenomena; clarification of signs and conditions of chemical reactions;
- improving the ability to distinguish physical processes from chemical ones; the formation of practical skills when working with chemical reagents and laboratory equipment.
Lesson objectives:
educational:
- consolidate students' knowledge of physical and chemical phenomena;
- to promote the formation of students' knowledge about the signs and conditions of chemical reactions;
developing:
- develop the ability to pose problems and solve them, establish interdisciplinary connections;
- develop practical skills to work with laboratory equipment and reagents in accordance with the rules on safety;
- continue the formation of skills to formalize the results of the educational experiment;
- develop the ability to self- and mutual control.
educational:
- to cultivate a culture of communication through work in pairs;
- to continue the formation of ideas about the positive role of chemistry to explain the ongoing processes in nature and in the human body.
Lesson type: lesson of studying and primary consolidation of knowledge.
Teaching methods: conversation, teacher's story, demonstration experiment, demonstration of video clips , use of EFU.
Equipment: PC, media projector, lab kits, workbook.
Means of education: multimedia presentation.
Lesson stages
- Teacher activity
- Student activities
- Note
During the classes
I. Organizational moment - 1 min
During the lesson you will work with electronic applications. I hope that the lesson will be interesting and useful for you.
Target: creating a positive emotional mood for the assimilation of educational material, formulating the goals and objectives of the lesson, expected results.
II. Checking homework - 5 min
- Guys, what phenomena can occur in our lives?
- What do you think, which of these phenomena should be studied by physics, and which - by chemistry?
– Formulate definitions of physical and chemical phenomena.
Chemistry is one of the sciences that helps to understand the secrets of nature. But this must be learned. One of the necessary skills is the ability to observe phenomena, to distinguish, to determine whether a phenomenon belongs to a certain group. Pictures of physical and chemical phenomena will be presented on the screen.
physical phenomenon- this is a phenomenon in which the state of aggregation of a substance or the shape of the body formed by it changes, while the substance itself remains unchanged.
chemical phenomenon It is a phenomenon in which one substance is transformed into another.
III. Motivation to discover new knowledge - 2 min
Tell me, now you can distinguish a physical phenomenon from a chemical reaction?
- Is your knowledge enough for this?
What is the main distinguishing feature of a chemical reaction?
“There are millions of chemical reactions going on around the world every minute—in our stomachs when we eat, in a cake being baked, or in a car engine. But how to determine whether a chemical reaction is occurring or not?
In chemical processes, some substances are transformed into others, which have new properties that the original substances did not possess. These transformations are accompanied by bright and visual changes. These visible changes are called signs.
– What else do you need to know about chemical reactions in order to accurately distinguish them from physical phenomena?
So what topic are we going to study today in the lesson?
- There must be something very noticeable
– Know the signs of chemical phenomena (reactions)
– Signs of chemical reactions
Target : preparation for conscious perception of the material, stimulation of cognitive interest.
IV. Actualization of the subjective experience of students - 3 min
“Chemistry cannot be learned in any way without seeing the practice itself and without taking up chemical operations.”
M.V. Lomonosov
How do you understand these words?
- What would you like to learn and what to learn in the lesson:
- identify - (signs of chemical reactions)
- define - (differences between chemical and physical phenomena)
- get to know - (with the conditions for the course of reactions)
- conduct - (chemical experiment)
- mark - (meaning of chemical reactions)
The main sign of a chemical reaction is the formation of new substances with new properties. You know many substances, but your knowledge will be incomplete if we do not study the phenomena that occur with them. That's why, today in the lesson you should conduct various reactions and find out their main features.
- In order to conduct experiments, you need to know what substances you need to take for the reaction.
(students form the objectives of the lesson)
Target: activation of the personal experience of each student and its use in teaching, preparation for the perception of new material, assessment by the teacher of the level of preparedness of students.
V. Discovery of new knowledge, study of new material (laboratory experiment) - 12 min
- During the study, you will act as young chemists - experimenters. We have to work with reagents, including acids and alkalis. Remember the safety rules that you need to know when working with these substances.
When analyzing a laboratory experiment, do not forget to write down your observations in a workbook and draw conclusions. You can use your eyes, hands, memory, erudition, safety rules and reagents.
- What experiments were carried out and what signs were observed?
What conditions do you think must be met for a chemical reaction to occur?
(the guys list the rules of TB)
Conditions for the occurrence of chemical reactions: contact of substances, heating
Target: formation of new knowledge about chemical reactions, signs, conditions of the reaction and classification of reactions according to the thermal effect.
VI. Consolidation of the studied - 5 min
Using electronic applications, the guys consolidate the studied material.
– Read the description of the phenomena and indicate which part of the text talks about a physical phenomenon, and which part about a chemical reaction . List the signs of a chemical reaction.
1) When a candle burns, the wax first melts and wets the wick, and then burns out, forming carbon dioxide and water vapor. Combustion is accompanied by the formation of a flame.
2) In the process of smelting iron, metal is formed from ore. Hot iron is poured into molds in which it gradually cools and hardens.
3) To prepare lemonade, citric acid crystals are poured into the water. They gradually dissolve. Then soda is added to the water with acid. As a result, gas bubbles appear.
4) When water is heated, it evaporates, and when an electric current is applied to it, water decomposes into two simple gaseous substances: oxygen and hydrogen.
5) With prolonged chewing of black bread, it is crushed. Then you will feel a sweetish taste, as the bread begins to be digested by the action of saliva.
6) To prepare the dough, first the yeast is dissolved in water. Then they are added to the rest of the dough components. As a result, gas bubbles appear, which make the dough airy.
- So, let's write down in the workbook the signs and conditions for the reactions
Wax melting- a physical phenomenon, because its state of aggregation changes, and combustion - chemical, the text refers to the formation of two new substances.
Turning ore into pig iron- the process is chemical, and the cooling and solidification of cast iron is physical.
Dissolution of citric acid crystals- a physical phenomenon, because particle size changes. After adding soda, a chemical reaction took place - as bubbles of some new substance appear.
Water evaporation- a physical phenomenon, since the aggregate state of a substance changes, and decomposition under the action of a current is chemical, since new substances have formed.
chopping bread is a physical phenomenon. Digestion by saliva is chemical.
1-2 minutes children get acquainted with the text and discuss it. The teacher guides the rest of the children to discuss the answers of each group.
Turn on the screen.
VII. Applying what you learned - 3 min
- Well done boys! You learned in practice about some of the signs of chemical reactions. But ... has all the information now sounded? What do you think?
– Quite right! We didn't say anything about where a person in his daily life can meet with chemical reactions and observe their signs, what kind chemical reactions are happening in nature and what signs they are accompanied. Can you give examples?
- Probably not all!
- Volcanic eruptions. Huge amount (release of energy in the form of heat and light)
- In summer the leaves on the trees are green, and in autumn they are yellow and red
– Cave formation, as do minerals such as limestone interact with water and carbon dioxide, causing them to dissolve?
VIII. Control and self-control - 5 min
1. Match
Phenomena: one). Dissolution of salt in water; 2). Lead melting; 3). Protein decay; 4). Blackening of a silver spoon.
Name of the event: a). physical phenomenon; b) Chemical phenomenon.
(1a; 2a; 3b; 4b).
2. Specify the signs of the following chemical reactions
The name of a chemical reaction.
Sign of chem. reactions.
- Souring of milk.
- Burning gasoline.
- The breakdown of sugar.
- Scale formation in the kettle.
- Opening a bottle of soda water
- Your time is up. Check your answers and rate yourself. .
Target: reproductive reproduction of the studied material, systematization and generalization, performance of tasks on the studied topic, primary verification of assimilation and understanding of the material .
IX. Homework - 1 min
Give proverbs that talk about phenomena. Define a group of phenomena: physical or chemical
Target: clarification, homework .
X. Summing up. Reflection - 2 min
- During the lesson, you tried to master the most important thing in the process of cognition - the ability to find the truth with the help of evidence, that is, to conduct research. Many scientists of past centuries relied in their research only on intuition and, as a result, were often mistaken. You have found your truth with the help of experiments.
Without chemical reactions, life and all the variety of substances is impossible. And the task of a person, having studied this world, is to try to use the knowledge gained for good.
Continue the sentence:
- Now I know that...
- Now I know how...
- Now I can...
- I was surprised...
- Express your opinion about the lesson by choosing an emoticon.
What else would you like to know about chemical reactions?
- In conclusion, I want to say that chemistry is an amazing science, you are just beginning to learn it. Thank you for your cooperation.
DEFINITION
Chemical reaction called the transformation of substances in which there is a change in their composition and (or) structure.
Most often, chemical reactions are understood as the process of transformation of initial substances (reagents) into final substances (products).
Chemical reactions are written using chemical equations containing the formulas of the starting materials and reaction products. According to the law of conservation of mass, the number of atoms of each element in the left and right sides of the chemical equation is the same. Usually, the formulas of the starting substances are written on the left side of the equation, and the formulas of the products are written on the right. The equality of the number of atoms of each element in the left and right parts of the equation is achieved by placing integer stoichiometric coefficients in front of the formulas of substances.
Chemical equations may contain additional information about the features of the reaction: temperature, pressure, radiation, etc., which is indicated by the corresponding symbol above (or “under”) the equals sign.
All chemical reactions can be grouped into several classes, which have certain characteristics.
Classification of chemical reactions according to the number and composition of the initial and resulting substances
According to this classification, chemical reactions are divided into reactions of combination, decomposition, substitution, exchange.
As a result compound reactions from two or more (complex or simple) substances, one new substance is formed. In general, the equation for such a chemical reaction will look like this:
For example:
CaCO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O \u003d Ca (HCO 3) 2
SO 3 + H 2 O \u003d H 2 SO 4
2Mg + O 2 \u003d 2MgO.
2FeCl 2 + Cl 2 = 2FeCl 3
Combination reactions are in most cases exothermic, i.e. flow with the release of heat. If simple substances are involved in the reaction, then such reactions are most often redox (ORD), i.e. occur with a change in the oxidation states of the elements. It is impossible to say unequivocally whether the reaction of a compound between complex substances can be attributed to OVR.
Reactions in which several other new substances (complex or simple) are formed from one complex substance are classified as decomposition reactions. In general, the equation for a chemical decomposition reaction will look like this:
For example:
CaCO 3 CaO + CO 2 (1)
2H 2 O \u003d 2H 2 + O 2 (2)
CuSO 4 × 5H 2 O \u003d CuSO 4 + 5H 2 O (3)
Cu (OH) 2 \u003d CuO + H 2 O (4)
H 2 SiO 3 \u003d SiO 2 + H 2 O (5)
2SO 3 \u003d 2SO 2 + O 2 (6)
(NH 4) 2 Cr 2 O 7 \u003d Cr 2 O 3 + N 2 + 4H 2 O (7)
Most decomposition reactions proceed with heating (1,4,5). Decomposition by electric current is possible (2). The decomposition of crystalline hydrates, acids, bases and salts of oxygen-containing acids (1, 3, 4, 5, 7) proceeds without changing the oxidation states of the elements, i.e. these reactions do not apply to OVR. OVR decomposition reactions include the decomposition of oxides, acids and salts formed by elements in higher oxidation states (6).
Decomposition reactions are also found in organic chemistry, but under other names - cracking (8), dehydrogenation (9):
C 18 H 38 \u003d C 9 H 18 + C 9 H 20 (8)
C 4 H 10 \u003d C 4 H 6 + 2H 2 (9)
At substitution reactions a simple substance interacts with a complex one, forming a new simple and a new complex substance. In general, the equation for a chemical substitution reaction will look like this:
For example:
2Al + Fe 2 O 3 \u003d 2Fe + Al 2 O 3 (1)
Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl 2 + H 2 (2)
2KBr + Cl 2 \u003d 2KCl + Br 2 (3)
2KSlO 3 + l 2 = 2KlO 3 + Cl 2 (4)
CaCO 3 + SiO 2 \u003d CaSiO 3 + CO 2 (5)
Ca 3 (RO 4) 2 + ZSiO 2 = ZCaSiO 3 + P 2 O 5 (6)
CH 4 + Cl 2 = CH 3 Cl + Hcl (7)
Substitution reactions are mostly redox reactions (1 - 4, 7). Examples of decomposition reactions in which there is no change in oxidation states are few (5, 6).
Exchange reactions called the reactions that occur between complex substances, in which they exchange their constituent parts. Usually this term is used for reactions involving ions in aqueous solution. In general, the equation for a chemical exchange reaction will look like this:
AB + CD = AD + CB
For example:
CuO + 2HCl \u003d CuCl 2 + H 2 O (1)
NaOH + HCl \u003d NaCl + H 2 O (2)
NaHCO 3 + HCl \u003d NaCl + H 2 O + CO 2 (3)
AgNO 3 + KBr = AgBr ↓ + KNO 3 (4)
CrCl 3 + ZNaOH = Cr(OH) 3 ↓+ ZNaCl (5)
Exchange reactions are not redox. A special case of these exchange reactions is neutralization reactions (reactions of interaction of acids with alkalis) (2). Exchange reactions proceed in the direction where at least one of the substances is removed from the reaction sphere in the form of a gaseous substance (3), a precipitate (4, 5) or a poorly dissociating compound, most often water (1, 2).
Classification of chemical reactions according to changes in oxidation states
Depending on the change in the oxidation states of the elements that make up the reactants and reaction products, all chemical reactions are divided into redox (1, 2) and those occurring without changing the oxidation state (3, 4).
2Mg + CO 2 \u003d 2MgO + C (1)
Mg 0 - 2e \u003d Mg 2+ (reductant)
C 4+ + 4e \u003d C 0 (oxidizing agent)
FeS 2 + 8HNO 3 (conc) = Fe(NO 3) 3 + 5NO + 2H 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O (2)
Fe 2+ -e \u003d Fe 3+ (reductant)
N 5+ + 3e \u003d N 2+ (oxidizing agent)
AgNO 3 + HCl \u003d AgCl ↓ + HNO 3 (3)
Ca(OH) 2 + H 2 SO 4 = CaSO 4 ↓ + H 2 O (4)
Classification of chemical reactions by thermal effect
Depending on whether heat (energy) is released or absorbed during the reaction, all chemical reactions are conditionally divided into exo - (1, 2) and endothermic (3), respectively. The amount of heat (energy) released or absorbed during a reaction is called the heat of the reaction. If the equation indicates the amount of released or absorbed heat, then such equations are called thermochemical.
N 2 + 3H 2 = 2NH 3 +46.2 kJ (1)
2Mg + O 2 \u003d 2MgO + 602.5 kJ (2)
N 2 + O 2 \u003d 2NO - 90.4 kJ (3)
Classification of chemical reactions according to the direction of the reaction
According to the direction of the reaction, there are reversible (chemical processes, the products of which are able to react with each other under the same conditions in which they are obtained, with the formation of starting substances) and irreversible (chemical processes, the products of which are not able to react with each other with the formation of starting substances ).
For reversible reactions, the equation in general form is usually written as follows:
A + B ↔ AB
For example:
CH 3 COOH + C 2 H 5 OH ↔ H 3 COOS 2 H 5 + H 2 O
Examples of irreversible reactions are the following reactions:
2KSlO 3 → 2KSl + ZO 2
C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 → 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O
Evidence of the irreversibility of the reaction can serve as the reaction products of a gaseous substance, a precipitate or a low-dissociating compound, most often water.
Classification of chemical reactions by the presence of a catalyst
From this point of view, catalytic and non-catalytic reactions are distinguished.
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction. Reactions involving catalysts are called catalytic. Some reactions are generally impossible without the presence of a catalyst:
2H 2 O 2 \u003d 2H 2 O + O 2 (MnO 2 catalyst)
Often, one of the reaction products serves as a catalyst that accelerates this reaction (autocatalytic reactions):
MeO + 2HF \u003d MeF 2 + H 2 O, where Me is a metal.
Examples of problem solving
EXAMPLE 1
“Chemical reactions. Signs and conditions of their occurrence "Baryshova I.V. GOU SOSH №1980. Moscow.
Learning objectives. To form knowledge about the signs and conditions of chemical reactions, on this basis to improve the ability to distinguish physical processes from chemical ones.
Development tasks. To improve the ability to explain the dependence of the course of chemical reactions on external conditions.
Experiment. Melting of paraffin, carbonization of sugar, burning of a torch, interaction of copper sulfate with ammonia, interaction of copper (II) sulfate and sodium hydroxide, interaction of solutions of sodium carbonate and hydrochloric acid, interaction of sodium thiosulfate with sulfuric acid. Making models of molecules.
Planned learning outcomes. Students should be able to use examples of specific chemical reactions to indicate the conditions for their occurrence and further course, as well as signs of reactions.
Planned results of development. Students should be able to explain the relationship between conditions and the possibility of chemical reactions.
During the classes.
All changes that occur with substances in nature are called phenomena. Biological, chemical and physical phenomena occur in nature. But today we will compare chemical and physical phenomena
In the process of demonstrating experiments (crushing a piece of sugar and carbonizing sugar), we find out the essence of the occurring phenomena and draw up a table.
Give your examples of physical and chemical phenomena.
Chemical phenomena are called chemical reactions. Let's simulate at the atomic-molecular level the chemical reaction of water decomposition.
Making water molecules and demonstrating a chemical phenomenon (working with models).
To consolidate knowledge, we conduct a conversation with students and answer questions.
Golden foliage swirled
In the pinkish water of the pond.
Like butterflies, a light flock with
Fading flies to the star ...
(S. Yesenin).
Teacher questions:
1. What phenomenon in the life of plants is mentioned in the poems of S. Yesenin?
2. Is leaf fall related to physical or chemical phenomena?
3. What is the reason for the change in the color of tree leaves in autumn, what physical or chemical phenomena occur in this case?
4. What pigment causes the green color of plant leaves?
To develop students' skills in self-control of knowledge, we conduct a test control.
1. Chemical phenomena (as opposed to physical ones) include:
Combustion of gasoline in a car engine
Souring milk
Snow melting
Frost formation on trees.
Rainfall
Volcanic eruption
Rotting plant debris
Ice drift on the river.
Precipitation
Change in the state of aggregation
Gas evolution
Substance reduction.
burning coal
Preparation of powder from a piece of chalk
Rust formation
The glow of a tungsten filament in a light bulb.
Why do we need to know the conditions for the occurrence and conditions for the occurrence of chemical reactions?
In order to control the course of chemical reactions, sometimes a chemical reaction must be stopped, for example, in a fire, we strive to stop the combustion reaction.
We will talk about the combustion reaction in the next lesson.
The lesson ends with a reflection-evaluation stage.
Demonstration of the entertaining experience "Volcano"
During this lesson, we learned how to work with chemical glassware, create models of molecules, distinguish between chemical and physical phenomena, know the conditions for the occurrence and course of reactions, and draw conclusions.
