Order of the Ministry of Justice of Russia dated December 27, 2016 N 313 (as amended on July 5, 2019) "On approval of forms of registers for registration of notarial acts, notarial certificates, certification inscriptions on transactions and certified documents and the procedure for their execution"...

Note to forms N 3.1, 3.2 "Certificate

on the right to inheritance by law", "Certificate of the right

to bequeathed"

55. If the certificate is issued to several heirs or to one of them, before the surname, name, patronymic (if any) of the heir, the size of the share inherited by him is indicated. For example, "in a share", "in 1/3 share". The size of the inherited share is indicated as a simple fraction.

If the certificate is issued to several heirs or to one of them for exclusive rights to the result of intellectual activity or to a means of individualization, the size of the shares of the heirs is not indicated, and the type of right is explained: "an exclusive right belonging to several persons jointly".

In this case, if a certificate for exclusive rights to the result of intellectual activity or to a means of individualization is issued to one of the heirs, after the words "(last name, first name, patronymic (if any) of the heir, his date of birth and place of permanent residence or primary residence, place of birth, citizenship, gender, details of the identity document of the heir)" the following words are added: "together with (the surname(s), first name(s), patronymic(s) (if there is) another(their) heir(s) .".

56. At the request of the heir, before the surname, name, patronymic (if any) of the heir, his family or marriage relations with the testator may be indicated.

57. If a certificate of the right to inheritance is issued instead of a previously canceled certificate, the following paragraph is added after the words "Indication of encumbrances, if any":

"Earlier issued by a notary (name of a public notary's office or a notary's district, initials, surname of a notary) certificate of inheritance from (day, month, year of issue in figures, registry number) is canceled by a notary's decision (name of a notary's public office or a notary's district, initials, surname of the notary) from (date, month, year - in figures, registry number), a copy of which is attached to this certificate.".

58. In the event of a call to inherit under the law of the state (the Civil Code of the Russian Federation) - the Russian Federation, a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, a municipality - the full name of the heir shall be indicated in the certificate.

(see text in previous edition)

59. At the request of the heirs, a certificate may be issued to all the heirs together or to each heir separately for the entire estate as a whole or for its individual parts.

60. If the right of ownership to the object of inheritance is registered for another deceased person, and the heir of this person died without registering his rights, this is reflected in the certificate.

If the composition of the inheritance in accordance with the joint will of the spouses or the inheritance contract in which the spouses participate, includes property registered in the name of the surviving spouse, the surname, name, patronymic (if any) of the surviving spouse, in whose name such property is registered. If there is state registration of the right to the said property, the type of right, number, date of state registration and the name of the state register in which the right is registered are indicated.

61. When indicating the type of right on which the object belonged to the testator, in the case of registration of the right, the date of registration and registration number, the name of the state register in which the right is registered are indicated. If the registration of the right was not carried out or is not provided for by law, the documents on the basis of which the right arose are indicated.

62. In the event of a call to inherit under the will of a state - the Russian Federation, a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, a municipality, a foreign state - the full name of the heir shall be indicated in the certificate. In the case of a call to inherit by will of a legal entity, the certificate shall indicate its full name, organizational and legal form, location, registration number.

(see text in previous edition)

63. If there is a testamentary refusal and (or) a testamentary encumbrance, encumbering the rights, certified by a certificate, the fact of the encumbrance is reflected in an additional paragraph of the certificate by the most accurate presentation of the relevant section of the text of the will in a third person in relation to the testator.

64. In the event of inheritance on the basis of a will made in emergency circumstances, in the certificate of the right to inherit under a will the words "on the basis of a will certified (the date of certification of the will, initials, surname, position of the person who certified the will, the name of the notarial district, state of a notary's office or an appropriate organization, the registry or serial number of registration of the will)" are replaced by the words "on the basis of a will made in extraordinary circumstances (the date of the will is indicated in numbers), the fact of which was confirmed by a decision (the full name of the court is indicated) dated (the date of issuance is indicated in numbers) decision), which has entered into force (the date is indicated in numbers).

In the case of inheritance on the basis of a closed will, in the certificate of the right to inheritance under a will the words "on the basis of a testament certified (the date of certification of the will, initials, surname, position of the person who certified the will, the name of the notary district, the state notary's office or the corresponding organization, the register or the serial number of registration of the will)" are replaced by the words "on the basis of a closed will, adopted (the date of acceptance of the closed will by the notary is indicated in numbers) by a notary (name of the state notary's office or notary district, initials, surname of the notary), the full text of which is contained in the protocol of opening and announcement closed will drawn up by a notary (initials, surname of a notary) dated (indicate the date of the protocol) N (indicate the registry number of the notarial action)".

Form N 3.2 is used when issuing a certificate of the right to inheritance under a joint will of the spouses and on the basis of an inheritance contract.

In the case of inheritance on the basis of an inheritance contract, in the title of the certificate of the right to inheritance the words "by will" shall be replaced by the words "by inheritance contract".

After entering into the inheritance, the heirs are issued a certificate of the right to inheritance. It is the receipt of such a document that is the final stage of the procedure and confirms the ownership of a particular person to the inherited property. The certificate of the right to inheritance will become the basis for holding real estate by agreement between the heirs or as a result of judicial consideration of the relevant statement of claim.

What is a Certificate of Inheritance

To receive a certificate of the right to inheritance is the right of the heir, but not the obligation. After all, it implies the presence of several methods, incl. implementation of actual actions in relation to inherited property. In accordance with the rules of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, an inheritance (whatever it consists of) is considered to belong to the heir after acceptance and from the date, regardless of the moment of state registration (when it is required).

Based on the foregoing, a certificate of the right to inheritance is a document that only confirms, but does not establish, the right to property previously owned by the testator. However, its presentation is necessary to register rights to real estate, vehicles, to receive funds from a bank, when there is no testamentary disposition in respect of such funds, to amend the constituent documents of legal entities, etc.

The document is issued only by a notary within the framework. At the same time, as a general rule, it can be obtained only after 6 months from the date of opening the inheritance (in exceptional cases, with documentary evidence of the absence of other heirs - before the expiration of the specified period).

How to get a document

The heir must submit a written application for the issuance of a certificate of the right to inheritance or an application for acceptance of the inheritance (in the latter case, a separate application for the certificate is not required) before the expiration of 6 months from the date of opening of the inheritance. The application is drawn up in writing and submitted personally, through a representative with a notarized power of attorney, or sent by registered mail with a notification (in this case, the signature on the application is certified by any notary).

When the property is actually accepted, the law allows such an heir to apply for a certificate at any time, incl. after the expiration of the 6 month period. But in this case, difficulties may arise. If the deadline is missed, depending on the situation, the heir must go to court with or a statement of claim about.

Each heir, when applying to a notary, acts on his own behalf independently and has the right not to wait for actions from other heirs. At the same time, according to the rules of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, a notary may issue one certificate to all heirs or several to each of them, for all property or for part of the inheritance.

Along with the application, the notary must submit the following documents:

1. Death certificate issued by the registry office (including and if there is a decision)
2. with a notary's mark on its validity (if any), documents confirming kinship with the testator (, etc.)
3. Identification document (RF passport)
4. Documents for hereditary property (certificate of registration of ownership of real estate, registration of a vehicle, etc.)
5. Report on or other documents confirming the value of the estate.

How much does it cost to issue a certificate

The state duty for obtaining a certificate of inheritance is the only payment, the amount of which is fixed at the legislative level. - in each case, the issue is resolved individually and depends on several factors. The certificate is issued only after presentation to the notary of the receipt of payment of the state duty:

• heirs of the first and second stage (except for grandparents) pay 0.3% of the value of the inherited property in the part that is due to this heir, but not more than 100,000 rubles.
• all others - 0.6% of the value of the inheritance in the part that is due to this heir, but not more than 1,000,000 rubles.

The law provides for benefits for a number of categories of citizens, which we discussed on the website in the relevant article. And by the way, for some categories of citizens exempted from paying the state duty, this very fact can become decisive in resolving the issue,.

The certificate of the right to inheritance is not registered. The heir only signs in the register of notarial actions according to the rules of notarial document flow.

How to invalidate a certificate of inheritance

Like any document, a certificate can be invalidated. First of all, when the period for accepting the inheritance is restored, the inheritance mass is redistributed. As a result of the issuance of a court decision in such cases, the previously issued certificate is annulled.

In addition, such a procedure is applied when (already after the issuance of a certificate), invalidating a will, violations in the procedure for distributing an inheritance between heirs, provided that a statement of claim is filed with the court and an appropriate decision is made.

If, after the issuance of a certificate of inheritance, a new inheritance property is discovered, the previously issued document shall not be cancelled. In such cases, an additional certificate of the right to inheritance in respect of this property is issued.

The issuance of a certificate of the right to inheritance becomes the final stage in the registration of the property of the deceased. After that, the inheritance case is closed, because the successor at the notary has nothing more to do. But what is needed to obtain a document, and where should the heir apply later? It all depends on the basis of inheritance and the type of property that he received as a result.

What is a Certificate of Inheritance

First of all, it is a document of title to the inherited property. By presenting it, the successor confirms the fact of acceptance of the inheritance and the right to receive the property due to him.

The certificate displays:

1. Place of registration of the inheritance (settlement and subject of the Russian Federation).
2. Date of issue of the document.
3. Full name of the notary, name of the notary's office or district.
4. Grounds for inheritance (according to the law - the number of the current article from the Civil Code of the Russian Federation and the successor's queue, according to the will - the register number of the document and the data of the notary who certified it, by the right of representation or in the order of transmission - the full name and date of death of the successor, etc.).
5. Name and date of death of the decedent.
6. Full name, date and place of birth, as well as place of residence, gender and passport details of the beneficiary, the nature of his relationship with the testator.
7. The property or property right for which the certificate is issued, with a brief description of it, an indication of the share of the inheritance.
8. Encumbrances (if any).
9. The number of the inheritance case and the registry number of the certificate.
10. The amount of the paid state duty and services of a legal and technical nature.

In theory, you can do without a certificate, and the inheritor is not obliged to deal with its design. But in practice, the presence of a document is an essential condition:

• disposal of hereditary real estate;
• use of a vehicle;
• receiving a cash deposit in a bank;
• receiving dividends from the ownership of shares or profit from a share in the authorized capital of a business entity;
• re-registration of the enterprise;
• obtaining permission to store and use inherited weapons, etc.

A document of title to an inheritance is issued for several successors or for each separately. It is drawn up both for the entire inheritance and for part of it, and if necessary, you can get an additional certificate for property that is not included in the previous document.

To whom is issued

The certificate of the right to hereditary property is entitled to be obtained by the persons who have accepted it. And it doesn't matter if they did it at the notary's or in fact.

Candidates may be called to accept an inheritance by will or by law.

In the first case, the successors are those indicated by the testator, and in addition - his disabled children, spouse, parents and dependents, even if they were not mentioned in the will. The latter, according to Art. 1149 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, are the copyright holders, equal to half of the property that they could receive by law (without a will).

Will - a document reflecting the last property will of the testator. In it, the owner disposes of the future owners of his property, gives them instructions (within the transferred inheritance), appoints the executors of his last will, etc. The document is presented by the beneficiaries upon entering into the inheritance to confirm their rights before the notary and applicants for the testator's property according to law.

The absence of a will, as well as its loss, leads to the entry into force of the legal regime of inheritance. It is set by default and can be relevant even if there is an expression of will, to the extent that it does not contradict it.

According to the law, relatives and family members of the testator, united in the priority group of successors, are called to accept the inheritance. It is not difficult to determine it - it is enough:

1. Find out the composition and order of all groups of potential heirs.
2. From the first group, exclude non-existent persons, as well as those who refused the inheritance or did not accept it on time. If, after that, applicants remain in it, this will be the group of priority heirs. If not, the second group and the next one are taken for analysis until a successor(s) is found.
3. To the existing heirs of the current queue, add the disabled dependents of the deceased (the entire inheritance is divided equally between the legal successors).

And the list of all possible applicants and their distribution by groups looks like this:

1. Father, mother, children (in case of their death before the testator - their children), husband / wife.
2. Brothers and sisters (if they die before or simultaneously with the testator, their children), grandfathers, grandmothers.
3. Aunts, uncles or, by right of representation, cousins ​​and brothers, in the event of the death of the parents, who were to become heirs.
4. Great-grandparents.
5. Cousin grandchildren and great aunts and grandparents.
6. Cousins: great-grandchildren, nephews, uncles and aunts.
7. Stepdaughters, stepchildren, stepmother, stepfather.

In the event of the death of the priority heir (by law or by will) later than the testator, but before entering into the inheritance, the property due to him passes to his successors in the order of hereditary transmission.

How to get the

The receipt of the certificate must be preceded by the acceptance of the inheritance. As mentioned above, this can be done both in fact and notarially.

In case of actual inheritance

For the successor, you need to do something that can express his interest in receiving the property, namely:

1. Own or manage it, for example, live in the house or use the things of the testator, move them, transfer them to storage, etc.
2. Carry out measures to protect the inheritance from encroachment by third parties (installed additional locks, an alarm system, a video surveillance system, concluded an agreement with a security company, told a notary about the need to take measures to protect hereditary property).
3. Pay bills for the maintenance and maintenance of property - utilities, cleaning services, repairs, restoration (payments must be made from the personal funds of the beneficiary).
4. Pay off the debts of the testator or receive what was due to him from third parties.

The performance of one of these actions will be sufficient for the inheritance property to be considered accepted. But before obtaining a title certificate, the actual successor will need to officially confirm this circumstance.

Judicially

If the inheritance period has been missed by him, the fact of acceptance of the inheritance is established in court: the beneficiary submits an appropriate application to the district court and attaches to it evidence of actions committed by him as part of the inheritance. And already on the basis of a positive decision of the judge, he asks for a certificate.

The certificate of the right to inheritance may be replaced by a court decision, if in its operative part the right of ownership of the accepted property is recognized for the heir. He must specifically ask for this in the application for establishing the fact of inheritance. In this case, the successor performs all further actions in relation to the hereditary property on the basis of a judicial act.

At the notary

In the event that the deadline set for the succession process has not yet expired, you can confirm the acquisition of property directly from a notary. To do this, the applicant will need a document that reliably indicates the fact of inheritance, for example:

• certificate of place of residence;
• receipts for payment of utility bills, taxes, contributions, etc.;
• contracts for the provision of services for the repair or protection of property;
• a copy of the statement of claim against persons who illegally took possession of hereditary property.

If the outcome is successful, the notary notes the fact of acceptance of the inheritance and invites the successor to proceed with the procedure for issuing a certificate.

When notarial registration of inheritance

Formal acceptance of the inheritance is carried out as follows:

1. From among the notaries fixed at the last place of residence of the testator, the most suitable one is selected (only a territorial sign is a mandatory criterion, otherwise the testator is given freedom of choice). If the place of residence of the deceased is not determined or is located abroad, a notary should be sought at the location of the hereditary property - first immovable, and in its absence - movable.
2. Together with a will or documentary confirmation of inheritance rights under the law, a death certificate of the testator, a certificate from his last place of residence, his passport, title documents for property and an appraisal act, the successor goes to the notary. Some documents can be delivered later - the main thing is to get to the authorized specialist on time.
3. At the notary, the heir writes an application for acceptance of the inheritance. This document becomes an official confirmation of his desire to accept the property due. Without this, the hereditary share may pass to other, more interested applicants. In the application, in addition to your personal data, you should indicate the basis on which the inheritance rights were transferred to the applicant, the date of death of the testator and a brief description of the property received.

After checking the documents, application and powers of the applicant, the notary registers his appeal, and the process of accepting the inheritance property is considered completed.

If desired, in the near future (after six months from the date of the death of the testator) to receive a title certificate, the testator declares this to the notary. This request is included in the application for acceptance of the inheritance.

After that, the successor pays all the necessary expenses and on the appointed day comes to the notary for the document. But he can also write an application for the transfer of the certificate by mail to the address indicated by him. If the request is not made at the reception of a notary, but is submitted by post or through a courier, the signature on it must be notarized.

Procedure

If a certificate of the right to inheritance was not issued in the process of accepting inheritance property, an additional one is required or the actual successor applied for it, the procedure will proceed as follows:

1. The heir draws up and sets out in writing an application with a request for the issuance of a certificate, and then submits it to a notary at the place of opening of the inheritance. This can be done in person, by mail (with a signature on the application) or through a representative (on the basis of a power of attorney or a document confirming the authority of the legal representative - parent or guardian).
2. If the applicant applied to the notary's office in person, the notary checks his passport or other identity card and marks the details on the application.
3. The notary finds out whether there are other heirs besides the one who applied and starts the paperwork (in the case when this is the first visit of the beneficiary, and no one else has previously applied within the framework of this inheritance case).
4. The application is registered, and the successor who submitted it is informed of the list of documents required to confirm inheritance rights. If some of them are already contained in the inheritance file, only the missing ones need to be conveyed.
5. The notary explains the obligation to pay the state fee, notary fee and services of a legal and technical nature, gives the applicant the details for which he makes the payment.
6. After a thorough check of the documents and analysis of the information received, the notary proceeds to draw up the certificate. If the inheritance was carried out immediately on two grounds - by law and by will, the applicant is issued separate certificates. And each of them is performed in two copies, one of which is received by the heir, and the second remains with the notary.
7. The document is issued to the successor on the appointed day upon his personal appearance before the notary or, if requested, sent by mail. In this case, the applicant does not have to wait for the issuance of a certificate to other heirs, but their share must be taken into account.
8. The issuance of a certificate is notified to the guardianship and guardianship authorities (if there are minors and not fully capable citizens among the heirs) and the tax authority.

The obligations of the applicant can be transferred to his representative - legal (parent, guardian, trustee) or voluntary.

The legal representative is responsible for registration of the inheritance by a minor, legally incompetent and limited legally capable successor. He confirms his authority by presenting the birth certificate of the person being represented or by the decision of the guardianship and guardianship authority to appoint him as the guardian / trustee.

A voluntary representative can only be appointed by an adult and fully capable person. To provide him with the necessary amount of authority, the heir issues a notarized power of attorney with a clear list of assigned tasks.

Required documents

The following documents are required for issuing a Certificate of Inheritance:

1. Certificate of death of the testator or a judicial act declaring him dead.
2. Certificate of the last place of residence of the deceased or the location of his property.
3. Will or document confirming the basis for inheritance by law (birth certificate, marriage certificate, adoption certificate, judicial act establishing dependency).
4. Acts and extracts from state registers establishing the deceased's ownership of property.
5. Technical plan of the object of inheritance.
6. Appraisal act.
7. A document confirming the presence or absence of an encumbrance of the registered property.

Some of the submitted papers may already be stored in the inheritance file, if the applicant or any of the other successors have applied to the notary before.

Timing

The time for filing an application for the issuance of a title certificate is not regulated by law. The main thing is that it be received by a notary after the death of the testator.

But this does not apply to the procedure for accepting an inheritance. It must begin no later than six months after the death of the testator. In some cases, the fixed period begins to run from the moment when the priority successor waives the inheritance rights. And, if the opportunity to enter into the inheritance arose as a result of the non-acceptance of property by other applicants, the period will be three months from the date when the six months allotted to them expired.

The time for issuing a certificate is regulated by Art. 1163 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, according to which the document must be ready after six months from the date of the death of the testator. But these time frames can be shifted in the following cases:

• the birth of an heir is expected;
• the court is in the process of contesting the applicant's inheritance rights;
• the submitted documents are not enough or they cause doubts in the notary (time is required for examination).

You can get a document earlier if the notary has undeniable evidence that, apart from the applicants, there are no other applicants for the inheritance.

Expenses

For issuing a certificate, the applicant is charged a state duty or a notary fee and a fee for services of a legal and technical nature.

State duty - a fee charged for the receipt of a public service (issuance of a document). If the inheritance case is conducted by a private notary office, the notary tariff replaces the state duty, but the amount of payment remains the same.

State duty is charged in the amount of:

• 0.3% of the assessed value of the inheritance property for beneficiaries from among close relatives and family members of the deceased (parents, children, spouse, brothers and sisters);
• 0.6% - for all other successors.

In accordance with Art. 333.38 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, the following are exempt from this payment:

• recipients of a certificate of the right to inherited housing (if they lived on it at the time of the death of the testator) or a bank deposit;
• minor and incompetent heirs;
• disabled people of groups I and II (by 50%);
• heirs of the property of persons who died in the performance of official, public or civic duty.

Fees for legal and technical services are additional costs that the applicant will have to bear when processing the document. It is charged according to the tariff established by the notary chamber of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation. For Moscow, the rates will be as follows:

• certificate of right to real estate - 5,000 rubles per object;
• for movable property - 3,000 rubles/object;
• for unreceived pensions and income - 500 rubles; *
• for cash deposits and bank accounts - 1,000 rubles. (for funds up to 100,000 rubles), 2,500 rubles. (deposits from 100,000 rubles).*

* - a fee is charged not for issuing a certificate (in these cases it is issued free of charge), but for submitting requests to credit institutions, and if there are more than three requests, each subsequent one will cost 100 rubles. (within 1,000 rubles).

For services of a legal and technical nature, disabled people and veterans of the Great Patriotic War, prisoners of fascist camps and, by 50%, disabled people of group I will not have to pay.

When canceled

An already issued certificate, as well as legally significant actions performed on its basis, can be canceled when:

• its recipient was declared an unworthy heir;
• the priority successor, who had not previously submitted an application to a notary, restored the term of inheritance;
• the right approved by this certificate was challenged in court.

If this happens, the heir is obliged to return the property for which the document was issued, or compensate for its value in monetary terms.

What to do next

After receiving the title document for the inheritance, the successor needs to decide what to do with the acquired property - to keep, donate or sell. But in any case, it must be registered in the property by registering with the appropriate authority.

The property

Real estate (house, apartment, plot of land, building structure, etc.) is subject to registration in the Unified State Register of Real Estate. According to the law, only after that the testator will become the full owner and will be able to freely make transactions with real estate.

To register property, he must:

1. Contact the nearest office of Rosreestr or a multifunctional center (this can be done at any time, at the request of the successor, there are no time limits here).
2. Write an application for registration of the transfer of ownership of real estate.
3. Submit documents (certificate of the right to inheritance, identity card, extract from the Unified State Register of Real Estate (EGRN), technical or land survey plan of the object.
4. Pay the state duty - 2,000 rubles.
5. Receive a response from an authorized employee about the successful completion of the procedure.

After the information about the new owner of the property has been entered, the heir can order a certificate from the USRN (if he needs to confirm the ownership of the object).

Vehicle

The car must be re-registered within 10 days from the date of receipt of the certificate of inheritance. For missing the deadline, a fine of 2,000 rubles may be withheld from the new owner.

To change the data on the owner of the vehicle, you need to:

1. Renew the policy of compulsory motor third party liability insurance.
2. Get a new vehicle diagnostic card.
3. Submit an application and a list of required documents* to the local Interregional Registration and Examination Department of the State Road Safety Inspectorate.
4. Pay the state duty - 850 rubles.
5. Submit your vehicle for inspection.

* - when registering a car, you will need:

• certificate of inheritance;
• diagnostic card;
• OSAGO policy;
• receipt of payment of state duty;
• applicant's identity card.

Only after the following steps have been taken, the inherited car can be used legally.

Bank deposit

In order to receive money from the deposit or bank account of the deceased, you must come to the branch of the bank that opened the inheritable deposit and submit an application to its employee for reissuing or issuing funds.

The service is provided by the bank's specialists free of charge, provided that the bequeather applies to the branch with a certificate of entitlement to the account of the deceased depositor. The rest of the information (terms of issuance and amount of money) is contained in the bank's database.

Further actions - receiving cash or reissuing a deposit - depend on the desire of the heir and the terms of the agreement on which this account was opened by the now deceased.

Business

It becomes the property of the successor only after the registration of the property complex. The procedure is carried out by analogy with the registration of a building or a land plot, since according to the law, the totality of tangible assets, property rights and trademarks of an enterprise is considered one whole and indivisible object of real estate.

The indivisibility of a property complex does not mean that it cannot pass to several heirs at once. If there are several applicants for it, the enterprise is assigned to them on the basis of joint ownership and can be formally divided into shares.

After registering an enterprise with Rosreestr (it will cost the new owner 0.1% of the assessed value of the object), the beneficiary needs to decide what to do with it next. If you continue the case of the testator, you will need to register as a business entity - a legal entity or an individual entrepreneur (IP).

The registration of a legal entity or individual entrepreneur is carried out by the tax inspectorate. In order to enter their data into the Unified State Register of Legal Entities or Individual Entrepreneurs, the successor needs to fill out the prescribed form, pay the state duty (800 or 4,000 rubles, depending on the status that the applicant wants to acquire) and submit a package of papers necessary to create a business entity. activities.

In the case when the heir is not interested in doing business, he can sell the enterprise. Then he does not need to register with the tax office, it is enough to apply to Rosreestr. And after the registration of the property complex, the owner has the right to conclude a purchase and sale transaction.

Share in the economic company

A part of a limited liability company may become the property of the beneficiary only with the permission of the other participants. Otherwise, he receives financial compensation from them, in other words, he sells the share to the members of the LLC.

St. Petersburg Technical College of Management and Commerce

Performed:

student of group 11P-22K Romasheva Anna

Lecturer: Turchin V.P.

St. Petersburg

April 2000

Introduction ................................................................................................. 3

demographic problem ............................................................ 5

Ecological problems ................................................................. 6

Climate warming .................................................................................................... 7

Ozone holes ................................................................................................................ 8

Death and deforestation ................................................................................................... 9

desertification ............................................................................................................ 10

Pure water ................................................................................................................... 11

......................................................... 12

............................................... 12

energy problem .............................................................. 13

Raw material problem ......................................................................... 14

Problems of the world ocean ........................................................... 14

Problems of space exploration ......................................................... 16

Conclusion ................................................................................................... 17

Bibliography .......................................................................... 19

Introduction

Everything is interconnected with everything - says the first ecological law. This means that one cannot take a step without hitting, and sometimes without violating, something from the environment. Each step of a person on an ordinary lawn is dozens of destroyed microorganisms, frightened off insects, changing migration routes, and perhaps even reducing their natural productivity.

Already in the last century, a person's concern for the fate of the planet arose, and in the current century it has come to a crisis in the world ecological system due to the resumption of pressure on the natural environment.

What are global issues?

It would seem that the question has been clear for a long time, and their range was determined back in the early 70s, when the term "globalistics" itself began to be used, the first models of global development appeared.

One of the definitions refers to the global "problems arising as a result of the objective development of society, creating threats to all mankind and requiring the combined efforts of the entire world community for their solution" 1 .

The correctness of this definition depends on which problems are classified as global. If this is a narrow circle of higher, planetary problems, then it is fully consistent with the truth. If we add here such problems as natural disasters (it is global only in the sense of the possibility of manifestation in the region), then this definition turns out to be narrow, limiting, which is its meaning.

Yuri Gladky made an interesting attempt to classify global problems, identifying three main groups:

1. Problems of a political and socio-economic nature.

2. Problems of natural and economic nature

3. Problems of a social nature.

Rice. 1. Scheme "Classification of global problems" 1 .

Awareness of global problems, the urgency of revising many of the usual stereotypes came to us late, much later than the publication in the West of the first global models, calls to stop the growth of the economy. Meanwhile, all global problems are closely interconnected.

Until recently, nature conservation was a matter for individuals and societies, and ecology initially had nothing to do with nature conservation. This name Ernest Haeckel in 1866 in the monograph "General Morphology" christened the science of the relationship of animals and plants living in a certain area, their relationship to each other and to living conditions.

Who eats what or whom, how it adapts to seasonal climate changes - the main questions of the original ecology. With the exception of a narrow circle of specialists, no one knew anything about it. And now the word "ecology" is on everyone's lips.

Such a dramatic change over the course of 30 years occurred due to two interrelated circumstances characteristic of the second half of the century: the growth of the world's population and the scientific and technological revolution.

The rapid growth of the world's population is called the population explosion. It was accompanied by the seizure of vast territories from nature for residential buildings and public institutions, roads and railways, airports and marinas, crops and pastures. Hundreds of square kilometers of tropical forests were cut down. Under the hooves of numerous herds, the steppes and prairies turned into deserts.

Simultaneously with the population explosion, there was also a scientific and technological revolution. Man mastered nuclear energy, rocket technology and went into space. He invented the computer, created electronic technology and the industry of synthetic materials.

The population explosion and the scientific and technological revolution have led to a colossal increase in the consumption of natural resources. So, now in the world 3.5 billion tons of oil and 4.5 tons of hard and brown coal are produced annually. At such a rate of consumption, it became obvious that many natural resources would be depleted in the near future. At the same time, the waste from giant industries began to pollute the environment more and more, destroying the health of the population. In all industrialized countries, cancerous, chronic pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases are widespread.

Scientists were the first to sound the alarm. Beginning in 1968, the Italian economist Aurelio Pecchen began to annually gather in Rome major experts from different countries to discuss issues about the future of civilization. These meetings were called the Club of Rome. In the spring of 1972, the first book prepared by the Club of Rome was published, with the characteristic title "Limits to Growth". And in June of the same year, the UN held the First International Conference on Environment and Development in Stockholm, which summarized materials on pollution and its harmful effects on the health of the population of many countries. The participants of the conference came to the conclusion that a person from a subject who studied the ecology of animals and plants, in the new conditions, must himself turn into an object of multilateral environmental research. They appealed to the governments of all countries of the world with an appeal to create special state institutions for these purposes.

After the conference in Stockholm, ecology merged with nature conservation and began to acquire its present great importance. In different countries, ministries, departments and committees on ecology began to be created, and their main goal was to monitor the natural environment and combat its pollution in order to preserve public health.

To conduct research on human ecology, a theoretical basis was required. First, Russian and then foreign researchers recognized the teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere and the inevitability of its evolutionary transformation into the environment of the human mind - the noosphere.

However, the anthropogenic impact on nature has reached such proportions that global problems have arisen that no one could even suspect at the beginning of the 20th century. If we leave aside the economic and social aspects, and talk only about nature, then we can name the following global environmental problems that are in the field of view of mankind at the end of the 20th century: global warming, depletion of the ozone layer, destruction of the Earth's forest cover, desertification of vast territories, pollution of the World Ocean, reduction of species diversity of flora and fauna. Scientific research is needed not only to solve or mitigate these problems, but also to find out the causes of their occurrence, because without this it is impossible to solve them.

Let's look at some of the problems and their causes in more detail.

demographic problem

People have always been crowded on the planet. Aristotle and other philosophers of antiquity were also concerned about the overpopulation of the Earth. But this tightness also served as an incentive for people to strive to develop new earthly spaces. This was the impetus for the great geographical discoveries, technical inventions, the scientific process itself. If this were not so, people would not develop new lands, would not seek to move to new continents, and would not make geographical discoveries.

In fact, in the course of history, as the productive forces developed, the size of the territory needed to provide food for one person was reduced. According to some estimates, in prehistoric times, when people lived by gathering, depending on the natural habitat, in order to feed one person, it was necessary to develop from 25 to 250 square kilometers. In the era of agriculture, in the slave-owning era, this value decreased and was already about 1 square kilometer. Under feudalism, it was reduced to 0.2 square kilometers, and in our time it is from 0.5 to 1 hectare.

The growing population of the planet requires an ever-increasing increase in the pace of economic development in order to maintain balance. However, if we take into account the current state of technology, then such growth will cause more and more environmental pollution and may even lead to the irretrievable death of nature, which provides food for all of us and supports all life.

It is difficult to judge the phenomenon of a population explosion in Russia, where the population began to decrease since 1993, and even in Western Europe, where it is growing very slowly, but it is well illustrated by the demographic statistics of China, Africa, Latin America, and southern Asia, where the population growing at a gigantic pace.

At the beginning of the century, 1.5 billion people lived on Earth. In 1950, despite the losses in the two world wars, the population increased to 2.5 billion, and then began to increase annually by 70-100 million people. In 1993, the world's population reached 5.5 billion people, that is, doubled compared to 1950, and in 2000 it will exceed 6 billion.

In a finite space, growth cannot be infinite. Stabilization of the world population is one of the most important conditions for the transition to sustainable environmental and economic development. In all likelihood, the current number of people on Earth will double. Perhaps it will stabilize at 10-12, maybe 14 billion people by the end of the CCI century. The conclusion follows from this: we must hurry today in order to stop the slide into irreversible situations in the future.

An essential feature of the modern demographic picture of the world is that 90%2 of population growth is in developing countries. In order to present a real picture of the world, one must know how this majority of humanity lives.

The direct link between poverty and the population explosion is visible on global, continental and regional scales. Africa, the continent in the most difficult ecological and economic crisis, has the highest population growth rates in the world, and unlike other continents, they are not declining there yet. This is how a vicious circle closes: poverty - rapid population growth - degradation of natural life support systems.

The gap between accelerated population growth and insufficient industrial development is further exacerbated by the widespread decline in production, which makes it difficult to solve the huge problem of unemployment in developing countries. Almost a third of their working-age population is fully or partially unemployed. Poverty does not reduce but increases incentives to have more children. Children are an important part of the family workforce. From childhood, they collect firewood, prepare fuel for cooking, graze livestock, nurse younger children, and do many other household chores.

So, in reality, the danger to our planet is poverty, in which the vast majority of the world's population lives. The population explosion and the forced destruction of the natural basis of existence are largely the consequences of poverty.

The notion that the rapidly growing population of developing countries is the main cause of growing global resource and environmental shortages is as simple as it is wrong. Swedish environmental scientist Rolf Edberg wrote: "Two-thirds of the world's population is forced to be content with a standard of living that is 5-10% of the level in the richest countries. A Swede, a Swiss, an American consume 40 times more Earth's resources than a Somali, eat at 75 times more meat products than an Indian An English journalist has calculated that the English cat eats twice as much meat protein as the average African, the cat's food is worth more than the average income of one billion people in poor countries A more equitable distribution of earth's resources could can only be expressed in the fact that a well-to-do quarter of the world's population - if only from the instinct of self-preservation - would give up direct excesses so that poor countries could get what they cannot live without.

Ecological problems

First, a few words must be said about the very concept of "ecology". Ecology was born as a purely biological science of the relationship "organism - environment". However, with the intensification of anthropogenic and technogenic pressure on the environment, the insufficiency of this approach became obvious. Indeed, at present there are no phenomena, processes and territories unaffected by this powerful pressure. And there is no science that could withdraw from the search for a way out of the ecological crisis. The range of sciences involved in environmental issues has expanded enormously. Now, along with biology, these are economic and geographical sciences, medical and sociological research, atmospheric physics and mathematics, and many other sciences.

The environmental problems of our time in terms of their scale can be conditionally divided into local, regional and global ones and require for their solution different means of solution and scientific developments of different nature.

An example of a local environmental problem is a plant that dumps its industrial waste into the river without treatment, which is harmful to human health. This is a violation of the law. The nature conservation authorities or even the public should fine such a plant through the courts and, under threat of closure, force it to build a treatment plant. It does not require special science.

An example of regional environmental problems is the Kuzbass - an almost enclosed mountain hollow filled with gases from coke ovens and fumes from a metallurgical giant, which no one thought about capturing during construction, or the drying up Aral Sea with a sharp deterioration in the environmental situation along its entire periphery, or the high radioactivity of soils in areas adjacent to Chernobyl.

To solve such problems, scientific research is already needed. In the first case, the development of rational methods for the absorption of smoke and gas aerosols, in the second, accurate hydrological studies to develop recommendations for increasing the flow into the Aral Sea, in the third, elucidation of the impact on public health of long-term exposure to low doses of radiation and the development of soil decontamination methods.

As before, in the infinite Universe, in orbit around the Sun, the small planet Earth revolves non-stop, with each new turn, as it were, proving the inviolability of its existence. The face of the planet is constantly reflected by satellites that send cosmic information to the Earth. But this face is irreversibly changing. Anthropogenic impact on nature has reached such proportions that global problems have arisen. Now let's move on to specific environmental problems.

Climate warming

The sharp warming of the climate that began in the second half of the CC century is a reliable fact. We feel it in milder than before winters. The average surface air temperature increased by 0.7°C compared to 1956-1957, when the First International Geophysical Year was held. There is no warming at the equator, but the closer to the poles, the more noticeable it is. Beyond the Arctic Circle it reaches 2°С 2 . At the North Pole, the under-ice water warmed by 1°С 2 and the ice cover began to melt from below.

What is the reason for this phenomenon? Some scientists believe that this is the result of burning a huge amount of organic fuel and releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which is a greenhouse gas, that is, it makes it difficult to transfer heat from the Earth's surface.

So what is the greenhouse effect? Billions of tons of carbon dioxide enter the atmosphere every hour as a result of burning coal and oil, natural gas and firewood, millions of tons of methane rise into the atmosphere from gas developments, from the rice fields of Asia, water vapor and fluorochlorocarbons are emitted there. All of these are "greenhouse gases". Just as a glass roof and walls in a greenhouse allow solar radiation to pass through, but do not allow heat to escape, so carbon dioxide and other "greenhouse gases" are practically transparent to sunlight, but retain the Earth's long-wave thermal radiation, preventing it from escaping into space.

The outstanding Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky said that the impact of mankind is already comparable to geological processes.

The "energy boom" of the outgoing century increased the concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere by 25% and methane by 100% 2 . During this time, the Earth experienced a real warming. Most scientists consider this a consequence of the "greenhouse effect".

Other scientists, referring to climate change in historical time, consider the anthropogenic factor of climate warming negligible and attribute this phenomenon to increased solar activity.

The forecast for the future (2030 - 2050) assumes a possible increase in temperature by 1.5 - 4.5°C 2 . Such conclusions were reached by the International Conference of Climatologists in Austria in 1988.

A warming climate raises a number of related issues. What are the prospects for its further development? How will warming affect the increase in evaporation from the surface of the oceans and how will this affect the amount of precipitation? How will this precipitation be distributed over the area? And a number of more specific questions concerning the territory of Russia: in connection with the warming and general humidification of the climate, is it possible to expect mitigation of droughts both in the Lower Volga region and in the North Caucasus; should we expect an increase in the flow of the Volga and a further rise in the level of the Caspian; whether the retreat of permafrost will begin in Yakutia and the Magadan region; Will navigation along the northern shores of Siberia become easier?

All these questions can be answered accurately. However, for this, various scientific studies must be carried out.

Ozone holes

The ecological problem of the ozone layer is no less complex in scientific terms. As you know, life on Earth appeared only after the protective ozone layer of the planet was formed, covering it from cruel ultraviolet radiation. For many centuries, nothing foreshadowed trouble. However, in recent decades, intensive destruction of this layer has been noticed.

The problem of the ozone layer arose in 1982, when a probe launched from a British station in Antarctica detected a sharp decrease in ozone at an altitude of 25 to 30 kilometers. Since then, an ozone "hole" of varying shapes and sizes has been recorded over Antarctica all the time. According to the latest data for 1992, it is equal to 23 million square kilometers, that is, an area equal to the whole of North America. Later, the same "hole" was discovered over the Canadian Arctic archipelago, over Svalbard, and then in different parts of Eurasia, in particular over Voronezh.

The depletion of the ozone layer is a much more dangerous reality for all life on Earth than the fall of some super-large meteorite, because ozone does not allow dangerous radiation to reach the Earth's surface. In the event of a decrease in ozone, humanity is threatened, at a minimum, with an outbreak of skin cancer and eye diseases. In general, an increase in the dose of ultraviolet rays can weaken the human immune system, and at the same time reduce the yield of fields, reduce the already narrow base of the Earth's food supply.

"It is quite possible that by the year 2100 the protective ozone blanket will disappear, ultraviolet rays will dry up the Earth, animals and plants will die. Man will seek salvation under giant domes of artificial glass, and feed on the food of astronauts" a picture drawn by a correspondent of one of the Western magazines may seem too gloomy. But according to experts, the changed situation will affect the flora and fauna. The yield of some agricultural crops may decrease by 30%. 1 The changed conditions will also affect microorganisms - the same plankton, which is the main food for marine life.

The depletion of the ozone layer has excited not only scientists, but also the governments of many countries. The search for reasons began. At first, suspicion fell on chlorine and fluorocarbons used in refrigeration, the so-called freons. They are really easily oxidized by ozone, thereby destroying it. Large sums were allocated to search for their substitutes. However, refrigeration units are mainly used in countries with warm and hot climates, and for some reason ozone holes are most pronounced in the polar regions. This caused confusion. Then it was found that a lot of ozone is destroyed by the rocket engines of modern aircraft flying at high altitudes, as well as during the launch of spacecraft and satellites.

Detailed scientific studies are needed to finally resolve the issue of the causes of ozone depletion. Another cycle of research is needed to develop the most rational ways to artificially restore the previous ozone content in the stratosphere. Work in this direction has already begun.

Death and deforestation

One of the causes of forest death in many regions of the world is acid rain, the main culprit of which is power plants. Sulfur dioxide emissions and long-range transport cause these rains to fall far from emission sources. In Austria, eastern Canada, the Netherlands and Sweden, more than 60% of the sulfur deposited on their territory comes from external sources, and in Norway even 75% 1 . Other examples of long-range transport of acids are acid rain on remote Atlantic islands such as Bermuda and acid snow in the Arctic.

Over the past 20 years (1970-1990), the world has lost almost 200 million hectares of forests, which is equal to the US area east of the Mississippi 1 . Especially great environmental threat is the depletion of tropical forests - the "lungs of the planet" and the main source of the planet's biological diversity. Approximately 200,000 square kilometers are cut down or burned there every year, which means that 100,000 (!) species of plants and animals disappear 1 . This process is especially fast in the regions richest in tropical forests - the Amazon and Indonesia.

British ecologist N. Meyers came to the conclusion that ten small areas in the tropics contain at least 27% of the total species composition of this class of plant formations, later this list was expanded to 15 "hot spots" of tropical forests that must be preserved in order to no matter what 1 .

In developed countries, acid rain caused damage to a significant part of the forest: in Czechoslovakia - 71%, in Greece and Great Britain - 64%, in Germany - 52% 1 .

The current situation with forests is very different across the continents. If in Europe and Asia the forested areas for 1974 - 1989 increased slightly, then in Australia they decreased by 2.6% in one year. Even greater forest degradation is taking place in some countries: in Côte d, Ivoire, forest areas decreased by 5.4% over the year, in Thailand - by 4.3%, in Paraguay - by 3.4%.

desertification

Under the influence of living organisms, water and air, the most important ecosystem, thin and fragile, is gradually formed on the surface layers of the lithosphere - the soil, which is called the "skin of the Earth". It is the keeper of fertility and life. A handful of good soil contains millions of microorganisms that support fertility. It takes a century to form a layer of soil with a thickness (thickness) of 1 centimeter. It can be lost in one field season. Geologists estimate that before people began to engage in agricultural activities, graze livestock and plow land, rivers annually carried about 9 billion tons of soil into the oceans. Now this amount is estimated at about 25 billion tons 2 .

Soil erosion - a purely local phenomenon - has now become universal. In the US, for example, about 44% of cultivated land is subject to erosion. Unique rich chernozems with 14–16% humus content (organic matter that determines soil fertility) disappeared in Russia, which were called the citadel of Russian agriculture. In Russia, the areas of the most fertile lands with a humus content of 10-13% have decreased by almost 5 times 2 .

A particularly difficult situation arises when not only the soil layer is demolished, but also the parent rock on which it develops. Then the threshold of irreversible destruction sets in, an anthropogenic (that is, man-made) desert arises.

One of the most formidable, global and fleeting processes of our time is the expansion of desertification, the fall and, in the most extreme cases, the complete destruction of the biological potential of the Earth, which leads to conditions similar to those of a natural desert.

Natural deserts and semi-deserts occupy more than 1/3 of the earth's surface. About 15% of the world's population lives on these lands. Deserts are natural formations that play a certain role in the overall ecological balance of the planet's landscapes.

As a result of human activity, by the last quarter of the 20th century, more than 9 million square kilometers of deserts appeared, and in total they already covered 43% of the total land area 2.

In the 1990s, desertification began to threaten 3.6 million hectares of drylands. This represents 70% of the potentially productive drylands, or ¼ of the total land area, and this figure does not include the area of ​​natural deserts. About 1/6 of the world's population suffers from this process 2 .

According to UN experts, the current loss of productive land will lead to the fact that by the end of the century the world may lose almost 1/3 of its arable land 2 . Such a loss, at a time of unprecedented population growth and increased food demand, could be truly disastrous.

Causes of land degradation in different regions of the world.

deforestation	Overexploitation	overgrazing	Agricultural activity	Industrialization
Sev. America
Southern America
Centre. America					Water can also become the subject of internecine conflicts, as the 200 largest rivers in the world flow through the territory of two or more countries. The water of the Niger, for example, is used by 10 countries, the Nile - by 9, and the Amazon - by 7 countries. Our civilization is already called the "civilization of waste" or the Era of disposable things. The wastefulness of the industrialized countries is manifested in the vast and growing waste of raw materials; mountains of garbage are a characteristic feature of all industrial countries of the world. The United States, with 600 kilograms of garbage per capita per year, is the largest producer of household waste in the world, in Western Europe and Japan they produce half as much, but the growth rate of household waste is growing everywhere. In our country, this increase is 2-5% per year 2 . Many new products contain toxic substances - lead, mercury and cadmium - in batteries, toxic chemicals in household detergents, solvents and dyes. Therefore, garbage dumps near the largest cities pose a serious environmental threat - the threat of groundwater pollution, a threat to public health. The disposal of industrial waste to these landfills will create even greater dangers. Waste processing plants are not a radical solution to the problem of waste - sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide are emitted into the atmosphere, and ash contains toxic substances, the ash ends up in the same landfills. Such an ordinary substance as water rarely attracts our attention, although we encounter it every day, rather even hourly: during the morning toilet, at breakfast, when we drink tea or coffee, when leaving the house in rain or snow, while preparing dinner. and washing dishes, during washing ... In general, very, very often. Think for a moment about water... imagine that it suddenly disappeared... well, for example, there was an accident in the water supply network. Perhaps this has happened to you before? With all the evidence in such a situation, it becomes clear that "without water, neither there nor here." Environmental issues and developed countries Awareness of the environmental problem has led to the greening of economic development in industrialized countries. First, this was expressed in the fact that the costs of the state and monopolies for environmental protection have increased dramatically. Secondly, the production of cleaning equipment has been launched - an "eco-industry", "eco-business" has emerged - an international market for environmentally friendly equipment and environmentally friendly products. Thirdly, a system of laws and organizations for the protection of the environment (relevant ministries and departments) was formed. Programs for the ecological development of individual countries and regions were developed. Fourth, international coordination in the field of environmental protection has been strengthened. Environmental issues and developing countries The center of gravity of the global problems of our time is increasingly moving to the world of developing countries. The environmental pressure is also increasing here, since along with "pre-industrial" pollution, a new one is increasingly manifesting itself, associated with the invasion of transnational corporations (TNCs), with the "export" of polluting industries to the "third world". "Pre-industrial" degradation is primarily desertification (the result of anthropogenic and natural factors: excessive grazing and cutting down of rare trees and shrubs, disturbance of the soil cover, and so on in fragile, easily destroyed ecosystems of arid regions) and mass deforestation. Modern "industrial" pollution in developing countries is caused by the transfer of many polluting industries to the "third world", primarily by the construction of metallurgical and chemical plants. The concentration of population in the largest agglomerations is growing. The "new" pollution in developing countries is also determined by the chemicalization of agriculture. So, all new models of ecological development, all novelties of technology are still the lot of the developed world, which accounts for about 20% of the world's population. energy problem As we have seen, it is closely related to the environmental problem. Ecological well-being also depends to the greatest extent on the reasonable development of the Earth's energy, because half of all gases that cause the "greenhouse effect" are created in the energy sector. The fuel and energy balance of the planet consists mainly of "pollutants" - oil (40.3%), coal (31.2%), gas (23.7%). In total, they account for the vast majority of the use of energy resources - 95.2%. "Clean" types - hydropower and nuclear energy - give less than 5% in total, and the "softest" (non-polluting) - wind, solar, geothermal - account for fractions of a percent. It is clear that the global task is to increase the share of "clean" and especially "soft" types of energy. First, let's consider the possibility of increasing the share of "soft" types of energy. In the coming years, "soft" types of energy will not be able to significantly change the fuel and energy balance of the Earth. It will take some time until their economic indicators become close to "traditional" forms of energy. In addition, their ecological capacity is measured not only by the reduction of CO 2 emissions, there are other factors, in particular, the territory alienated for their development. Area for different types of power plants 1 . In addition to the gigantic area that is necessary for the development of solar and wind energy, one must also take into account the fact that their ecological "cleanliness" is taken without taking into account metal, glass and other materials necessary to create such "clean" installations, and even in huge quantities. Conditionally "clean" is also hydropower, which can be seen at least from the indicators of the table - large losses of flooded area in floodplains, which are usually valuable agricultural lands. Hydro stations now provide 17% of all electricity in developed countries and 31% in developing countries, where the world's largest hydroelectric power stations have been built in recent years 1 . However, in addition to large expropriated areas, the development of hydropower was hampered by the fact that the specific capital investment here is 2-3 times higher than in the construction of nuclear power plants. In addition, the period of construction of hydroelectric power stations is much longer than thermal stations. For all these reasons, hydropower cannot provide a quick reduction in pressure on the environment. Apparently, under these conditions, only nuclear energy can be a way out, able to sharply and in a fairly short time to weaken the "greenhouse effect". The replacement of coal, oil and gas by nuclear power has already resulted in some reductions in emissions of CO 2 and other "greenhouse gases". If those 16% of the world's electricity production, which is now provided by nuclear power plants, were produced by coal-fired thermal power plants, even those equipped with the most modern gas purifiers, then an additional 1.6 billion tons of carbon dioxide, 1 million tons of nitrogen oxides, 2 million tons of sulfur oxides and 150 thousand tons of heavy metals (lead, arsenic, mercury). Raw material problem The issues of providing raw materials and energy are the most important and multifaceted global problem. The most important because, even in the age of scientific and technological revolution, minerals remain the fundamental basis for almost the rest of the economy, and fuel is its circulatory system. Multifaceted because a whole knot of "sub-problems" is woven together here: Resource availability on a global and regional scale; Economic aspects of the problem (higher production costs, fluctuations in world prices for raw materials and fuel, dependence on imports); Geopolitical aspects of the problem (struggle for sources of raw materials and fuel; Environmental aspects of the problem (damage from the mining industry itself, energy supply issues, regeneration of raw materials, choice of energy strategies, and so on). Resource use has increased dramatically in recent decades. Only since 1950, the volume of mining has increased 3 times, ¾ of all minerals mined in the 20th century were mined after 1960. One of the key issues of any global models has become the provision of resources and energy. And much of what until recently was considered endless, inexhaustible and “free” has become resources - territory, water, oxygen ... Problems of the world ocean The World Ocean, covering 2/3 of the earth's surface, is a huge water reservoir, the mass of water in which is 1.4 ´ 10 21 kilograms or 1.4 billion cubic kilometers. Ocean water is 97% of all water on the planet. As the largest supplier of food products, the World Ocean provides, according to various estimates, from 1/6 to ¼ of all animal proteins consumed by the world's population for food. The ocean, and especially its coastal zone, plays a leading role in sustaining life on the Earth. After all, about 70% of the oxygen entering the planet's atmosphere is produced in the process of photosynthesis by plankton (phytoplankton). The blue-green algae that live in the oceans serve as a giant filter that purifies the water in the process of its circulation. It receives polluted river and rainwater and returns moisture to the continent in the form of pure atmospheric precipitation through evaporation. The World Ocean is one of the most important objects of environmental protection. The peculiarity of this object of environmental protection is that the current in the seas and oceans quickly carries pollutants to long distances from the places of their release. Therefore, the problem of protecting the cleanliness of the ocean has a pronounced international character. Chemical pollution is a change in the natural chemical properties of water due to an increase in the content of harmful impurities in it, both inorganic (mineral salts, acids, alkalis, clay particles) and organic nature (oil and oil products, organic residues, surfactants, pesticides and the like). Sources and substances that pollute the oceans are numerous, from mercury to non-degradable synthetic detergents, which often form thick foam in rivers. Intensive human activity has led to the fact that the Baltic, North and Irish seas are heavily polluted with detergent effluents. The waters of the Baltic and North Seas are fraught with another danger. In 1945 - 1947, the British, American, and also Soviet command flooded them with about 300 thousand tons of captured and own ammunition with poisonous substances (mustard gas, phosgene, adamsite). The flooding operations were carried out in great haste and with serious violations of environmental safety standards. Cases of chemical munitions under the influence to date have been severely destroyed, which is fraught with serious consequences. Successful restoration of water resources while simultaneously involving them in economic circulation, that is, the reproduction of water resources, the prevention of possible new pollution, is possible only through a set of measures, including the treatment of wastewater and water bodies, the introduction of recycling water supply and low-waste technologies. Wasteless technology is developing in several directions: 1. Creation of drainless technological systems and water circulation cycles based on existing implemented and promising methods of wastewater treatment. 2. Development and implementation of systems for the disposal of production waste and their consumption as a secondary material resource, which excludes their entry into the aquatic environment. 3. Creation and implementation of fundamentally new processes for the production of traditional types of products, which make it possible to eliminate or reduce the technological stages that produce the main amount of liquid pollutant waste. The most massive substances polluting water bodies are oil and its products. Oil pollution of the ocean is dangerous due to the fact that a thin hydrophobic oil film forms on the surface of the water, which prevents free gas exchange with the atmosphere, which dramatically affects ocean flora and fauna. Shipping is the oldest branch of transport, linking continents and cultures even in the most distant past. But only in the second half of our century did it take on modern grandiose proportions. The tonnage of the marine fleet from 1950 to 1980 increased 6 times. The scientific and technological revolution rapidly changed the tonnage of ships, especially tankers: if in 1970 the average tanker tonnage was 42 thousand tons, then already in 1980 it was 96 thousand tons, while half of the tonnage of the world's tanker fleet was already accounted for by supertankers (more than 200 thousand tons) . True, at the beginning of the 1980s, a sharp excess of the fleet of developed countries, especially supertankers, was revealed. Nevertheless, the era of supertankers and large tankers and ore carriers brought to the fore ports with great depths of approach, caused a concentration of oil and ore cargo flows. The environmental problems of the World Ocean are caused both by the "load" on the coastal areas, and directly - on the ecosystems of the seas. "Shift to the sea" is called the global process of attraction to the sea shores of a wide variety of economic activities, and hence the population. Powerful port-industrial complexes have developed in the coastal regions. Over the past 40 years, the proportion of coastal areas of the Earth's population has increased from 30 - 35 to 40 - 45% 2 . The ocean is regarded as a free dump of waste - anthropogenic "runoff" has already become much larger than natural: for lead, its share is 92%, for oil - more than 90%, for mercury - 70%. Only oil pollution of the World Ocean is estimated at 3 to 15 million tons per year, with most of it falling on land pollution (carrying out by rivers) - more than ½. A great danger to the open ocean is the catastrophe of tankers and even more - nuclear submarines. The Mediterranean Sea has become especially dangerous, through which a cargo flow of 250 million tons of oil passes, although the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe entire basin is only 1% of the oceans. All this speaks of the growing conflict in the use of the World Ocean - the development of the mining industry on the shelf and the widespread discharge of industrial waste into the ocean undermine the conditions for traditional fishing and recreation industries. In addition, vacationers on the coast themselves worsen the ecological situation. The impact of military conflicts on the World Ocean is especially dangerous. The "Gulf War" led to the fact that almost 2/3 of the western coast of the Persian Gulf was covered with a layer of oil and a huge number of marine animals and birds died. The environment has undergone unprecedented pollution in the history of mankind. More obscure problems may arise due to the warming of the Earth's climate. Currently, there is an imperceptible rise in the ocean level up to 1.5 - 2 meters, which leads to the flooding of "marches" (zones of high biological productivity, bird nests, and so on), causing serious damage to the economy of many countries. In addition to chemical and oil pollution, there is another type of pollution that is especially dangerous for the ocean - radioactive pollution during the disposal of radioactive waste. Pollution of the seas and oceans with radioactive waste is one of the most important problems of our time. In recent years, a number of important international agreements have been adopted to protect the seas and oceans from pollution. In accordance with these agreements, the washing of tankers and the discharge of waste ship waters must be carried out in special port facilities. Each country that has signed the agreement bears legal and material responsibility for the pollution of the waters of the oceans and seas. Problems of space exploration Before the beginning of the first space flights, all near-Earth space, and even more so "distant" space, the universe, were considered something unknown. And only later they began to recognize that between the Universe and the Earth - this smallest particle of it - there is an inextricable relationship and unity. Earthlings began to consider themselves participants in all processes taking place in outer space. The close interaction of the Earth's biosphere with the space environment gives grounds to assert that the processes occurring in the Universe have an impact on our planet. Developing space activities, it is necessary to make an ecological orientation of astronautics, since the absence of the latter can lead to irreversible consequences. It should be noted that already at the birth of the foundations of theoretical astronautics, environmental aspects played an important role, and, above all, in the works of K.E. Tsiolkovsky. In his opinion, the very exit of man into space is the development of a completely new ecological "niche", different from the earthly one. Near space (or near-Earth space) is the gaseous envelope of the Earth, which is located above the surface atmosphere, and whose behavior is determined by the direct influence of solar ultraviolet radiation, while the state of the atmosphere is mainly influenced by the Earth's surface. Until recently, scientists believed that the exploration of near space has almost no effect on the weather, climate and other living conditions on Earth. Therefore, it is not surprising that space exploration was carried out without regard to ecology. The emergence of ozone holes made scientists think. But, as studies show, the problem of preserving the ozone layer is only a small part of a much more general problem of protecting and rationally using near-Earth outer space, and above all, that part of it that forms the upper atmosphere and for which ozone is only one of its components. In terms of the relative strength of the impact on the upper atmosphere, the launch of a space rocket is similar to the explosion of an atomic bomb in the surface atmosphere. Space is a new environment for man, not yet inhabited. But here, too, the age-old problem of clogging the environment arose, this time the space one. There is also the problem of pollution of near-Earth space by debris from spacecraft. Moreover, there is a distinction between observable and unobservable space debris, the amount of which is unknown. Space debris appears during the operation of orbital spacecraft, their subsequent deliberate elimination. It also includes spent spacecraft, upper stages, detachable structural elements such as pyrobolt adapters, covers, fairings, the last stages of launch vehicles, and the like. According to modern data, there are 3,000 tons of space debris in near space, which is about 1% of the mass of the entire upper atmosphere above 200 kilometers. Growing space debris poses a serious threat to space stations and manned flights. Already today, the creators of space technology are forced to take into account the troubles that they themselves have created. Space debris is dangerous not only for astronauts and space technology, but also for earthlings. Experts have calculated that out of 150 pieces of spacecraft that have reached the surface of the planet, one is very likely to seriously injure or even kill a person. Thus, if effective measures are not taken by mankind in the very near future to combat space debris, then the space era in the history of mankind may end ingloriously in the near future. Outer space is not under the jurisdiction of any state. This is in its purest form an international object of protection. Thus, one of the important problems that arise in the process of industrial space exploration is to determine the specific factors of the permissible limits of anthropogenic impact on the environment and near-Earth space. It is impossible not to admit that today there is a negative impact of space technology on the environment (destruction of the ozone layer, contamination of the atmosphere with oxides of metals, carbon, nitrogen, and near space with parts of used spacecraft). Therefore, it is very important to study the consequences of its influence from the point of view of ecology. Conclusion Environmental pollution, depletion of natural resources and disruption of ecological links in ecosystems have become global problems. And if humanity continues to follow the current path of development, then its death, according to the leading ecologists of the world, is inevitable in two or three generations. The earth is like a library. It should remain in the same state even after we have nourished our minds by reading all her books and enriching ourselves with the ideas of new authors. Life is the most valuable book. We must treat it with love, but try not to tear a single page out of it, in order to pass it - with new remarks - into the hands of those who will be able to decipher the language of the forefathers, hoping to do honor to the world that they will leave to their sons and daughters. Bibliography 1. Lavrov S.B. Global problems of our time: part 1. - St. Petersburg: SPbGUPM, 1993. - 72 p. 2. Erofeev B.V. Russian Environmental Law: Textbook. - M.: Jurist, 1996. - 624 p. 3. Yanshin A.D. Scientific problems of nature conservation and ecology. // Ecology and life. - 1999. - No. 3 4. Attali Zh. On the threshold of the new millennium: Per. From English. - M.: International relations, 1993. - 136 p. 5. Encyclopedia for children: V.3 (Geography). - Comp. S.I. Ismailov. - M.: Avanta +, 1994. - 640 p. 6. Losev K.S. Water. - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1989, 272 p. 7. Lavrov S.B. Global problems of our time: part 2. - St. Petersburg: SPbGUPM, 1995. - 72 p. 8. Erofeev B.V. Environmental Law: A Textbook for High Schools. - M.: Jurisprudence, 1999. - 448 p. Lavrov S.B. Global problems of our time: part 1. - St. Petersburg: SPbGUPM, 1993. - 72p. Yanshin A.D. Scientific problems of nature conservation and ecology. // Ecology and life. - 1999. - No. 3 Encyclopedia for children: V.3 (Geography). - Comp. S.T. Ismailov. - M.: Avanta +, 1994. - 640s. Encyclopedia for children: V.3 (Geography). - Comp. S.I. Ismailov. - M.: Avanta +, 1994. - 640 p. Erofeev B.V. Environmental Law: A Textbook for High Schools. - M.: Jurisprudence, 1999. - 448 p.

The right to a favorable environment is enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation. This regulation is enforced by a number of authorities:

• Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia;
• Rosprirodnadzor and its territorial departments;
• environmental prosecutor's office;
• executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the field of ecology;
• a number of other departments.

But it would be more logical to consolidate the obligation of everyone to conserve natural resources, minimize consumption waste, and respect nature. A person has many rights. What does nature have? Nothing. Only the obligation to satisfy ever-growing human needs. And this consumer attitude leads to environmental problems. Let's take a look at what it is and how to improve the status quo.

The concept and types of environmental problems

Ecological problems are interpreted in different ways. But the essence of the concept comes down to one thing: it is the result of a thoughtless, soulless anthropogenic impact on the environment, which leads to a change in the properties of landscapes, depletion or loss of natural resources (minerals, flora and fauna). And a boomerang is reflected in the life and health of a person.

Environmental problems affect the entire natural system. Based on this, several types of this problem are distinguished:

• Atmospheric. In the atmospheric air, most often in urban areas, there is an increased concentration of pollutants, including particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxide, and carbon monoxide. Sources - road transport and stationary objects (industrial enterprises). Although, according to the State Report “On the state and protection of the environment of the Russian Federation in 2014”, the total amount of emissions decreased from 35 million tons / year in 2007 to 31 million tons / year in 2014, the air is not getting cleaner. The dirtiest Russian cities by this indicator are Birobidzhan, Blagoveshchensk, Bratsk, Dzerzhinsk, Yekaterinburg, and the cleanest are Salekhard, Volgograd, Orenburg, Krasnodar, Bryansk, Belgorod, Kyzyl, Murmansk, Yaroslavl, Kazan.
• Water. There is depletion and pollution of not only surface, but also groundwater. Take, for example, the "great Russian" river Volga. The waters in it are characterized as "dirty". The norm of the content of copper, iron, phenol, sulfates, organic substances is exceeded. This is due to the operation of industrial facilities that throw untreated or insufficiently treated effluents into the river, the urbanization of the population - a large proportion of domestic effluents through biological treatment facilities. The decrease in fish resources was influenced not only by the pollution of rivers, but also by the construction of a cascade of hydroelectric power stations. Even 30 years ago, even near the city of Cheboksary, it was possible to catch the Caspian beluga, but now nothing larger than a catfish will come across. It is possible that the annual actions of hydropower engineers to launch fry of valuable fish species, such as sterlet, will someday bring tangible results.
• Biological. Resources such as forests and pastures are degrading. They mentioned fish resources. As for the forest, we have the right to call our country the largest forest nation: a quarter of the area of ​​​​all forests in the world grows in our country, half of the country's territory is occupied by tree vegetation. We need to learn how to treat this wealth more carefully in order to save it from fires, to identify and punish “black” lumberjacks in a timely manner.

Fires are most often the work of human hands. It is possible that in this way someone is trying to hide traces of the illegal use of forest resources. Perhaps it is no coincidence that Rosleskhoz includes the Zabaikalsky, Khabarovsk, Primorsky, Krasnoyarsk Territories, the Republics of Tyva, Khakassia, Buryatia, Yakutia, the Irkutsk, Amur Regions, and the Jewish Autonomous Region as the most “burning” areas. At the same time, huge funds are spent on extinguishing fires: for example, over 1.5 billion rubles were spent in 2015. There are also good examples. Thus, the republics of Tatarstan and Chuvashia did not allow a single forest fire in 2015. There is someone to take an example from!

• Land . We are talking about the depletion of the subsoil, the development of minerals. To save at least part of these resources, it is enough to recycle waste as much as possible and send it for reuse. Thus, we will contribute to the reduction of landfill area, and enterprises can save on quarrying by using recycled materials in production.
• Soil - geomorphological. Active agriculture and deforestation lead to gully formation, soil erosion, and salinization. According to the Ministry of Agriculture of Russia, as of January 1, 2014, almost 9 million hectares of agricultural land were subject to degradation, of which over 2 million hectares were degraded. If erosion occurs as a result of land use, then the soil can be helped: by terracing, creating forest belts to protect against wind, changing the type, density and age of vegetation.
• Landscape. Deterioration of the state of individual natural-territorial complexes.

Modern world environmental problems

Local and global environmental problems are closely interrelated. What happens in a particular region is ultimately reflected in the general situation around the world. Therefore, the solution of environmental issues must be approached comprehensively. First, let's highlight the main global environmental problems:

• Destruction of the ozone layer. As a result, protection from ultraviolet radiation is reduced, which leads to various diseases in the population, including skin cancer.
• Global warming. Over the past 100 years, there has been an increase in the temperature of the surface layer of the atmosphere by 0.3-0.8°C. The area of ​​snow in the north has decreased by 8%. There was a rise in the level of the world ocean up to 20 cm. For 10 years, the growth rate of the average annual temperature in Russia amounted to 0.42°C. This is twice as much as the rate of increase in the global temperature of the Earth.
• Air pollution. Every day we inhale about 20 thousand liters of air saturated not only with oxygen, but also containing harmful suspended particles and gases. So, if we take into account that there are 600 million cars in the world, each of which emits up to 4 kg of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, soot and zinc into the atmosphere every day, then by simple mathematical calculations we come to the conclusion that the fleet emits 2.4 billion kg of harmful substances. We should not forget about emissions from stationary sources. Therefore, it is not surprising that every year over 12.5 million people (and this is the population of the whole of Moscow!) die from diseases associated with poor ecology.

• Acid rain. This problem leads to pollution of water bodies and soils with nitric and sulfuric acids, cobalt and aluminum compounds. As a result, crop yields are falling and forests are dying. Toxic metals get into drinking water and poison us.
• Soil pollution. 85 billion tons of waste per year, humanity needs to be stored somewhere. As a result, the soil under authorized and unauthorized landfills is contaminated with solid and liquid industrial waste, pesticides, and household waste.
• Water pollution. The main pollutants are oil and oil products, heavy metals and complex organic compounds. In Russia, the ecosystems of rivers, lakes, reservoirs are preserved at a stable level. The taxonomic composition and structure of communities do not undergo significant changes.

Ways to improve the environment

No matter how deep modern environmental problems penetrate, their solution depends on each of us. So what can we do to help nature?

• Use of an alternative fuel or alternative vehicle. To reduce harmful emissions into the atmospheric air, it is enough to switch the car to gas or transfer to an electric car. A very environmentally friendly way to travel by bike.
• Separate collection. It is enough to install two waste containers at home in order to effectively introduce separate collection. The first is for non-recyclable waste, and the second is for subsequent transfer to recycling. The cost of plastic bottles, waste paper, glass is becoming more expensive, so separate collection is not only environmentally friendly, but also economical. By the way, while in Russia the volume of waste generation is twice as high as the volume of waste use. As a result, the amount of waste in landfills triples in five years.
• Moderation. In everything and everywhere. An effective solution to environmental problems involves the rejection of the consumer society model. A person does not need 10 boots, 5 coats, 3 cars, etc. to live. It is easy to switch from plastic bags to eco-bags: they are stronger, the service life is much longer, and the cost is about 20 rubles. Many hypermarkets offer eco-bags under their own brand: Magnit, Auchan, Lenta, Karusel, etc. Everyone can independently evaluate what he can easily refuse.
• Ecological education of the population. Participate in environmental campaigns: plant a tree in the yard, go to the restoration of forests affected by fires. Take part in the Saturday. And nature will thank you with the rustle of leaves, a light breeze ... Raise in your children a love for all living things and teach competent behavior on a walk in the forest, on the street.
• Join the ranks of environmental organizations. Do not know how to help nature and preserve a favorable environment? Join the ranks of environmental organizations! These can be the global environmental movements Greenpeace, the Wildlife Fund, the Green Cross; Russian: All-Russian Society for Conservation of Nature, Russian Geographical Society, ECA, Separate COLLECTION, Green Patrol, RosEco, Non-Governmental Environmental Fund named after V.I. you!

Nature is one, there will never be another. Already today, by starting to solve environmental problems together, by combining the efforts of citizens, the state, public organizations and commercial enterprises, it is possible to improve the world around us. Many people are concerned about environmental issues, because how we treat them today depends on the conditions in which our children will live tomorrow.