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History table: Reforms of Emperor Peter I

Peter I is one of the most prominent rulers of the Russian state, who ruled from 1682 to 1721. During his reign, reforms were carried out in many areas, many wars were won, and the foundation was laid for the future greatness of the Russian Empire!

Table navigation: Reforms of Peter 1:

Reforms in the field:	Reform date:	Name of the reform:	The essence of the reform:	Outcomes and significance of the reform:
In the army and navy:		1. Creation of a regular army	The creation of a professional army that replaced the local militia and archery troops. Formation based on recruitment duty	Russia became a great military and naval power and won the Northern War, gaining access to the Baltic Sea
		2. Construction of the first Russian fleet	A regular navy appears
		3. Training of personnel and officials abroad	Training of military and sailors from foreign professionals
In the economic sphere:		1. Militarization of the economy	State support for the construction of metallurgical plants in the Urals. During the period of military difficulties, the bells were melted down into cannons.	An economic base has been created for conducting military operations - strengthening the defense capability of the state
		2. Development of manufactories	Creation of many new manufactories Registration of peasants to enterprises (affiliated peasants)	Industry growth. The number of manufactories increased by 7 times. Russia is becoming one of the leading industrial powers in Europe. There is a creation and modernization of many industries.
		3. Trade reform	1. Protectionism - support for your manufacturer; export more goods than import; high customs duties on the import of foreign goods. 1724 - Customs tariff 2. Construction of canals 3. Search for new trade routes	The growth of industry and the flourishing of trade
		4. Handicraft	Association of artisans in workshops	Improving the quality and productivity of artisans
	1724	5. Tax reform	A poll tax was introduced (was charged from males) instead of a household tax.	Budget growth. Increasing the tax burden on the population
Reforms in the sphere of state and local self-government:	1711	1. Creation of the Governing Senate	10 people who made up the inner circle of the king. Helped the king in state affairs and replaced the king during his absence	Improving the efficiency of state bodies. Strengthening of royal power
	1718-1720	2. Creation of boards	11 colleges have replaced many orders. The cumbersome and intricate system of executive power has been put in order.
	1721	3. The adoption of the imperial title by Peter		Increasing the authority of Peter 1 abroad. Discontent of the Old Believers.
	1714	4. Decree on uniform inheritance	He equated estates to estates, nobles to boyars. Property inherited by only one son	The elimination of the division into boyars and nobles. The emergence of the landless nobility (due to the ban on the fragmentation of land between heirs) After the death of Peter 1, it was canceled.
	1722	5. Adoption of the Table of Ranks	14 ranks have been established for officials and the military. Having risen to the 8th rank, the official became a hereditary nobleman	Career opportunities were opened for everyone, regardless of background
	1708	6. Regional reform	The country was divided into eight provinces	Strengthening the authority of local authorities. Putting things in order
	1699	urban reform	Elective Chamber of Burmese established	Development of local self-government
Church reforms:	1700	1. Liquidation of the patriarchate		The emperor became the de facto head of the Orthodox Church
	1721	2. Creation of the Synod	Replaced the patriarch, the composition of the Synod was appointed by the king
In the field of folk culture and life:		1. Introduction of European style	Mandatory wearing of European clothes and shaving of beards - tax payment was introduced for refusal.	Many were dissatisfied, the king was called the Antichrist
		2. Introduction of a new chronology	The chronology from the Nativity of Christ replaced the chronology “from the creation of the world”. The beginning of the year has been moved from September to January.	Instead of 7208, 1700 came. The chronology has been preserved to this day
		3. Introduction of the civil alphabet
		4. Transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg	Peter did not like Moscow with its "rooted antiquity", built a new capital near the sea	A “window to Europe” has been cut. High mortality among the builders of the city
In the field of education and science:		1. Education reform	Training of specialists abroad Establishment of schools in Russia Support for book publishing	Improving the quality of education, the number of educated people. Training of specialists. Serfs could not study in public schools
	1710	2. Introduction of the civil alphabet	Replaced the old Church Slavonic alphabet
		3. Creation of the first Russian Museum of the Kunstkamera
	1724	4. Decree on the establishment of the Academy of Sciences	It was created after the death of Peter 1

Most of all, Peter I was occupied with the thought of the fleet and the possibility of trade relations with Europe. To put his ideas into practice, he equipped the Great Embassy and visited a number of European countries, where he saw how far Russia lagged behind in its development.

This event in the life of the young tsar marked the beginning of his transformational activity. The first reforms of Peter I were aimed at changing the external signs of Russian life: he ordered beards to be shaved and ordered to dress in European clothes, he introduced music, tobacco, balls and other innovations into the life of Moscow society, which shocked him.

By decree of December 20, 1699, Peter I approved the reckoning from the Nativity of Christ and the celebration of the new year on January 1.

Foreign policy of Peter I

The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the victory of the Russians in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and the victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.

On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.

In commemoration of what was achieved in the Great Northern War, on October 20, 1721, the Senate and the Synod awarded the tsar with the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.

In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

Simultaneously with the conduct of hostilities, the vigorous activity of Peter I was also aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, and strengthen the power and international position of Russia. A lot has been done by the great tsar, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.

Reform of public administration of Peter I

Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of the provinces, numerous Orders ceased their activity, they were replaced by Collegia, which were subordinate to the Senate. The secret police also operated in the management system - the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were under the jurisdiction of the emperor himself.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I

The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed by with zemstvo commissars.

Urban reform (1699-1720)

To manage the city, the Burmister Chamber in Moscow was created, renamed in November 1699 into the City Hall, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). The members of the City Hall and the magistrates were elected through elections.

Estate reforms

The main goal of the estate reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and obligations of each estate - the nobility, the peasantry and the urban population.

Nobility.

1. Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.
2. Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.
3. Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance only to one of his sons.
4. Table of Ranks (1722): the service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - the army, the state and the court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a man of the lower class to curry favor with the nobility.

Peasantry

Most of the peasants were serfs. Kholops could sign up as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.

Among the free peasants were:

• state, with personal freedom, but limited in the right to move (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);
• palace, which belonged personally to the king;
• sessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.

urban estate

Urban people were divided into "regular" and "irregular". The regular ones were divided into guilds: the 1st guild - the richest, the 2nd guild - small merchants and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or "mean people", made up the majority of the urban population.

In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of one craft.

Judicial reform of Peter I

The functions of the Supreme Court were carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. Courts of appeal and provincial courts headed by governors operated in the provinces. The provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the Zemstvo or city judge alone.

Church reform of Peter I

Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the post of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegiate supreme administrative church body - the Holy Synod.

Financial reforms of Peter I

The first stage of the financial reform of Peter I was reduced to collecting money for the maintenance of the army and the conduct of wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, indirect taxes (bath, horse, beard, etc.) were introduced.

In 1704, a monetary reform, according to which the penny became the main monetary unit. The fiat ruble was abolished.

Tax reform of Peter I consisted in the transition from the household taxation to the poll tax. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.

Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single monetary tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers increased.

Social reforms of Peter I

Education reform of Peter I

In the period from 1700 to 1721. many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. Among them are the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools for free education of children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.

Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and under it the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.

Reforms of Peter I in culture

Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated literacy and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.

The tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying special attention to the beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study "arts". Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.

Medical reforms of Peter I

The main transformations were the opening of hospitals (1707 - the first Moscow military hospital) and schools attached to them, which trained doctors and pharmacists.

In 1700, pharmacies were established at all military hospitals. In 1701, Peter I issued a decree on the opening of eight private pharmacies in Moscow. Since 1704, state pharmacies began to open in many cities of Russia.

To grow, study, create collections of medicinal plants, pharmaceutical gardens were created, where seeds and foreign flora were imported.

Socio-economic reforms of Peter I

To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged the domestic industrialist and merchant. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated on the territory of Russia.

Reforms of Peter I in the army

Peter I introduced annual recruitment sets of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were issued, outlining the service, rights and duties of the military.

As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy was created.

The reform activities of Peter had the support of a wide range of nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and the clergy, because. transformations entailed the loss of their leading role in public administration. Among the opponents of the reforms of Peter I was his son Alexei.

The results of the reforms of Peter I

1. The regime of absolutism is established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced system of government, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.
2. Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.
3. The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.
4. Enormous progress has been made in science and culture. A task of national importance was set - the creation of Russian medical education, and the beginning of Russian surgery was laid.

Features of the reforms of Peter I

1. The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.
2. Lack of reform system.
3. The reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.
4. Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.

Reasons for the reforms of Peter I

By the 18th century, Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of industrial output, level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which was at the head of the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. The Russian army, which consisted of archers and the noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.

Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I

In the course of the history of our country by this time, significant shifts in its development had already taken place. The city separated from the countryside, agriculture and handicrafts were separated, industrial enterprises of the manufactory type arose. Domestic and foreign trade developed. Russia borrowed technology and science, culture and education from Western Europe, but at the same time developed independently. Thus, the ground for Peter's reforms had already been prepared.

Introduction

Chapter 1. Russia before the reforms of Peter the Great

1 Natural and geographical conditions

2 Factors facilitating reform

Chapter 2. The era of Peter the Great and the content of Peter's reforms

1 Reforms of Peter the Great

Chapter 3

1 Estimation of the essence of Peter's reforms

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

reform Peter the Great

The activities of Peter the Great as a politician and commander, as well as his contribution to the development of Russia, are issues that are of interest and concern to historians not only of our state, but also of many other countries.

But in assessing the activities of Peter, the opinions of historians are divided. Some historians, his adherents, talk about the great achievements and influences of Peter in many areas of life, which in turn led to the rise of Russia as a great and mighty power, which the whole world spoke about after Peter. It was a kind of phenomenon, because in such a short period of time, Peter the Great, with the help of his diplomatic qualities, as well as the qualities of a good statesman and commander, was able to lead Russia out of destruction into a dynamically developing state. But at the same time, historians miss out on another plan and some negative aspects of the character of Peter the Great and his activities. Another part of historians, on the contrary, is trying to discredit the name of Peter, pointing out the ways and methods by which he achieved such success in his political and military activities.

Studying the era of the reign of Peter the Great, we trace the process of development and formation of Russia, which moved from a barbarian kingdom into a mighty and great empire.

For this course project, the following tasks were set:

· The study of the preconditions and the very reasons for the need for reforms by Peter the Great.

· To analyze the main content and meaning of the reforms.

· To reveal the results of the influence of the reforms of Peter the Great on the development of the state.

This course work consists of the following sections:

·Introduction;

·Three chapters;

Conclusions

Chapter 1. Russia before the reforms of Peter the Great

.1 Natural and geographical conditions

It is often believed that with the coming to power of Peter the Great, a new era began in Russia.

What was Russia at the end of the 17th century? It was a huge territory, which was not like the countries of the West. Russia immediately caught the eye of foreigners who visited it. Often it seemed to them that it was a backward, wild and nomadic country. Although in fact, the backwardness in the development of Russia had its own reasons. The intervention and devastation of the early 18th century left a deep mark on the state's economy.

But not only the wars that ravaged the land led to a crisis in Russia, but also its social status of the population of that time, as well as natural and geographical conditions.

According to S.M. Solovyov, “three conditions have a special impact on the life of the people: the nature of the country where he lives; the nature of the tribe to which he belongs; the course of external events, the influences coming from the peoples that surround it. ”[№1, p.28]

When assessing how the conditions of nature affect the development of states. Solovyov made such a conclusion that nature is favorable to Western countries, but the conditions in Russia are more severe. Western Europe was divided by mountains, which served as natural fortresses for it and, in a certain sense, protected it from external attacks by enemies. On the other hand, the sea, which served as a way for the development of foreign trade of various occupations. In Russia, everything was different. She had no natural defenses and was open to attack by invaders.

A very large number of people lived in these open territories, who, in order to feed themselves, had to always work and periodically look for new fruitful lands, as well as a more prosperous habitat. In the process of resettlement to the lands that were empty, the state of Russia was formed.

Solovyov was sure that it was the natural and geographical conditions that had such a negative impact. Russia, according to him, "was a state that constantly had to wage a difficult struggle with its neighbors, a struggle not offensive, but defensive, and not material well-being was defended, but the independence of the country, the freedom of the inhabitants" [No. 2, p. 29]. During the war with the Mongol-Tatars, the Slavic people, including the Russians, acted as a protective shield for the Western European countries. Therefore, Russia always had to replenish its troops in order to be able to give a proper rebuff to the invaders and reliably protect its borders.

But the state of that time could not afford to maintain a large army, since trade and industry were poorly developed in Russia during this period. Therefore, people who served in the army were given lands that became their estates. On the one hand, a person received his own land for his use, but on the other hand, in order to somehow develop it, the land had to be cultivated. “The state,” Solovyov wrote, “having given land to a serviceman, was obliged to give him permanent workers, otherwise he could not serve” [No. 3, p. 32]. Therefore, at that time, the peasants were forbidden to leave their land, because they were obliged to cultivate it in order to be able to feed the owner with his military servants.

It was this that served as the basis for the emergence of serfdom in Russia. But besides the peasants, the urban population also worked to maintain the army. They were obliged to pay very large taxes to the state treasury for the maintenance of the troops.

That is, all layers of the state turned into its servants, which contributed to an even more severe feudal system, which in turn hampered both the economic situation and development in spirituality. Since on numerous economic lands, which were constantly expanding, a very small number of people worked hard. This did not create any interest in the development of labor productivity, but on the contrary, agriculture developed by depleting natural forces, and not by reproducing them. Agriculture was the least of the expenses. Because almost the entire treasury of the state went to meet the needs and development of the army. All this led to the fact that a strong state in terms of defense had practically no material base.

In addition to difficulties in the middle of the state, historians also pay attention to a number of external obstacles that hindered the development of Russia. This is that Russia did not have direct access to the sea, which meant that it could not use a cheaper route of communication with other countries. Such seas as the Baltic and Black, at that time belonged to other states, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire, respectively. Those seas that washed from the northern part and the east could not be used in full capacity, the reason for this was that the regions adjacent to the seas were practically undeveloped and poorly developed.

The White Sea, too, as a way to connect with the countries of Western Europe, was practically not used. Firstly, most of the year the waters are closed under ice, and the second way from Arkhangelsk to Western European countries was twice as long as to the Baltic.

Russia through Astrakhan had a connection only with Iran and Central Asia, although these countries had little influence on its development, since they themselves lagged behind in it.

1.2 Drivers for reform

The state of Russia urgently needed changes. This was due to a number of different factors.

National sovereignty was under threat, the reason for this was the lag of the Russian state in all branches of the economic and political life of the state, which in turn led even to a military lag.

The class of feudal lords, who was in the military and court service, later became the mainstay of the power of that time, by no means met the requirements of the country's social development. This class lagged behind both in its socio-political and cultural development, sometimes they could not even clearly understand their rights and obligations as a service class and, in principle, remained simply a patriarchal social community.

In the 17th century, Russia needed an urgent change in its position. It was necessary to strengthen the position of the authorities, which was undermined by the rebellious nature of the population of that time and the social instability of that time. Russia also needed to improve the state apparatus and the army itself. In order to somehow raise the standard of living and culture, it was necessary to have access to the seas, which could give a more favorable economic situation, and this, in turn, required the timely mobilization of both resources and the human factor.

The spiritual sphere of life of Russians also needed transformation. The spirituality of that time was strongly influenced by the clergy, which in the 17th century suffered a crisis associated with the split of the church. Russia urgently needed to be returned to the depths of European civilization, and it was also necessary to create and further strengthen a rationalistic concept that would replace religion.

Changes and transformations were impossible, in fact, to be avoided, because everything that happened during the period of the 17th century led directly to this. The intensive development of crafts begins in the country, the first enterprises appear, which were called manufactories, which in turn contributed to the development of foreign trade, the borders of which were constantly expanding. In the 17th century, a policy of protectionism began to develop, which limited imports, and thereby protected the domestic market from foreign competition. This all testified that in small steps, but the economy began to move forward. Starting from the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, the state tried to erase the conventions between Lenten landownership and patrimony. At this time, several decrees were issued, according to which the estate was approaching the estate. That gave the state the right to expand the rights to confiscate land and not allow it to be concentrated in the hands of the feudal lords or the clergy.

In 1682, the state abolished the system of distribution of official places to public positions, namely to military, administrative or court service, depending on the origin. The number of people who were taken into service increased due to the strengthening of serfdom.

In the political system, the country was an absolute monarchy and continued to develop in this direction. At that time, Left-Bank Ukraine joined Russia, and the state was able to enter the Holy League, thereby overcoming diplomatic barriers. The change in culture began with the transformation of the church. Priests began to be involved in solving everyday issues of world life. Also changed to be the upper strata of the state, which approached the European.

After analyzing all the facts, we can say with confidence that the country was fully prepared for changes in all its spheres of life. But in order for this to happen, a push was needed, some kind of impulse. This impetus was to be a person who would stand at the very source of power. And it was precisely such a person that Peter the Great became. His activities, both state and military, were influenced by such a factor as his character traits and his worldview.

Chapter 2. The era of Peter I and the content of Peter's reforms

Peter the Great immediately became involved in the rule of the country, expanding its borders and developing the country as a whole. Under Peter, the struggle for possession of the seas, namely the Black Sea, was resumed. Which opened up new opportunities for the state. And Peter was well aware of this. Therefore, in 1695 it was announced the collection of troops for a campaign against the Crimean Tatars. But this was done in order to hide the real goals, which were to organize a campaign against Azov. Peter took into account all the failures of the foresight companies and organized an army that would move in two directions. This was the first trip to Azov. Autumn bad weather, as well as the absence of the fleet, forced the commanders to announce a retreat.

In preparation for the new campaign, the main efforts were focused on building a fleet that would allow him to cut off the Azov fortress from the sea, and thereby deprive the Turks of reinforcements. It was decided to build ships of two types: sea galleys and river plows. The second Azov campaign began in May 1696 and on June 19, 1696 the Turks surrendered. The conquest of the Azov fortress was the impetus at the beginning of the formation of Russia as a maritime power.

The beginning had been made, now it was necessary to get access to the Black Sea. And in order to consolidate the successful operation and to implement new plans, Peter had to create a large and powerful navy. For this, decisions were made to organize the construction of this fleet, in addition, Peter the Great sent noble youth abroad to study marine sciences, with their subsequent use in the management of the Russian fleet.

At the same time, diplomats were sent abroad to participate in negotiations in order to find allies among European countries and organize an alliance with them. The purpose of this alliance was to act jointly against Turkey, as well as to join material support for further military operations. Peter himself was personally a member of the embassy, ​​but in addition to the goals of negotiations, he also pursued the goal of studying maritime affairs.

After his return, Peter, under the impressions of his trip, he actively joined in the activities of the state. He began to change at the same time and in all areas. At the very first feast, Peter the Great cut off the beards of several boyars and after that, he ordered everyone to shave. In the future, shaving was replaced by a tax. If a nobleman wanted to wear a beard, he was obliged to pay a certain tax per year for it. In the future, innovations also applied to clothing, when the long dresses of the boyars were replaced by short and all comfortable suits. In the fashion of all the nobles, the maximum approached the European. So initially Peter divided the population into two groups: one is the “top” of society, which had to live, dress in European style, the other is all the rest, whose life has not changed, and they lived in the old way.

Peter the Great led the calendar, the new year began on January 1. On the eve of this, it was prescribed to decorate the houses outside and congratulate each other on the coming of the new year.

In 1699, Peter the Great issues a decree on the formation of an institution in the city of Moscow, which will be called the Town Hall or the Burgomaster's Chamber. The duties of the City Hall were to manage merchant affairs, as well as affairs that concerned the city itself. This, in turn, caused some displeasure on the part of the merchants, who were always afraid of ruin by the courts and the governor of this department. An example of such management was the Ship Chamber. It was created immediately after the capture of Azov and the purpose of this chamber is to collect taxes from merchants to build a fleet. Later, on the example of the same commission, the Town Hall was formulated, the burmisters sat in it, they, in turn, were chosen by merchants and artisans. Taxes, which were collected by officials by order of the court, were transferred into the hands of elected people. In general, although the new institution was elective and its purpose was to manage the merchants, in fact this administration represented the interests of the commercial and industrial class.

Also, the result of the trip of Peter the Great abroad was that specialists in shipbuilding and not only were invited to serve in Russia. Peter the Great was able to purchase weapons, which also had a positive effect on the development of the army. By how much, although the army was quite large, it was poorly armed.

Innovations also affected the education of the population. Russia was in dire need of qualified personnel. In Russia itself at that time there were no such institutions, many young men went abroad to master new sciences. A little later, the Russian Empire had its own Novigatskaya school, opened in 1701, in the city of Moscow. A printing house was opened in Amsterdam, which printed books in Russian. At the same time, the first Russian order of St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called was founded.

The reform began in the administration of the state of Russia. Under Peter, there was a transition to a new state form of government, such as an absolute monarchy. The power of Peter the Great was practically limited by no one and nothing. Peter was able to replace the Boyar Duma with the Senate, which controlled from above. Thus, he rid himself of the last boyar claims and deprived them of any political competition. He got rid of the same competition from the side of the church, with the help of the Synod.

At the same time, at the end of 1699, it was committed to reform in the military sphere. Much attention was paid to the creation of a regular and qualified army. 30 new regiments were formed. The army, as before, was recruited mainly from the peasants. But if earlier they spent on their uniforms themselves, then for Peter, each recruit was given a green uniform and weapons - guns with bayonets. Since there were few experienced commanders at that time, they were replaced for some time by foreign officers.

Simultaneously with the beginning of the reforms, Peter was preparing for war against Sweden. He was sure that its conquest was absolutely necessary for Russia to develop normally further. This was facilitated by the favorable situation of that time. European countries created a coalition in order to return their lands, previously captured by the same Sweden. Russia, having signed a peace treaty with Turkey in 1700 for 30 years, also joined the war. Thus began the Great Northern War, which dragged on for 21 years.

From the very beginning, Russia and its allies were defeated. This was due to the fact that Sweden, although it was a small country, but its army and preparation for military action were at the highest level, compared to its rival strength. In addition, the king of Sweden at that time was the 18-year-old Charles XII, who, unexpectedly for everyone, showed a great talent for the war, as a commander with a very high energy potential. With a detachment of only 15 thousand people, he opposed Denmark. As a result of this campaign, the Danish king signed a peace treaty in 1700, thereby withdrawing from the war. Without wasting time, Charles XII went to the Baltic states, namely to the Russian army. Privileges were on the side of the Russians, their army consisted of 40 thousand people, but these forces were not provided with food and stretched over a vast territory. That made it easier to attack them. On November 19, 1700, Charles XII unexpectedly attacked the Russian army and won. Russia retreated, the command was not ready for war.

Abroad, they sincerely rejoiced at the defeats of the Russians, even a coin was cast, which depicted a fleeing Russian soldier and a crying tsar. At first, Peter wanted to negotiate peace, but they were not successful. Having shown all his energy and analyzed the reasons for the failures, Peter the Great begins preparations for a new stage of the war. A new recruiting call was announced, cannons began to be poured intensively, and by the beginning of 1702 the Russian army was enlisting 10 regiments and 368 cannons.

Having chosen the right moment, when Charles XII, believing that he had completely defeated Russia, went to Poland and settled there for a long time, Peter, having gathered an army, began a new stage of the war. In December 1701, Russia won its first victory. As a result of hostilities, two fortresses were taken, such as Noteburg and Nyenschanz

Peter at the head of the army finally reached the Baltic Sea. On May 16, 1703, a wooden fortress, called Peter and Paul, began to be built on the island. It was the basis of St. Petersburg. And in October, the first merchant ship arrived at the mouth of the Neva. The first ships of the Baltic Fleet were built in the shipyards of St. Petersburg.

Russian victories in the Baltic continued. But the initiative passed to the side of the Swedes when Poland surrendered and Russia was left without allies. And at this time, Sweden, after the conquest of Poland, had already occupied Saxony and crept up to the borders of the Russian state. Peter stopped offensive operations and focused on maintaining existing borders, strengthening them, and also sought to expand and improve his army and military potential in general. In order to achieve his goals, Peter the Great had to spend a lot of effort and make many sacrifices, but in the end, the goals were achieved.

In 1708, Karl met with the Russians near the town of Golovchin. Using the effect of surprise, as well as the dark time of the day and rainy weather, the Swedes defeated the Russians and forced them to retreat. This was Charles' last victory. Karl's troops suffered losses due to hunger, the Russian population, having learned that the Swedes were approaching, went into the forest, taking with them all supplies and livestock. And the Russian troops occupied all the important strategic objects. Karl had no choice but to turn south.

At this time, the Russians were already taking victories not by quantity, as usual, but by already strategically prepared battles. The initiative went over to the side of Peter, but the nature of hostilities changed dramatically. Russia abandons all previously acquired allies. For his military purposes, Peter used the territory that he conquered as a result of the battles. In 1710, Karelia, Livonia, Estonia were liberated from the Swedes, the fortresses of Vyborg, Revel, and Riga were taken.

The decisive influence on the course of the war was precisely the Battle of Poltava, which took place on June 27, 1709. As a result of a fierce battle, the Russians won a complete victory. The Swedes fled so fast that in three days they reached the banks of the Dnieper. Karl went to Turkey. In the future, the war twisted already on the Swedish possessions, which led to the collapse of the Swedish Empire.

But it was not yet the end of the war. Only in 1720, Russian troops again attacked the Swedish coast, the Russian landing deepened 5 miles deep into Sweden. In the same year, the Russian fleet defeated the Swedish squadron at Grengam Island. After that, the Swedes agreed to peace negotiations. They took place in the city of Nishtand in Finland, where on August 30, 1721, an agreement on perpetual peace was signed. The hard and long war (1700 - 1721) was over. As a result of this agreement, Ingria with St. Petersburg, all of Estonia and Livonia remained behind the Russian Empire. Fenland was ceded to Sweden.

The Northern War had a positive effect on the position of Russia. It became one of the mighty states of Europe. Also, as a result of the war, Russia was able to return its seashores and thereby gained access to the sea. Russia became the main maritime power on the Baltic coast. As a result of the war, a strong, powerful, well-trained army was formed, as well as a powerful Baltic Fleet. On the shores of the Gulf of Finland, a new capital, St. Petersburg, was founded. All this contributed to the further development of the economic and cultural upsurge of the Russian Empire. As a result of the Northern War, other states saw Peter the Great as a great commander and diplomat who fought for the interests of his state.

But the Treaty of Nystadt did not serve to end hostilities during the reign of Peter the Great. The very next year, 1722, Peter started a war with Iran. The main reasons for this war were, firstly, silk, which was exported from Iran in large quantities, and secondly, the Russian state attracted Iranian oil. Having learned about Peter's intentions, an uprising began in Iran, during which Russian merchants were killed, but this was precisely the reason for starting the war. In Iran, Peter did not meet much resistance and already in 1723 a peace treaty was signed with the Iranian government. According to this agreement, such cities as Derbent, Baku and Astrabad passed to Russia.

All the wars that took place during the reign of Peter the Great were connected with the fact that he constantly expanded and improved his army, as well as with the creation of one of the most powerful fleets at that time. Since before the military Per, there was no such thing as the Russian navy. Peter personally commanded the construction of this fleet. Also, before Peter, there was no specially trained army. The composition of which began to include even the nobles, starting from the age of 15. They all served. Each came to the service with his peasants, the number of which depended on the position of the nobleman. They also came to the service with their supply of food, on their horses and with their uniforms. These troops were dismissed during the peace and they gathered only in preparation for new campaigns. In addition, the archery infantry was created, the free population was part of the infantry. In addition to performing the main tasks, namely the infantry carried out police and garrison service, they had the right to engage in both craft and trade.

2.1 Reforms of Peter the Great

In 1716, a military charter was issued, which determines the order in the army, both in wartime and in peacetime. The charter required commanders to show independence and military resourcefulness during the war. Otto Pleir wrote about the Russian army in 1710: “Regarding the military forces of Russia ... one must be very surprised at what they have been brought to, to what perfection the soldiers have reached in military exercises, in what order and obedience to the orders of their superiors, and how boldly they behave in business, you won’t hear a word from anyone, much less a cry.”

The merit of Peter the Great was also that he was the creator of diplomacy in Russia. In addition to constant warriors, in the era of Peter there was still an active diplomatic activity. Permanent embassies were created, our consuls and ambassadors were sent for permanent residence abroad, and as a result, Russia was always aware of events that took place abroad. Russian diplomats were respected in many countries of the world, this was due to their ability to negotiate and substantiate their point of view, which concerned foreign policy.

The policy of Peter the Great also affected the development of industry. During the reign of Peter the Great, about 200 factories and factories were created in Russia. The largest were factories for the manufacture of cast iron, iron parts, copper, and also cloth, linen, silk, paper, and glass.

The largest enterprise of that time was a manufactory for the manufacture of sailing fabric. The production of ropes at a special Rope Yard was also set up here. "Khamovny Dvor" served the navy with a sailing canvas and ropes.

Another major industrial manufacturer was the Dutchman Tamesa, who lived and worked in Moscow. This production produced canvases. The Dutchman's factory consisted of a spinning mill, where yarn was produced from flax, then the yarn went to the weaving department, where in turn linen was made, as well as tablecloths and napkins. The final stage was the department, where the finished fabric was whitened and trimmed. The Tames factory was so famous that Peter himself and many foreigners visited it more than once. Weaving departments have always made a special impression on guests. Almost all Russians worked at the factories and produced different types of canvases, the most popular in everyday life.

As for the condition of the workers in these factories, it can be said that it wanted the best. The situation itself was very difficult. The basis of the working layer were serfs. To please the entrepreneurs, the state made concessions to them and allowed in 1721 to buy villages along with the peasants who live in them. The difference between these peasants and the peasants who worked for the landlords was only that they were bought and sold only together with factories or factories. There were also civilian employees at the factories, mostly craftsmen and artisans, but the wages were very meager. For example, at a linen manufactory located in the aisles of St. Petersburg, the weaver received about 7 rubles. Per year, master - 12 rubles, apprentice - 6 rubles. in year. Although foreign specialists were paid much more, for example, in a silk manufactory, he could earn from 400 to 600 rubles. in year.

In addition, state peasants were assigned to factories by entire volosts. As "assigned" they had to work for 3 - 4 months at the plant forcibly. The wages of labor were very small, and they could not even get these pennies in their hands, since they were withdrawn as a tax to the treasury.

At the same time, the development of ores in the Urals began. Back in 1699, the Nevsky Plant was erected, which exists to this day. Initially, this plant belonged to the state, but then it was given to the Tula entrepreneur N. Demidov - this was the first of the Demidov dynasty, one of the wealthiest dynasties of that time and the most cruel towards its workers. The first thing Demidov did was to build a prison for workers under the factory walls. Thanks to his factory, he was able to get rich so much that he could already make presents and gifts to the king himself.

Factories were built on the banks of rivers, to use the power of the water that moved. The basis of the construction was the dam, which was built the very first, holes were made in the dam through which water flowed, then the water flowed into the reservoirs. And already from the reservoir through wooden pipes to the wheels, the movement of which made the movement of the blowing bellows near the furnace and forges, raised hammers for forging metals, moved the levers and rotated the drilling machines.

In 1722, a shop device for artisans was introduced in Russia. The state forced urban artisans to enroll in workshops. Above each workshop was a selective foreman. Full-fledged artisans could be considered those who could afford to hire and retain apprentices and apprentices. To receive the title of master, the craftsman had to prove his skill with the foreman. Each craft workshop had its own brand, a farm mark, which was put on a good quality product.

The intensive growth of industry in the country required good roads, which were necessary for the transportation of goods and raw materials. Unfortunately, Russia could not boast of good roads. This situation was associated with a small treasury and the natural conditions of the country itself. Therefore, for a long time, rivers and seas were the best way for trade. One of the important ways of communication was the Volga, on which canals were built to improve the ways of communication. Communication channels such as the Volga-Don, the Volga and the Baltic Sea were built. The canals were supposed to expand trade and ensure the flow of goods to St. Petersburg, to the Baltic Sea. Peter also improved the Petersburg port, not only as a military facility, but also as a commercial one.

In 1724, a customs tariff was issued, which indicated the exact amount of duties on a particular product, both for imports and for exports. By this, the Russian government tried to expand the country's large-scale industry. If a foreign product competed with a domestic one, a very high duty was set on it, and for the goods that Russia needed, because it could not produce at its own manufactories and factories, the duty was very low.

As a result of frequent and prolonged wars, the treasury was emptied, and the maintenance of the army and navy was costly. To replenish the treasury, private trade in certain types of goods was prohibited. All trade in a certain commodity was under the direction of the state and at elevated prices. Over time, the state began to control the sale of: wine, salt, potash, caviar, furs, tar, chalk, lard, bristles. Most of this product was for export, so all trade with foreign countries was in the hands of the state.

But even this was not enough for a complete renewal and constant replenishment of the state treasury. Peter the first began to look for other ways in order to find the necessary funds. To this end, new taxes, taxes on use, were established. For example, for the use of a fishing area or a place for bee apiaries, etc.

During the reign of Peter the treasury was replenished by 2/3 indirect taxes, customs duties, income from the sale of wine and other goods. And only 1/3 of the state budget was replenished with direct taxes, which were directly paid by the population. The reason for this was that ordinary artisans and peasants were subject to direct taxes, and the clergy, nobles and wealthy entrepreneurs were exempted from this duty. Although instead of direct tax, a tax was removed from each person of a male of noble origin. This tax was intended for the maintenance of the army, so the total amount for its maintenance was divided among all the "revision souls". The conduct of such a tax greatly enriched the treasury of the state. Over time, direct taxes began to bring half the state budget. And so the plight of the peasants worsened even more. Among the peasants, mass escapes from the landowners began to occur. Peter tried to subdue the serfs and issued a decree on the capture of runaway peasants and their return to their former landowner, while the punishment for those who tried to hide the fugitives increased. Peter widely distributed land and peasants to nobles.

Also, the labor of the peasants was used to build fortresses and a new capital. For this purpose, 20 thousand people gathered in St. Petersburg twice a year for three months.

Thus, we can conclude that the peculiarity of industry in the era of Peter the Great was that it was created at the expense of the state budget, for some period it was under its control, but periodically the forms and methods of this control changed.

For a long period, the state itself created manufactories, and was their full owner. But every year the number of manufactories and factories increased, and the funds and capabilities of the state were not enough to keep and develop them in this way. Therefore, the policy that up to the industry was considered.

The state began to give away, and sometimes sell, manufactories and factories that were on the verge of closing into private hands. Thus, private enterprise began to appear, which intensively gained momentum. The position of breeders was strengthened with the help of various benefits from the state, as well as financial support, in the form of loans from merchant companies. At the same time, the state did not move away from industry, but took an active part in its development and support, as well as in obtaining income from it. For example, state control was manifested through a system of state orders. The activities of the manufactories and factories themselves were evenly controlled with the help of inspections, which were carried out periodically and unexpectedly.

Another feature of the industry in Russia was that the labor of serfs was used in manufactories and factories. As noted earlier, people from different strata of society worked in factories and plants. From the beginning, these were civilian workers, but with the growth in the number of enterprises, an acute shortage of workers began. And then the solution to this problem was the use of forced labor. This was the reason for the issuance of a law on the sale of entire villages with the peasants who lived there to work in these factories.

In turn, Peter the Great consolidated the position about the service of the Russian nobility, in this way he believed that this same nobility had obligations to the state and the tsar. After the equalization of rights between the patrimony and the estate, the process of combining different layers of feudal lords into one class, which had specific privileges, was completed. But the title of a nobleman could only be earned through service. In 1722, the organization of the structure of ranks was introduced, in which there was an order of subordination of lower ranks to higher ones. All positions, whether military or civilian, were divided into 14 ranks. To get a certain rank, it was necessary to go through all the previous ones in turn. And only having reached the eighth rank, the collegiate assessor or major received the nobility. Birth in this case was replaced by length of service. If a refusal of service followed, the state had the right to confiscate possessions. Even if they were hereditary estates. In Western countries, service in the state was a great privilege, but in Russia it was just a duty, one of the many duties that was not always performed qualitatively and for the benefit of this state. Therefore, the nobles cannot be considered a class that dominates the state, since this class was completely dependent on the state. It was more like a privileged class that consisted of military and civilians who served the absolute monarchy completely and unconditionally. Their privileges ended the minute they fell out of favor with the king or left the service. The "emancipation" of the nobility occurred later - in the 30-60s. 18th century

In history, two points of view are considered that relate to the absolute monarchy of Peter the Great. The first of them is that the absolute monarchy, which was formed during the reign of Peter the Great, is identical to the absolute monarchy of Western states. The absolute monarchy of Peter had the same characteristics as in other countries - this is the power of the king, which is not limited by anyone and nothing, a constant powerful army that protects this autocracy, also in such countries it is very well developed and, moreover, at all levels of the state, the bureaucracy and finally, the centralized tax system.

As for the second point of view of historians, its essence lies in the fact that: absolute monarchy in the West arose under capitalism, and Russia was very far from that, then the Russian system of government can be called either despotism, which is close to Asian or absolute monarchy , which originated in Russia is completely typologically different from Western countries.

After analyzing all the events taking place in Russia during the period of Peter the Great, we can safely say that the second point of view has more rights to exist than the first. This can be confirmed by the fact that in Russia the absolute monarchy is independent in relation to civil society. That is, everyone unconditionally had to serve the monarch. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.

The development of the state in all spheres of activity, both industrial and political, required knowledgeable and trained people. Schools were created to train specialists. Teachers were often invited from abroad. Science and education of that time often depended on foreign countries. Because there was an acute shortage of educated teachers, and they were often invited from European countries. But in addition to this, ours were often sent abroad to receive a higher and more qualified education there. To do this, in 1696, Peter the Great issues a decree on sending 61 people to study, most of whom belonged to the nobility. They could send abroad, both of good will and forcibly. If until the time of Peter the Great, only people close to the government and merchants had the right to travel, then in the era of Peter the Great, travel abroad was welcomed and encouraged. Sometimes even merchants and craftsmen were sent to study.

In the 17th century, there were two theological academies in Russia, one in Moscow, the other in Kyiv. They were created in order to get a highly educated secular population.

In 1701, a school of "mathematical and navigational sciences" was opened, whose teacher was one of the most educated people of that time, Leonty Magnitsky. Children of nobles, aged 12 to 17, were enrolled in this school, but due to the fact that they did not want to study in it, there were cases when even 20-year-old boys were accepted. Since children who were practically not literate entered the school, the school was divided into three departments: 1) the elementary school, 2) the “digital” school, 3) the navigator or maritime school. In the first two departments, children of almost all classes that could afford education studied. Only the children of the nobility passed to the third stage of the exercises. The main disciplines at the school were arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, geodesy and astronomy. The term of study did not have clear boundaries, mostly they studied for about 2.5 years or more. In addition, engineering and artillery schools were arranged for the nobles. In 1715, the senior classes of the navigational school were transferred to St. Petersburg, where the academy was established. They entered the academy immediately after graduating from the digital school, and after the academy, students could also be sent abroad.

Order at the Moscow Academy was maintained with the help of rewards and punishments. This charter of the school was approved by Peter the Great himself, he personally added some paragraphs to this instruction. This clause stated that a retired soldier should calm down noisy students and maintain order in the classroom during class, and he should do this with the help of a whip. This method could be applied to any student, regardless of his surname and status.

Even in Moscow, a surgical school was created at the hospital. Nicholas Bidloo was the head of this school. The school studied anatomy, surgery, pharmacology.

Distinguished students in the navigation school for their behavior, and most importantly the level of knowledge gained, were used as teachers. They taught in new schools that were established in many Russian cities. In 1714, a decree was issued on the compulsory education of children of nobles in digital schools. At the end of the training, students received a certificate of graduation from a particular school. For example, without this certificate, the priests could not marry the nobles. Like many at that time, education was a kind of duty, which limited and slowed down the recruitment of new students. For example, in Rezani, out of 96 students, 59 simply ran away.

But in general, digital schools continued to exist, already in the 1720s their number reached 44, with a total number of students up to 2000 people. The leading place among the students was occupied by the children of the clergy, then the children of the clerks and soldiers, and the children of the nobility and townspeople had the least passion for learning. Also at that time there were special schools in which the clergy were trained, they were created in 46 cities. That is, in every major city in Russia there were two schools, digital and spiritual.

Engineering schools were also created to train personnel for the army and industry. At the Ural factories of Yekaterinburg, engineer Genin created two schools - verbal and arithmetic, each of which had about 50 students. In these schools, factory foremen, clerical workers were trained, and they also studied literacy, geometry, drawing and drawing.

In Moscow, Pastor Gluck created a school with a broader general education program. He planned to conduct lessons in philosophy, geography, various languages ​​​​at his school, and it was also planned to introduce dancing and riding lessons. In this school, as in all others, only young men studied. After the death of the pastor, the program was greatly simplified. This school trained personnel for the civil service.

Another way to improve the level of education is to travel abroad to improve this level. The first such trip was before the start of the construction of the fleet. Noble nobles were sent abroad to train in shipbuilding and ship management. Yes, and Peter the Great himself repeatedly traveled abroad to learn and learn new things.

School textbooks were published in Russian, but they were translated from a foreign language. Most of all, textbooks on grammar, arithmetic, mathematics, geography, mechanics, land surveying were translated, and geographical maps were made for the first time. The textbooks were translated poorly and the text was very difficult for the students, often they simply memorized it. It was at this time that Russia adopted foreign words such as harbor, raid, midshipman, bot. Peter the Great introduced civil type into use. The alphabet was simplified, partly approaching Latin. All books since 1708 have been printed in this font. With a slight change, but it has survived to this day. At the same time, Arabic numerals were introduced, which replaced the designations of the letters of the Church Slavonic alphabet.

Over time, Russian scientists began to create textbooks and manuals for education themselves.

Of the scientific work, the largest was the description of the geographical expedition, which told about the exploration of the shores of the Caspian Sea., And for the first time a map of the Caspian was compiled.

Under Peter the Great, the first printed newspaper, Vedomosti, began to appear. Its first issue was published on January 2, 1703.

Educational goals were also in mind when the theater was founded. Under Peter there were attempts to create a folk theater. So in Moscow on Red Square there was a built building for the theater. The troupe of Johann Kunsht was invited from Denmark, who was supposed to train the artists of the Russian population. At first, the theater was very popular, but over time, the audience became less and less, and as a result, the theater on Red Square was closed altogether. But this gave impetus to the development of theatrical spectacle in Russia.

The life of the upper class has also changed significantly. Before the era of Peter the female half of the boyar families lived closed, rarely born. Most of the time was spent at home, doing household chores. Under Peter the Great, balls were introduced, which were held in the houses of nobles in turn, and women were obliged to participate in them. Assemblies, as balls were called in Russia, began at about 5 o'clock and lasted until 10 o'clock in the evening.

A manual on the correct etiquette of the nobles was a book by an unknown author, which was published in 1717 under the title "Youth Pure Mirror". The book consisted of two parts. In the first part, the author marked out the alphabet, tables, numbers and numbers. That is, the first part served as a scientific book on teaching the innovations of Peter the Great. The second part, which was the main one, consisted of rules of conduct for boys and girls of the upper class. We can safely say that this was the first ethics textbook in Russia. Young people of noble origin were recommended, first of all, to learn foreign languages, horseback riding and dancing. Girls should obediently obey the will of their parents, they should also be distinguished by hard work, as well as silence. The book described the behavior of the nobles in public life, from the rules of behavior at the table to service in state administrations. The book formulated a new stereotype of the behavior of a person of the upper class. The nobleman had to avoid companies that could somehow compromise him, drunkenness, rudeness, and extravagance were also contraindicated. And the manners of behavior themselves should be as close as possible to European ones. In general, the second part was more like a collection of publications on the rules of etiquette of Western countries.

Peter wanted to educate the youth of the upper class according to the European type, while instilling in them the spirit of patriotism and service to the state. It was considered the main thing for a nobleman to protect his honor and the honor of his homeland, but at the same time, the honor of the Fatherland was defended with a sword, but a nobleman could defend his honor by filing a complaint with certain authorities. Peter was an opponent of duels. Those who violated the decree were severely punished.

The culture of the era of Peter the Great was always under the control of the state and in its main direction was the development of the culture of the nobility. This was a feature of Russian culture. The state encouraged and allocated finance from the state treasury only to those areas that it considered important. In general, the culture and art of Peter the Great went in a positive direction of development. Although even in culture, bureaucracy was traced over time. Because writers, artists, actors were in the public service, their activities were completely subordinated to the state and, accordingly, they received remuneration for their work. Culture performed state functions. The theatre, the press, and many other branches of culture served to defend and propagate the Petrine transformation.

Chapter 3

Peter's reforms are grandiose in their scope and consequences. These transformations contributed to the solution of acute tasks facing the state, primarily in the field of foreign policy. However, they could not ensure the long-term progress of the country, since they were carried out within the framework of the existing system and, moreover, they preserved the Russian feudal-serf system.

As a result of the transformations, powerful industrial production, a strong army and navy were created, which allowed Russia to achieve access to the sea, overcome isolation, close the gap with the advanced countries of Europe and turn into a great world power.

However, the accelerated modernization and borrowing of technologies were carried out at the expense of a sharp increase in the archaic forms of exploitation of the people, which paid at an extremely high price for the positive results of the reforms.

The reforms of the political system gave new strength to the serving despotic state. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.

Reforms in the field of culture and everyday life, on the one hand, created conditions for the development of science, education, literature, etc. But, on the other hand, the mechanical and violent transfer of many European cultural and everyday stereotypes prevented the full development of a culture based on national traditions.

The main thing was that the nobility, perceiving the values ​​of European culture, sharply separated itself from the national tradition and its custodian - the Russian people, whose attachment to traditional values ​​and institutions grew as the country modernized. This caused the deepest socio-cultural split in society, which largely predetermined the depth of contradictions and the strength of social upheavals in the early twentieth century.

The paradox of the Petrine reform was that the "Westernization" of Russia, which was of a violent nature, strengthened the foundations of Russian civilization - autocracy and serfdom, on the one hand, brought to life the forces that carried out modernization, and on the other, provoked an anti-modernization and anti-Western reaction of supporters of traditionalism and national identity.

3.1 Estimation of the essence of Peter's reforms

On the issue of assessing the essence of Peter's reforms, the opinions of scientists differ. The understanding of this problem is based either on views based on Marxist views, that is, those who believe that the policy of state power is based and conditioned by the socio-economic system, or the position according to which reforms are an expression of the sole will of the monarch. This point of view is typical of the "state" historical school in pre-revolutionary Russia. The first of this multitude of views is that of the monarch's personal desire to Europeanize Russia. Historians who adhere to this point of view consider the “Europeanization” to be the main goal of Peter. According to Solovyov, the meeting with European civilization was a natural and inevitable event on the path of development of the Russian people. But Solovyov considers Europeanization not as an end in itself, but as a means, primarily stimulating the economic development of the country. The theory of Europeanization, of course, did not meet with the approval of historians who seek to emphasize the continuity of the era of Peter in relation to the previous period. An important place in the debate about the essence of the reforms is occupied by the hypothesis of the priority of foreign policy goals over domestic ones. This hypothesis was first advanced by Milyukov and Klyuchevsky. Conviction in its infallibility led Klyuchevsky to the conclusion that the reforms were of varying degrees of importance: he considered the military reform the initial stage of Peter's transformative activity, and the reorganization of the financial system as his ultimate goal. The rest of the reforms were either the result of changes in military affairs, or prerequisites for achieving the mentioned ultimate goal. Klyuchevsky attached independent importance only to economic policy. The last point of view on this problem is "idealistic". It is most clearly formulated by Bogoslovsky, he characterizes the reforms as the practical implementation of the principles of statehood perceived by the monarch. But here the question arises about the "principles of statehood" in the understanding of the king. Bogoslovsky believes that the ideal of Peter the Great was an absolutist state, the so-called “regular state”, which, with its comprehensive vigilant care (police activity), sought to regulate all aspects of public and private life in accordance with the principles of reason and for the benefit of the “common good”. Bogoslovsky especially highlights the ideological aspect of Europeanization. He, like Solovyov, sees in the introduction of the principle of rationality, rationalism, a radical break with the past. His understanding of the reforming activity of Peter, which can be called "enlightened absolutism", found many adherents among Western historians who tend to emphasize that Peter was not an outstanding theorist, and that the reformer during his foreign trip took into account, first of all, the practical results of his contemporary political science. Some of the adherents of this point of view argue that the Petrine state practice was by no means typical of its time, as Bogoslovsky proves. In Russia under Peter the Great, attempts to implement the political ideas of the era were much more consistent and far-reaching than in the West. According to such historians, Russian absolutism in everything related to its role and impact on the life of Russian society took a completely different position than the absolutism of most European countries. While in Europe the governmental and administrative structure of the state was determined by the social system, in Russia the opposite happened - here the state and its policies formed the social structure.

The first who tried to define the essence of Peter's reforms from a Marxist position was Pokrovsky. He characterizes this era as an early phase in the birth of capitalism, when commercial capital begins to create a new economic basis for Russian society. As a result of the transfer of economic initiative to the merchants, power passed from the nobility to the bourgeoisie (ie, to these same merchants). The so-called "spring of capitalism" has come. The merchants needed an efficient state apparatus that could serve their purposes both in Russia and abroad. That is why, according to Pokrovsky, Peter's administrative reforms, wars and economic policy in general, are united by the interests of commercial capital. Some historians, attaching great importance to commercial capital, associate it with the interests of the nobility. And although the thesis about the dominant role of commercial capital was rejected in Soviet historiography, it can be said that the opinion regarding the class basis of the state remained dominant in Soviet historiography from the mid-1930s to the mid-1960s. During this period, the generally accepted point of view was that the Petrine state was considered the "national state of the landowners" or the "dictatorship of the nobility." His policy expressed, first of all, the interests of the feudal feudal lords, although attention was also paid to the interests of the bourgeoisie, which was gaining strength. As a result of the analysis of the political ideology and social position of the state carried out in this direction, the opinion was established that the essence of the idea of ​​the “common good” is demagogic, it covered the interests of the ruling class. Although this position is shared by most historians, there are exceptions. For example, Syromyatnikov, in his book on the Petrine state and its ideology, fully agrees with the theological characterization of the state of Peter as a typical absolutist state of that era. New in the controversy about the Russian autocracy was his interpretation of the class foundation of this state, which was based on Marxist definitions of the prerequisites of European absolutism. Syromyatnikov believes that Peter's unlimited powers were based on a real situation, namely: the opposing classes (the nobility and the bourgeoisie) achieved during this period such an equality of economic and political forces, which allowed the government to achieve a certain independence in relation to both classes, to become a kind of intermediary between them. Thanks to a temporary state of equilibrium in the class struggle, state power became a relatively autonomous factor in historical development, and was able to benefit from the growing contradictions between the nobility and the bourgeoisie. The fact that the state thus stood in a certain sense above the class struggle by no means meant that it was completely impartial. An in-depth study of the economic and social policies of Peter the Great led Syromyatnikov to the conclusion that the tsar's reforming activities had an overall anti-feudal orientation, "manifested, for example, in measures taken in the interests of the growing bourgeoisie, as well as in an effort to limit serfdom." This characterization of the reforms, given by Syromyatnikov, did not find a significant response from Soviet historians. In general, Soviet historiography did not accept and criticized his conclusions (but not the facts) because they were very close to Pokrovsky's previously rejected positions. In addition, many historians do not share the opinion about the balance of power in the Petrine period, not everyone recognizes the bourgeoisie, which was barely born in the 18th century, as a real economic and political factor capable of resisting the local nobility. This was also confirmed during the discussions that took place in Russian historiography in the 70s, as a result of which a relatively complete consensus was reached regarding the inapplicability of the thesis of the “neutrality” of power and the balance of classes in relation to specific Russian conditions. However, some historians, while generally disagreeing with Syromyatnikov's opinion, share his view of Peter's autocracy as relatively independent of class forces. They substantiate the independence of the autocracy by the thesis of equilibrium in a new version. While Syromyatnikov operates exclusively with the category of social balance of two different classes - the nobility and the bourgeoisie, Fedosov and Troitsky consider the contradictory interests within the ruling class as a source of independence of the political superstructure. And if Peter the Great was able to put into practice such an extensive set of reforms contrary to the interests of certain social groups of the population, then this was explained by the intensity of that very “intraclass struggle”, where on the one hand the old aristocracy acted, and on the other, the new, bureaucratized nobility. At the same time, the nascent bourgeoisie, supported by the reformist policy of the government, made itself known, although not so heavily, acting in alliance with the last of the named warring parties - the nobility. Another controversial point of view was put forward by A.Ya. Avrekh, the initiator of the debate about the essence of Russian absolutism. In his opinion, absolutism arose and was finally strengthened under Peter the Great. Its formation and unprecedentedly strong position in Russia became possible due to the relatively low level of class struggle, combined with stagnation in the socio-economic development of the country. Absolutism should be considered as a form of the feudal state, but the distinguishing feature of Russia was the desire to pursue, in spite of the obvious weakness of the bourgeoisie, precisely the bourgeois policy, and to develop in the direction of the bourgeois monarchy. Naturally, this theory could not be accepted in Soviet historiography, because it contradicted some Marxist principles. This resolution of the problem did not find much recognition in the course of the ongoing discussion of Soviet historians about absolutism. Nevertheless, Averakh cannot be called an atypical participant in this controversy, which was characterized, firstly, by a clear desire to emphasize the relative autonomy of state power, and secondly, by the unanimity of scientists on the issue of the impossibility of characterizing political development only through simple conclusions, without taking into account the characteristics of each period of history. .

Foreign literature about Russia of the era of Peter the Great, despite the differences in the approach of scientists to assessing the events of that time, has some common features. Paying tribute to the ruler, to the successes that were achieved by the country, foreign authors, as a rule, judged the pre-Petrine era in the history of Russia with some underestimation or open disdain. Views have become widespread, according to which Russia made a leap from backwardness, savagery to more advanced forms of social life with the help of the "West" - ideas borrowed from there, and numerous specialists who became assistants to Peter the Great in carrying out the transformations.

Conclusion

After analyzing the studied material, one can come to the following conclusions about the uniqueness of the reforms of Peter the Great and their impact on the state of Russia.

Before Peter came to power, the main factor that influenced the development of the state was its natural and geographical position, as well as social conditions (large territory, unfortunate geographical position, etc.). In addition to internal factors, external factors also influenced development. Before Peter the Great, Russia did not have access to the seas, and thus she could not use, first of all, for trade, the fastest and cheapest ways of communication.

Peter's reforms, like most of the reforms in Russia, had its own peculiarity. They were planted from above and implemented by order. The government regime, as it were, stood above the whole society and forced absolutely everyone to serve the state, regardless of class. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.

The reforms of Peter the Great began immediately after his arrival due to a border trip and concerned the appearance of the population, especially those that were close to the state and the tsar himself. The changes concerned the form and type of clothing, as well as beards. Everyone had to shave their beards, except for the clergy and peasants.

During his reign, Peter the Great created a powerful Russian Empire, in which he formulated an absolute monarchy and autocracy. There was no one to control it.

As for industry, it also had its own characteristics. The development of enterprises was fully supported by the state. Large sums were allocated from the state treasury for the construction of new manufactories, factories and factories. Therefore, for some time they were under the control of the state. But in the end they passed into private hands, although the state still controlled the activities of private entrepreneurs. And the second feature of the industry was that serfs worked at these same manufactories and factories. That is free labor. Thanks to this, the growth and development of manufactories, and industry as a whole, has increased.

As for culture, it was mainly aimed at the development of education. Schools were built, which gave a total of several thousand people an elementary education, which further contributed to a cultural upsurge and a change in attitudes towards schooling. In addition to schools, special education developed. The progress of science was on the face.

The reforms of Peter the Great were very large-scale and brought very great results. As a result of these reforms, those tasks that were formulated in the state, and which needed to be addressed urgently, were solved. Peter the Great was able to solve the assigned tasks, but practically failed to consolidate the process. This was due to the system that existed in the state, as well as serfdom. The main part of the population were peasants, being constantly under oppression, they did not show any initiative in the development of their state.

Bibliography

1. Anisimov E.V. Time of Peter's reforms. About Peter I. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.

Bagger Hans. Reforms of Peter the Great. M.: Progress.: 1985, 200 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. historical portraits. Figures of historical thought. / Comp., intro. Art. and note. V.A. Alexandrova. Moscow: Pravda, 1991. 624 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. T. 3 - M., 2002. 543 p.

Lebedev V.I. Reforms of Peter the Great. M.: 1937

Polyakov L.V. Kara-Murza V. Reformer. Russians about Peter the Great. Ivanovo, 1994

Soloviev S.M. Public readings on the history of Russia. Moscow: Progress, 1962

Soloviev S.M. On the history of the new Russia. M.: Enlightenment, 1993

Collection: Russia during the reforms of Peter the Great M.: Nauka, 1973

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Public Administration Reform

Creation of the Near Office (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Establishment of 12 collegiums with a specific scope of activity and powers.

The system of state administration has become more perfect. The activities of most state bodies became regulated, the collegiums had a clearly defined area of ​​activity. Supervisory bodies were created.

Regional (provincial) reform

1708-1715 and 1719-1720.

At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberia. They were ruled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also possessed full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces ruled by governors, and those were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. The governors were stripped of their administrative power and were in charge of judicial and military matters.

There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.

Judicial reform

1697, 1719, 1722

Peter 1 formed new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justic College, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues, except for Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was canceled, the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.

A large number of judicial bodies and persons engaged in judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) brought confusion and confusion to the legal proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of "knocking out" testimony under torture created grounds for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process was established and the need for the verdict to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration.

Military reforms

The introduction of recruitment, the creation of the navy, the establishment of the Military Collegium, which was in charge of all military affairs. Introduction with the help of the "Table of Ranks" of military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.

With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725, and a strong navy. Subdivisions were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, in the navy - squadrons. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although ambiguously assessed by different historians) created a springboard for the further success of Russian weapons.

Church reform

1700-1701; 1721

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was actually liquidated. In 1701, the management of church and monastery lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic order, which controlled church revenues and the trial of the monastery peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, whose members were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.

The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partly lost its authority in society.

Financial reforms

Almost the entire reign of Peter 1

The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, the monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of the coin. Kopeck Stano Regional Reform

In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of power in the field and better provide the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermanland (later St. Petersburg), Kyiv, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberia. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the proceeds to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

The governors were also in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the cost of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, which eliminated the shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Collegium. Only military and judicial matters remained under the jurisdiction of the governor.

Judicial reform

Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the Supreme Court were given to the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: provinces - hofgerichts or court courts of appeal in large cities, and provincial collegiate lower courts. The provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except for the monastic ones, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the magistrate conducted the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement. In other cases, the so-called one-man court acted (cases were decided solely by a zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by the voivode

Church reform

One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration he carried out, aimed at eliminating church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, Peter I temporarily appointed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan as the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Custodian of the Patriarchal Throne or "Exarch". including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again became in charge of the court of the monastic peasants and controlled income from church and monastic land holdings. In 1701, a series of decrees was issued to reform the management of church and monastery possessions and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.

In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, Feofan Prokopovich, an approximate tsar, Little Russian. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, which eliminated the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinated it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Spiritual College was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of allegiance to him upon taking office. Wartime stimulated the removal of valuables from the monastic vaults. Peter did not go for the complete secularization of church and monastery possessions, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of his reign

Reforms of the army and navy

Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new order, reformed according to a foreign model, was begun long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721 years.

Public Administration Reforms

Scope of reform: the highest bodies of legislative and executive power

The date: 1711-21

Target: to create an effective system of power that will allow raising enough funds for the Northern War with Sweden. Peter took the countries of Europe as a model.

The essence of the reform: the creation of the Senate instead of the obsolete Boyar Duma, and the Boards (the prototype of ministries). A fiscal service has been set up to monitor the performance of their duties by officials

Outcome: improving the efficiency of the country's governance

Regional reform

Scope of reform: administrative-territorial, local government

The date: 1708-1715, 1719

Target: to strengthen local power and its interaction with the supreme power. Also streamline recruiting (and as a result, recruit more recruits for the army) and the collection of products for the army in the regions.

The essence of the reform: the empire is divided into 8 provinces (later 2 more were added). At the head of each was the governor, who led both the civil and military authorities. Each province was divided into shares.

Outcome: instead of optimizing the state apparatus, the staff of local officials was only more inflated and confused. The reason was the haste of the reform and the desire to "squeeze" more money from the provinces to wage the Northern War with Sweden.

Monetary reform

The date: 1704

Scope of reform: money circulation in the empire

Target: make the monetary system more flexible and convenient

The essence of the reform: Coins are no longer made by hand, but on machines. For the first time, such a monetary unit as a penny was put into circulation.

Outcome: for the first time, money circulation throughout Russia was streamlined and unified.

Judicial reform

The date: 1719-22

Scope of reform: courts throughout the Russian Empire

Target: strengthen the judicial system of the country and restore order in it

The essence of the reform: a hierarchy of courts was established - supreme (Justice College and the Senate), then court provincial courts, a magistrate and lower individual courts - city and zemstvo.

Outcome: the courts gained formal independence from the authorities

Military reform

The date: was conducted throughout almost the entire reign of Peter, from 1699 to 1721

Scope of reform: army and arms

Target: strengthening the combat capability of the army

The essence of the reform: recruitment was introduced, training of soldiers according to the European model was introduced, a fleet and weapons factories were created, the Military Regulations were issued, and the Naval Academy was opened in St. Petersburg to train fleet officers.

Outcome: strong regular armies and navy created in Russia

Church reform

The date: 1701, 1721

Scope of reform: Orthodox Church in Russia

Target: bring the church under the authority of the emperor

The essence of the reform: the Holy Synod was established, subordinate to the tsar and abolishing the power of the patriarch. The Spiritual Regulations were introduced, which controlled the church. Also earned the Monastic order, which enabled the king to control considerable income from the monastic lands. The Old Rite schismatics were officially allowed to practice their faith.

Outcome: the authorities gained more influence on the spiritual life of the country. The power of the emperor was strengthened

industrial reform

The date: 1704-1724

Scope of reform: factory business, tax system, construction of cities and ports

Target: increase tax collection for the needs of a large army, overcoming industrial backwardness from Western countries

The essence of the reform: a population census was conducted, a poll tax was introduced, and many other taxes (stamp duty, salt tax, and so on). Manufactory production developed. The first factory silver was smelted in Russia. Ferrous metallurgy also actively developed. Western experts have been invited to Russia to develop industry. To maintain Russian goods introduced a high import tax.

Outcome: The tax pressure on the population was strengthened (taxes were taken literally for everything), but at the same time the central treasury was noticeably replenished. Built St. Petersburg - the main port and capital of Russia. Russian industry, economy and trade made a sharp breakthrough in development.