Abstract on the topic:
Haplogroup U (mtDNA)
Plan:
- Introduction
- 1 Haplogroup U1
- 2 Haplogroup U2
- 3 Haplogroup U3
- 4 Haplogroup U4
- 5 Haplogroup U5
- 6 Haplogroup U6
- 7 Haplogroup U7
- 8 Haplogroup U8
- 8.1 Haplogroup K
Notes
Introduction
Distribution of mitochondrial haplogroups U and K in Europe
In human population genetics haplogroup U name one of the haplogroups identified by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence analysis. This haplogroup is widespread in Europe, its carriers separated from the R macrogroup, a subgroup in the N haplogroup, about 55 thousand years ago. Since then, haplogroup U, in addition to Europe, has also spread to North Africa, Arabia, India and the Middle East.
Divided into 8 subgroups, haplotype K also separated from haplogroup U8.
1. Haplogroup U1
It is mainly found in the Middle East, although it can also be found throughout the Mediterranean at a lower frequency. For example, U1a is distributed over a large area from India to the Atlantic, but is very rare on the western and northern coasts of Europe, including the British Isles and Scandinavia. Several carriers were found in Italy (in Tuscany). In India, U1a is found in the western part. U1b is common in the same regions, but at an even lower frequency. A few carriers were found in the Jewish diaspora. In Eastern Europe, U1a and U1b are equally common.
2. Haplogroup U2
It occurs with low frequency throughout Europe and the Middle East. This haplogroup was found in the skeleton of a young man 30 thousand years old from the Markina Gora site (Willendorf-Kostenkovskaya culture).
3. Haplogroup U3
In Europe and Central Asia, the distribution is fixed at the level of 1% of the population, in the Middle East - 2.5%. U3 carriers are about 6% of the population of the Caucasus and from 36 to 56% of the gypsies in Poland, Lithuania and Spain.
4. Haplogroup U4
Widespread in Europe about 25 thousand years ago.
5. Haplogroup U5
Along with U8a, the oldest haplogroup Homo sapiens sapiens in Europe. Age - from 50 to 60 thousand years. It is most common in the north, among the Sami, Finns and Estonians, but can also be found at low frequency in the rest of Europe, the Middle East and Africa. This haplogroup was found in the Cheddar Man, a Mesolithic mummy from England.
The U5a subgroup is considered to be particularly susceptible to acquired immune deficiency syndrome.
6. Haplogroup U6
At the level of 10%, it is distributed in North Africa, especially among the Algerian Berbers (29%), as well as in the Iberian Peninsula, the Canary Islands and East Africa. Although the distribution of the U6 haplogroup reaches its maximum in the Pyrenees, it is believed that it did not originate here, but in East Africa between 25 and 66 thousand years ago.
Among the three main subgroups of U6 are:
- U6a distributed from the Canary Islands and the Iberian Peninsula to Syria, Ethiopia and Kenya with the highest frequency in East Africa. Age: 24 - 27 thousand years. There is also a haplogroup U6a1, common in the same regions, but released about 15 - 20 thousand years ago.
- U6b occurs more often in the western regions, in Spain - in the north of the country, besides it - in Morocco, Algeria, Senegal and Nigeria. Age: 8.5 - 12 thousand years. Subgroup U6b1, released about 6 thousand years ago, is found only on the Iberian Peninsula and the Canary Islands.
- U6c available only in Morocco and the Canary Islands. Age: 6 - 17.5 thousand years. Does not have mutation (16219) common to U6a and U6b.
7. Haplogroup U7
This haplogroup is absent in many European populations, but in the Middle East the frequency of its distribution exceeds 4%, reaching 10% among the inhabitants of Iran and again dropping to 5% in Pakistan. In the west of India, 12% of the population belong to the carriers of this haplogroup, but in other regions of the country - only 2%. The homeland of the U7 is believed to be Iran or western India.
8. Haplogroup U8
- U8a Specific to the Basques as it is absent from North Africa, it is thought to have been introduced from western Asia.
- U8b Found in Italy and Jordan.
8.1. Haplogroup K
Haplogroup K makes up a significant portion of the population of Europe and the Middle East. It is believed that carriers of the UK haplogroup are not very susceptible to acquired immune deficiency syndrome.
Notes
- 1 2 3 The Genographic Project at National Geographic
- 1 2 3 4 A. Gonzalez et al. The mitochondrial lineage U8a reveals a Paleolithic settlement in the Basque country. BMC Genomics, 2006 - www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2164/7/124
- mtDNA Haplogroup U1a page at cagetti.com - www.cagetti.com/Genetics/U1a-haplogroup.html
- FTDNA mtDNA U2 Haplogroup project. - www.familytreedna.com/public/mtDNA U2
- Molecular Genealogy > Articles > A Complete mtDNA Genome of an Early Modern Human from Kostenki, Russia - www.molgen.org/index.php?name=News&file=article&sid=169
- http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Richards2000.pdf - evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Richards2000.pdf
- JSTOR: An Error Occurred Setting Your User Cookie - www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?id=doi:10.1086/383236
- Blackwell Synergy - Cookie Absent - www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00222.x
- Barbujani G, Bertorelle G. "Genetics and the population history of Europe." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2001. - www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11136246&dopt=AbstractPlus
- 1 2 Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups influence AIDS progression. - www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19005266?dopt=Abstract
- 1 2 3 4 N. Maca-Mayer, Mitochondrial DNA transit between West Asia and North Africa inferred from U6 phylogeography. BMC Genetics, 2003 - www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=14563219
- http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Metspalu2004.pdf# - evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Metspalu2004.pdf#
Megahaplogroups are determined by the original "snip" (SNP) - mutation. Recall that "snip" (single nucleotide polymorphism - single nucleotide polymorphism, SNP) - single nucleotide positions in genomic DNA, for which in a certain population there are different sequence variants (alleles). The sequences of AAGCCTA and AAGCTTA differ by one nucleotide, and then they speak of the existence of two alleles C and T. The point replacement of one nucleotide by another is called an SNP mutation. Much more common is "starp" (short tandem repeat polymorphism - STRP) - a change-mutation of the repeat of two or more pairs of immediately adjacent nucleotides in the DNA sequence. For example, when at some locus, instead of the 12 repeats of four nucleotides expected from previous measurements ... TCTA TCTA TCTA TCTA TCTA TCTA TCTA TCTA TCTA TCTA TCTA TCTA ... we have 13, then this allele change from 12 repeats to 13 repeats is mutation. "Snips" and "starps", tied to DNA loci, serve as genetic markers. In laboratories, measurements are made on 12, 25, 67 or more markers. "Snips" define the "surname", and "seniors" - more individualized "first name", second name, etc., and together they define the genetic analogue of the "fingerprint" - the "genetic passport" of a person or his haplotype. A haplogroup is a group of similar haplotypes that share a common snip. Since snips (SNP-mutations) occur much less frequently than starps (STRP-mutations), haplogroups are, as it were, the hour hand of evolution, and haplotypes are the minute hand. Subhaplogroups are sometimes defined by unusual combinations of starp mutations. Sometimes new snip mutations are discovered, which leads to the renaming of one or more haplogroups. Research is growing, corrections are inevitable. Below are the results of the surveys up to February 2010.
CF
55-60 thousand years; Southwest Asia; determined by the “snip” of SNP P143; ancestor CT, descendants C, F; is considered hypothetical, because so far not a single man has been found with the CF * parahaplogroup.
CF-M168
CF-M294
CF-P9.1
C
60 thousand years; Middle East or South Asia; ancestor CF, descendants C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6; related to haplogroup F; it is believed that C, together with haplogroup D, spread through the Great Coastal Migration from Arabia to Southeast Asia and further north - India (the greatest diversity), Mongolia (the greatest concentration), Korea, Manchuria, the Russian Far East, Polynesia, Australia, 6 -8 thousand years ago migration to America (Na-Dené people on the northwest coast of America); the carrier of one of the haplogroups C was Genghis Khan, whose gene spread in the ruling and aristocratic families of China, Central Asia and Europe, including Poland and Russia.
C* - belong to megahaplogroup C, but not to any of its identified haplogroups; distributed in low frequency along the southern coast of Asia from India and Sri Lanka to Vietnam and on to Yunnan province in southwestern China, as well as to Indonesia, the Philippines and Micronesia; even less common among the populations of coastal New Guinea and on the islands of Melanesia, that is, it is associated with the carriers of the Austronesian cultural tradition, while the haplogroup C4 derived from C * dominates among the natives of Australia; very rare also among the Central Asian Turks, C* polymorphism was found among the Lebanese (1/31 = 3.2%).
C-M130/RPS4Y711 was found among the natives of Australia (16/33 = 48.5%), Micronesia (1/17 = 5.9%), Papua New Guinea (1/46 = 2.2%), East Indonesians (3 /55 = 5.5%), West Indonesians (1/25 = 40%), Malays (1/32 = 3.1%), Sri Lankans (3/91 = 3.3%), Indians (10/405 = 2.5%), South China Miao (1/58 = 1.7%), Guangxi Yao (12/60 = 20%) Chinese-speaking Hui Muslims (4/35 = 11%), Uighurs (2/ 70 = 3%), Tujia people living in the region of the central Chinese Wuling mountains (3/49 = 6.1%), Chinese Tungus-Manchurian Hezhe (3/49 = 6.1%) and Evenks (1/26 = 4% )
C-M216 found among residents of Kathmandu (Nepal) 3/77 = 3.9%.
C-P184
C-P255
C-P260
C1-M8 is rare only in Japan - Tokushima Prefecture 10%, Okinawa 6.8%, Honshu 4.9% (Aomori Prefecture 7.7%, Shizuoka 4.9%), Kyushu 3.8%, Ryukyu about 5%.
C1-M105
C1-M131
C1-P122
C1* -
C1a-P121
C2-M38 is predominantly found in New Guinea, Melanesia and Polynesia (on some islands it is a modal haplogroup, which is apparently due to the founder effect and genetic drift).
C2* -
C2a-M208
C2a*-
C2a1-P33
C2a2-P54
C3-M217 is the most common in megahaplogroup C, about 8% of men in Asia and 0.5% of men in the world are its carriers; it is believed that it originated in Southeast or Central Asia, from where it spread throughout North Asia (Evens, Koryaks) and America, and also came to Eastern and Central Europe (possibly with the Huns); in Mongolia and among a number of aboriginal ethnic groups of the Russian Far East, it is a modal haplogroup; Orochi 61-91%, Evens 5-74%, Evenks 44-71%, Buryats 60-84%, Mongols 52-54%, Tanana 42%, Kazakhs 40%, Khazars 40%, Nivkhs 38%, Koryaks 33%, Daurs 31%, Yukagirs 31%, Tungus ethnic group in Manchuria Sibe 27%, Manchus 26-27%, Altaians 22-24%, Hezhe Nanai 22%, Uzbeks 20%, Central Chinese Tujia 18%, Hani of South China and Vietnam 18 %, Cheyenne Indians 16%, Apaches 15%, Tuvans 15%, Ainu 12.5-25%, Koreans 11-16%, Chinese-speaking Hui Muslims 11%, Sioux Indians 11%, Han Chinese 5-20%; in America, it is the only one of the megahaplogroup C, its highest concentration is among the Na-Dené populations, it is also found among the Athabaskans of Alaska and western Canada and the Wayuu populations in Colombia and Venezuela; one of the C3 alleles, presumably characteristic of the Genghis Khan family, due to social selection, following the Mongol conquests, spread throughout Eurasia and fell into the genes of many aristocratic dynasties in Russia, Poland, Wallachia, Central and Western Europe.
C3-P44
C3-PK2
C3*-
C3a-M93
C3b-P39 C3b this haplogroup seems to be distributed only in America.
C3c-M48
C3c-M77
C3c-M86
C3d-M407
C3e-P53.1
C3f-P62
C4-M347 this haplogroup is distributed exclusively among the Australian Aborigines and dominates in this population.
C4-P309
C4*-
C4a-M210
C5-M356 is very rare in India, Nepal, Pakistan and Arabia.
C5*-
C5a-P92
C6-P55 this haplogroup was discovered recently, and the geography of its distribution is still unclear.
F
50 thousand years; Southwest or South Asia; sometimes this megahaplogroup is associated with the "second wave" of the Exodus from Africa; ancestor CF, descendants F1, F2, F3, F4, G, H, I, J, K; more than 90% of men in the world (almost all outside Africa) are carriers of this megahaplogroup and its derivatives; distribution - the southern outskirts of Eurasia from Portugal in the west to the Ailao mountains in Yunnan and Korea in the east (not in Japan).
F-M89
F-M213/P137
F-M235
F-P14
F-P133
F-P134
F-P135
F-P136
F-P138
F-P139
F-P140
F-P141
F-P142. P145
F-P146
F-P148
F-P149
F-P151
F-P157
F-P158
F-P159
F-P160
F-P161
F-P163
F-P166
F-P187
F* this parahaplogroup is poorly understood, occasionally found in Hindustan, as well as among hunter-gatherers of “yellow lahu” (Lahu Shi) in Southeast Asia and South China (Ailao mountains in Yunnan) and Koreans (but not Japanese), was found in two individuals in Portugal, possibly reflecting Portuguese contact with India in the 15th and 16th centuries.
F1 this haplogroup is not well understood, occasionally found in Hindustan.
F1-P104
F2-M427 this haplogroup is not well understood, it is occasionally found in Hindustan.
F2-M428
F3-P96
F4-P254
G
9,500-20,000 years; Turkey, Caucasus, Iran and wider Middle East or Southwest Asia; the original snip mutation is M201, other more or less equivalent SNP mutations are P257, L240, U2, U3, U6, U7, U12, U17, U20, U21, U23, and U33; ancestor F, descendants G1, G2 and their subgroups; the five most common haplogroups and their "snip" mutations - G1 (M285), G2a1 (P16) G2a3a (M406), G2a3b1 (P303) and G2c (M377); spread from Transcaucasia (Georgians and Azerbaijanis about 30%) to the North Caucasus and further (Alans-Ases-Ossetians 50%, Digorians 74%) to Southern (Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey 8-10%) and Western Europe (4% ), a relatively high rate in Tyrol (8%), Sardinia (11%, and in the city of Tampio even 21%), in the Croatian city of Osijek (14%), in Crete (7-11%), but in Scandinavia, Poland, Carriers of G are rare in the Baltics (in Russia, Ukraine and Central Asia about 1%), Jews of the world about 10%, sometimes associated with the expansion of the "Neolithic wave", found in Western and North Asia, North Africa (Egypt 6-9%, Jews Morocco 20%), Hindustan (Pashtuns 11.5%), Sri Lanka and Malaysia (6%), the oldest (7th century) skeleton of G carrier was identified in Bavaria, Stalin was G carrier (haplogroup G2a1a).
G-M201 the founder of this megahaplogroup (M201 mutation) lived about 30 thousand years ago in the north of the Middle East.
G-P257
G-U2
G-U3
G-U6
G-U7
G-U12
G-U17
G-U20
G-U21
G-U23
G-U33
G*-
G1-M285 northern Middle East, especially Iran, rare in Europe and North Caucasus, higher concentration among Jews.
G1-M342 central Kazakhstan among the Kazakh sub-ethnos Madiars (Mazhars) up to 87%.
G1* -
G1a-P20
G1b-P76
G2-P287 was discovered in 2007 and is not widely distributed.
G2* -
G2a-L31 / S149 is the most common G-haplogroup in Western Europe, Catalan-speaking northern Sardinians and Druze up to 18%.
G2a-P15 occurs in Turkey and further east, rare in Europe.
G2a-U5
G2a*-
G2a1-P16 common in the North and South Caucasus, especially among Ossetians, rare in Europe (usually among Ashkenazi Jews).
G2a1* -
G2a1a-P18 Stalin
G2a2-M286 is found in the British Isles and Turkey.
G2a3-L30/S126
G2a3->L32/S148/U8 is the largest in the G2a haplogroup, but still very small.
G2a3* -
G2a3a-M406 Turkey, Greece, Iran and the eastern Mediterranean (up to 50% of G speakers), common in the Jewish diaspora, less common in the rest of Europe.
G2a3a* -
G2a3a1-L14/S130/U16 is relatively more common than G2a3a2.
G2a3a1-L90/S133
G2a3a2-L184 identified in 2009, frequency unknown.
G2a3a2-L185
G2a3b-L141 was identified in 2009 in several individuals from the British Isles and Turkey.
G2a3b* -
G2a3b1-P303/S135 is common in the North and South Caucasus (“Caucasian type”), in Russia (often the majority among G-carriers), among Ashkenazi Jews, less often in Iran, India and Europe (the highest concentration is in the population of the Spanish island of Ibiza ).
G2a3b1-L140 is especially common among Kabardians, dominates among G-carriers in Wells (UK).
G2a3b1* is especially common among Kabardians.
G2a3b1a-U1
G2a3b1a* -
G2a3b1a1-L13/S131/U13 Iran or the South Caucasus region or developed in Europe.
G2a3b1a1-L78 Caucasian region, rarer in Europe.
G2a3b1b-L43/S147
G2a3b1b* -
G2a3b1b1-L42/S146
G2a3b1c-L139
G2a3b2-L177
G2a4-L91 was identified in 2009; the distribution area has not yet been delineated.
G2b-M287
G2c-M377 is found in the north of the Middle East and further east to Central and South Asia, and in Western Europe it is distributed mainly among Ashkenazi Jews (if G-carriers among Ashkenazi Jews are about 10%, then this haplogroup accounts for 8 %, and 2% - to the share of G2a carriers plus a small number of G1 carriers; in Israel among Jews - 3.7% of G2c carriers).
G2c* -
G2c1-M283
H
20-45 thousand years; South or Southwest Asia (probably the Paleolithic natives of Hindustan, because it is more common among tribes / 25-35% /, while in the higher castes less than 10%); ancestor F, main mutation M69; Hindustan (South India 110/405 = 27.2%, another measure of sampling from different regions, ethnic groups and castes of India 192/728 = 26.4%), Sri Lanka (23/91 = 25.3%, among Sinhalese 10, 3% = 4/39), Pakistan a little Central Asia, Indochina, Tibet, Arabian Peninsula, Ukraine (1/50 = 2%), gypsies.
H-M69 Nepal (Kathmandu) 12%, Tibet (3/156 = 1.9%), Mongolia (1/149 = 0.7%), Indonesia (Balinese 19/551 = 3.45%).
H-M370 Turks 3/523 = 0.6%.
H*-
H1-M52 Pakistan 4.1% Burusho (Hunza), 20.5% Kalash, 4.2% Pashtun, 2.5% other Pakistanis; Tajikistan (Dushanbe Tajiks 2/16 = 12.5%), Turkmen Kurds 1/17 = 6%.
H1* - Nepal (Kathmandu) 4/77.
H1a-M82 Roma Balkans 60%, Nepal (Kathmandu) 4/77, Newars 4/66 = 6%., Balkars 1/38 = 3%
H1a* - Burusho (Hunza) in Pakistan 2/38 = 5%.
H1a1-M36 Burusho (Hunza) in Pakistan 1/38 = 3%.
H1a1-M197
H1a2-M97 Burusho (Hunza) in Pakistan 2/38 = 5%.
H1a3-M39 Burusho (Hunza) in Pakistan 2/38 = 5%, Cambodians 1/6 and 1/18 in another sample.
H1a3-M138 Burusho (Hunza) in Pakistan 2/38 = 5%.
H2-Apt Nepal (Kathmandu) 1/77 = 1.3%, Greeks 1/77 = 1.3%.
H2*-
H2a-P80
H2a-P314
H2b P266
IJK
40-45 thousand years; Southwest Asia; ancestor F, descendants IJ, K; Snip-determining mutations L15/S137, L16/S138, L69.1(=G)/S163.1.
IJK-L15/S137
IJK-L16/S138
IJK-L69.1(=G)/S163.1
Unfortunately, the small size of mitochondrial DNA (about 16,500 base pairs, as opposed to 60 million Y-DNA) does not allow very accurate tracking of origin and migration. All mitochondrial haplogroups originated during the Ice Age, a period when humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers, long before the creation of cities and civilizations. Mitochondrial haplogroups are only associated with ethnic origin at the continental level. This is due to the European origin of the mito-haplogroups H, I, J, K, T, U, V, W, and X (with the exception of the X2a branch, which is common among Native Americans). Deep subclades may be associated with more specific regions, but do not necessarily coincide with historical, ethnic, and linguistic groups. One possible reason is that women through whom mtDNA is passed tend to marry outside of their ethnic group more often than men (for example, to secure an alliance between two tribes or kingdoms).
Chronological development of mt-DNA haplogroups
Note that the age of mitochondrial haplogroups is much more difficult to estimate than Y-DNA haplogroups due to the tiny mtDNA sequences and the low number of mutations. The error in the dates below is usually + -5000 years, but in some cases even exceeds 30,000 years.N => 75,000 years ago (originated in Northeast Africa)
R => 70,000 years ago (in Southwest Asia)
U => 60,000 years ago (in Northeast Africa or Southwest Asia)
pre-JT => 55,000 years ago (in the Middle East)
JT =>
U5 =>
U6 => 50,000 years ago (in North Africa)
U8 => 50,000 years ago (in Western Asia)
pre-HV => 50,000 years ago (Near East)
J => 45,000 years ago (in the Middle East or the Caucasus)
HV => 40,000 years ago (in the Middle East)
H => 35,000 years ago (Middle East or Southern Europe)
X => 30,000 years ago (in northeastern Europe)
U5a1 => 30,000 years ago (in Europe)
I => 30,000 years ago (Caucasus or northeast Europe)
J1A => 27,000 years ago (in the Middle East)
W => 25,000 years ago (in northeast Europe or northwest Asia)
U4 => 25,000 years ago (in Central Asia)
J1b => 23,000 years ago (in the Middle East)
T => 17,000 years ago (in Mesopotamia)
K => 16,000 years ago (in the Middle East)
V => 15,000 years ago (originated in Iberia and spread to Scandinavia)
H1B => 13,000 years ago (in Europe)
K1 => 12,000 years ago (in the Middle East)
H3 => 10,000 years ago (in Western Europe)
Mitochondrial DNA of prehistoric Europeans
Testing ancient DNA has helped to understand how long each haplogroup has been in Europe. Only a few such tests have been successfully carried out so far. Mitochondrial DNA was extracted from the skeleton of a 28,000 year old Cro-Magnon man from southern Italy, and the haplogroup was identified as HV or pre-HV. All subsequent migrations were Neolithic from the Middle East, 9000 years old Cheddar-man turned out to belong to the U5a haplogroup.Autochthonous European Cro-Magnons must therefore belong to at least haplogroup HV (and its descendants H and V), as well as haplogroup U5, which also turned out to be the most common mitochondrial haplogroup in all of Europe. It has been suggested that more than half of the maternal lines in Europe descend directly from the Paleolithic of Europe. Their men had Y-DNA haplogroup I.
European mtDNA haplogroups and their subclades
Haplogroup H & V (mtDNA)
Haplogroup H is the most common throughout Europe and makes up about 40% of the European population. It is also found (albeit at lower frequencies) in North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, North Asia, and along the east coast of Africa to Madagascar.H1, H3 and V are the most common subclades in Western Europe. H1 peaks in Norway (30% of the population) and Iberia (18 to 25%), and is also common in Sardinia, Finns and Estonians (16%), and Western and Central Europe in general (10 to 12 %) and Northwest Africa (from 10 to 20%). H3 is common in Portugal (12%), Sardinia (11%), Galicia (10%), Basque Country (10%), Ireland (6%), Norway (6%), Hungary (6%) and the southwest France (5%). Haplogroup V reaches its maximum frequency in northern Scandinavia (40% Sami), northern Spain, the Netherlands (8%), Sardinia, the Croatian islands and the Maghreb countries. It is likely that H1, H3 and V, as well as haplogroup U5, were the main haplogroups of Western European hunter-gatherers living in Franco-Cantabrian refuges during the last ice age, and inhabited much of Central and Northern Europe from 15,000 years ago.
Haplogroup H13 is the most common in Sardinia and around the Caucasus. Its distribution resembles Y-DNA haplogroup G2a. The same applies to H2 to a lesser extent. This suggests a Caucasian or Anatolian origin.
H5 and H7 are also common in the Caucasus, but their frequency is declining throughout the Mediterranean, and a higher frequency from Anatolia to the Alps across the Danube suggests a possible link with the spread of agriculture (YDNA haplogroup J2, G2a, E1b1b1 and T) or Indo-Europeans (haplogroup R1b1a2 and R1a1).
Haplogroup U & K (mtDNA)
Haplogroup U is very old. It occurred about 55,000 years ago on the border of Northeast Africa and the Middle East, shortly after the first Homo Sapiens emerged from Africa. That is why each of its indigenous subclades (U1, U2, U3, U4 and U5) can be considered as haplogroups in their own way. The main European subclades are U3, U4, U5 and U8/K. U1 is mostly found in the Middle East, U6 in North Africa, U7 from the Middle East to India, and rare U9 from Ethiopia and the Arabian Peninsula to Pakistan.Haplogroup U2 is found mainly in South Asia, but is probably Indo-European in origin, as it is found at low frequencies throughout the Pontic-Caspian region and has been identified in a 30,000 year old Cro-Magnon in the middle Don in Russia. May have been the dominant haplogroup of the northern forest-steppe foragers, which later became proto-Indo-Iranian and spread on a large scale from Central to South Asia.
Haplogroup U3 concentrated around the Black Sea, with a particularly strong concentration in the northeastern part. This may be related to the ancient Indo-Europeans, and probably to haplogroup R1b and haplogroup R1a .
Haplogroup U4 more common in countries of Eastern Europe, Central Asia, northern South Asia (in Tajikistan - U4 and in Pakistan - W), which also suggest a connection with the Indo-Europeans (correlates with Y-DNA haplogroup R1a). The same applies to haplogroups I, W, T2 and U2E to a lesser extent.
Haplogroup U5 is the most common in Western and Northern Europe. DNA analyzes from ancient skeletons have shown that U5 was the main Paleolithic and Mesolithic mitochondrial haplogroup among hunter-gatherers in Northern Europe. Ancient DNA tests conducted in the UK, Germany and Scandinavia show that the frequency of U5 gradually fades over time through the Neolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age and Middle Ages. At present, it remains most common in northern Europe, where the Mesolithic population was least affected by subsequent migrations. For example, between 30 and 50% of the Saami people from northern Scandinavia belong to the U5b haplogroup (and about 40% to the V haplogroup, which is also presumably of Neolithic European origin).
Haplogroup K belong to the main subclade U8. It is found in Europe and Western Asia, also as far away as India. Its high concentration is in Northwestern and Central Europe, Anatolia and in the south of the Arabian Peninsula. It is believed that it first arose somewhere between Egypt and Anatolia about 16,000 years ago (estimated from 22,000 years to as little as 10,000 years ago). It has a large number of subclades, despite their relatively recent age. K1a is the largest subclade. The relatively important presence of K1a in the Middle East shows that it predates the Neolithic migration in Europe. This was supported by ancient mtDNA from Neolithic sites. Haplogroup K was not found in Europe before the Neolithic, but unexpectedly appears at a frequency (17%) significantly higher than that of modern Europeans and is similar in the modern Middle East. Most of the Neolithic K belongs to the K1a subclade.
Most of the subclades K1a4, K1a10, K1b, K1c and K2 tend to be European. K1a4 is also common in Anatolia and Greece, and indeed could have spread to the rest of Europe from there during the Neolithic, as well as haplogroups J and T (and Y-haplogroups E1b1b, J2 and T). Indo-Europeans from Anatolia may also have contributed to the spread of K. K1a1b1a and K1a9 are found mainly among Ashkenazi Jews.
Haplogroup J & T (mt-DNA)
Haplogroup J originated in the Middle East 45,000 years ago, making it one of the oldest mitochondrial haplogroups in Europe and the Middle East. This is usually associated with the spread of agriculture. Haplogroup J is common in Central Asia and around the Caspian and Black Seas, it may also have a connection with the Indo-Europeans, especially the migration of Y-DNA haplogroup R1b (see R1b history above). J1 is common throughout the Middle East, significantly in Central Asia and throughout Ukraine. In the rest of Europe, it is mostly limited to the Germanic countries (mimicking the Y-DNA distribution of haplogroup I1). J2 is much rarer than J1. Haplogroup J2a is found homogeneously in most European countries. Haplogroup J2b is most common in Anatolia and Southeast Europe.Haplogroup T is believed to have originated in the Middle East and Northeast Africa at least 12,000 years ago. It is found in Europe, northern Africa to Central Asia and Siberia, with pockets in India and Northwest China (Xinjiang). The highest concentration of T1 is found in Northeast Africa, Anatolia, and Bulgaria, indicating Neolithic diffusion from Egypt to the Balkans. T2, the most common subclade of T in Europe, is especially common in northeastern Europe and throughout the Aegean. The general distribution of haplogroup T during the early Neolithic migration from Northeast Africa to Eastern Europe, and after the migration, the picture was changed by the Indo-Europeans (especially the Y-DNA haplogroup R1a) in Europe and South Asia.
Haplogroup W (mt-DNA)
Represented at low frequencies in most of Europe, in Anatolia, around the Caspian Sea, and from the Indo-Pakistani border to Xinjiang, haplogroup W is one of the best markers of an Indo-European maternal lineage (mtDNA equivalent of R1a and R1b). The highest frequency is in Ukraine, European Russia, the Baltic States and Finland (3 to 5% of the total), as well as northern Pakistan (15%), Krasnodar Krai (9%) and Gujarat (12%). In Indian it is much more common among the upper castes and among Indo-European speakers (source).Haplogroup I (mt-DNA)
Haplogroup I has the same distribution in haplogroup W, from Europe to Pakistan and northwestern India, with a characteristic presence in the Pontic steppes and around the Caspian Sea. Its origin is very likely to lie in Proto-Indo-European cultures (mt-DNA mirror haplogroups R1a and R1b). Haplogroup I is practically absent in some parts of Europe in the Pontic-Caspian steppes remote from the Pontic-Caspian steppes (Iberia, Southwestern France, Ireland) and significantly in Norway, Southern Finland, Ukraine, Greece and western Anatolia.Haplogroup X (mt-DNA)
Haplogroup X is very old and scattered, the haplogroup is found throughout Eurasia, North Africa, as well as among the indigenous people of North America. Its frequency rarely exceeds 5% of the population in any ethnic group, and is more often limited to 1 or 2%. X1 is found almost exclusively in North Africa, while X2b is the only lineage represented among the Indians. X2a, X2c, x2d and X2e are found in Europe, Siberia and Central Asia. It is therefore possible that the latter will be of Indo-European origin (R1b1a2).The strong presence of X2 throughout the Caucasus, gradually disappearing in the Middle East and the Mediterranean, hints that this may be due to the spread of Y-DNA haplogroup G2a. Y-Haplogroups R1b1a2 and G2a are both distributed throughout the Caucasus and therefore it is not surprising to find X2 along with these two Y-DNA haplogroups.
Haplogroup R (mt-DNA)
Haplogroup R is the main subclade of haplogroup N, along with the 6 most common European haplogroups (H, V, J, T, U, K). At the time of writing, the R subclades were numbered from R0 (aka pre-HV) to R31. Most of them are in South Asia (R5, R6, R7, R8, R30, R31), Southeast Asia (R9, R21, R22, R24), East Asia (R9/F, R11/B), and even among Papuans (R14) and Australian Aborigines (R12). R0a peak in the south of the Arabian Peninsula is common among the Arabs and the Middle East. R1a (not to be confused with the Y-chromosome haplogroup of the same name) is found among the Circassians in the North Caucasus (in connection with the Maykop culture => see section R1b), Brahmins from northern India, northwestern Russians and Poles - basically all people are closely related to Indo-European expansion. R2 is northwest of India and Pakistan, Iran, Georgia and Turkey. It may be related to the Indo-Iranians.Finno-Ural mt-DNA haplogroups
Finno-Ural mtDNA is similar to other European countries, with a higher percentage of W and U5b, and a small percentage of Siberian haplogroups like N and A. Saami are characterized by a high percentage of U5b1 and B haplogroups.Berber mt-DNA haplogroups
The Berbers are an indigenous people in northwest Africa. Although their Y-DNA is almost perfectly homogeneous, belonging haplogroup E-M81, Berber maternal lines show much greater diversity as well as regional differences. At least about half (up to 90% in some regions) of the Berbers belong to some Eurasian lines, such as H, HV, R0, J, T, U, K, N1, N2, and X2, mostly of Eastern origin. Between 5 and 45% of sub-Saharan Berbers have mtDNA (L0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5). There are only three lines native to North Africa, U6, X1 and M1, representing 0 to 35% of people depending on the region.Haplogroup U6 is observed in Iberia and the Canary Islands in Senegal in the West, and from Syria to Kenya and Ethiopia in the East. It is also found at low densities in Europe, although mostly confined to Iberia. About 10% of all North Africans belong to this lineage.
Gypsy mtDNA haplogroups
Gypsies (Roma) originated in India and mixed with the local population in the Middle East and Eastern Europe over the centuries. About half of the gypsy population belongs to the M haplogroup, or rather M5 (a reflection of the Y-haplogroup H1a), which is found exclusively in South Asia. Other gypsy haplogroups mainly from Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Middle Eastern origin, such as H (H1, H2, H5, H9, H11, H20, etc.), J (J1b, J1d, J2b) T, U3, U5b, I, W and others X (X1b1, X2a1, x2). The same variety of existing Y-DNA haplogroups (45% H1a, followed by I1, I2a, J2a4b, E1b1b, R1b, R1a).I come to the conclusion that archaeological, anthropological, ethnogenetic and other searches
bindings of archaeological cultures and historical peoples to one ethnos (one haplogroup) in the last few millennia in the main migration region of Afro-Eurasia () are increasingly dead ends. No one will prove anything to anyone, except for remarks - to some extent, in part, probably, etc. There were almost no large archaeological cultures created by men of only one haplogroup (not to mention women http://www.elim.kz/ forum/lofiversion/index.php?t2833.html
http://dibase.ru/article/06072009_derenkomv/9
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