Ivan III Vasilyevich was born on 01/22/1440, was the son of. From an early age, he did his best to help his blind father in state affairs, went on campaigns with him.

In March 1462, Vasily II fell seriously ill and died. Shortly before his death, he made a will. The will stated that the eldest son Ivan received the grand throne, and most of the state, its main cities. The rest of the state was divided among themselves by the rest of the children of Vasily II.

Ivan III led a very productive, wise policy. In domestic politics, he, like his father, continues to collect Russian lands under Moscow rule. He annexed Rostov, and Tver, Ryazan, Belozersk and Dmitrov principalities to Moscow.

Domestic policy of Ivan III

The connection of Russian lands to Moscow was very successful and productive. It is worth saying that these lands were annexed peacefully. Novgorodians wanted independence, but the forces of the Moscow principality clearly outnumbered those of Novgorod.

Then, the Novgorod boyars decided to flirt with the Lithuanian prince Casimir. This course of affairs did not suit Ivan III, who sought to unite all Russian lands under Moscow rule.

On June 6, 1471, the Muscovite army goes on a campaign against Novgorod. The troops of Ivan III do not disdain robbery and violence, trying to bring more fear to the Novgorod boyars.

The Novgorod boyars also did not sit idly by, hastily assembled a militia from the townspeople, the number of which amounted to about 40 thousand people. However, the army, hastily assembled, was completely untrained in military affairs. Novgorodians moved in the direction of Pskov in order to prevent the connection of the Moscow and Pskov troops.

But on the Shelon River, the Novgorod army, by chance, collided with the detachments of one of the Moscow governors, where they were utterly defeated by their enemy. Novgorod was under siege. During negotiations with Ivan III, Novgorod retained its independence, paid an indemnity, and no longer had the right to flirt with Lithuania.

In the spring of 1477, complainers from Novgorod arrived in Moscow. Outlining their case, the complainants called Ivan III the sovereign, instead of the traditional gentleman. "Sir" - assumed the equality of "Mr. Grand Duke" and "Mr. Great Novgorod." Muscovites immediately clung to this pretext, and sent an ultimatum to Novgorod, according to which Novgorod was to join Moscow.

As a result of a new war, Novgorod was annexed to Moscow, the post of Novgorod mayor was abolished, and the veche bell was taken to Moscow. This was in 1478. After the capture of Novgorod, the tsar continued to collect Russian lands. This was the essence of his domestic policy. He extended his power in the Vyazemsky land, seized the land of the Komi and Great Perm, and also established his own rules in the land of the Khanty and Mansi.

With the growth of the power of the country, the power of the grand duke also grew stronger. Under Ivan III, a land service system arose in Russia. This progressive innovation became the basis for the formation of a layer of the nobility, a new support for the grand ducal, and later royal power. A centralized state could not exist without a common law.

In 1497, an all-Russian publication was published. Sudebnik established the legal norms for the life of Russian society.

Foreign policy of Ivan III

In the foreign policy of the ruler, too, there were major successes. Russia finally ceased to depend on the Golden Horde, to pay tribute to it. This event took place in 1480, marked by "". Khan Akhmat moved large troops to Russia, prepared for a decisive battle for a long time, but eventually turned back. Thus ended the Horde Yoke.

Ivan III died on October 27, 1505. His name has entered the history of Russia forever.

Results

During his reign, he achieved great success in domestic and foreign policy, completed the process of collecting the Russian land, once and for all put an end to the Horde Yoke. No wonder Ivan III Vasilyevich, in science and journalism, was nicknamed the Great.

When Ivan III began to reign, his principality was surrounded by Russian possessions: the lands of Veliky Novgorod, the princes of Tver, Ryazan, Rostov, Yaroslavl. The Grand Duke subjugated all these lands either by force or by peace agreements. He destroyed the republican veche system in Novgorod, and installed his governor in Pskov. At the end of his reign, he had only foreign and heterodox neighbors: Swedes, Germans, Lithuanians, Tatars. Previously, Ivan III was only the most powerful among the specific princes. Now he has become a single sovereign of the Great Russian people, he had to think about protecting an entire people from external danger. Previously, his policy was specific, now it has become national.

Turned into "sovereign of all Russia", Ivan III opened a new direction in the external relations of Russia. He threw off the last remnants of dependence on the Horde Khan. This did not require the second Battle of Kulikovo: the Tatar yoke ended with the famous “standing on Ufa” in 1480. But the struggle against the Tatars continued. On the territory of the weakened and disintegrated Golden Horde in the XV century. new independent states appeared, the most important of which were the Kazan, Astrakhan, Crimean and Siberian khanates. Ivan III claimed the southern and western lands that became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and began military operations against Lithuania. Russo-Lithuanian wars continued for more than three and a half centuries. A firm offensive policy was pursued by Ivan Vasilyevich in relation to the Livonian Order. At war with his Western neighbors, he sought friendship and alliances in Europe. Under him, Moscow entered into diplomatic relations with Denmark, with the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, with Hungary, Venice, and Turkey.

Ivan III proudly rejected the royal title offered to him by the German Emperor. According to European models, a long, magnificent title of “sovereign of all Russia” was also drawn up. Following the example of the same German emperor, Ivan III ordered to carve on his seal a symbol of power - a coat of arms: a double-headed eagle crowned with crowns. From the end of the XV century. a state ideology was also formed, based on the ideas of God's chosenness and independence of the Moscow state.

Great changes took place in the composition and position of the ruling class. There was an influx of new servants to the court of the Moscow sovereign. The ranks of the old Moscow boyars were replenished with former specific princes and princes and boyars who were under their command. There were also Lithuanian princes, Tatar princes, and others who came under the authority of the Moscow sovereign. All of them turned into Moscow boyars - subjects of the Grand Duke. Large feudal lords used all the former prerogatives of power in their estates, but they could no longer use the right of free departure to another master. With the unification of the Russian lands, the boyars had one option left - to leave for neighboring states, primarily for the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and this was considered treason. Remnants of political fragmentation persisted into the 16th century. in the form of destinies of Moscow princes - brothers and nephews of the Grand Duke.

Military operation of Ivan III to conquer the Novgorod land

The activities of Prince Ivan III for the benefit of the Russian state are characterized by a number of outstanding military victories.

The completion of the process of folding the centralized Moscow state is associated with the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and Vasily III (1505-1533).

By the time Ivan III ascended the throne of Moscow, the Novgorod Boyar Republic remained the largest independent force from Moscow. From 1410, the boyar oligarchy was in fact in power in Novgorod, the veche system lost its significance. Fearing Moscow, part of the Novgorod boyars, led by the posadnik Martha Boretskaya, agreed to recognize the vassal dependence of Novgorod on Lithuania and concluded an agreement on this. Ordinary Novgorodians were on the side of Moscow.

Having received news of the conspiracy of the Novgorod boyars with Lithuania, the Moscow prince in 1471 set out on a campaign against Novgorod in order to subdue him. Ivan III mobilized for the campaign the armed forces of all the lands subject to Moscow. Thus, the campaign was all-Russian in nature.

The campaign was planned with careful consideration of the foreign policy situation. The anti-Moscow boyar group of Novgorod, led by Martha Boretskaya, managed to enlist the support of the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir IV, who pledged “to fight the horse for Veliky Novgorod, and with all his Lithuanian joy, against the Grand Duke, and boroniti Veliky Novgorod.” Ivan III chose the moment when the intervention of the king seemed the least likely. Sharply aggravated Polish-Hungarian relations, which diverted the attention of Casimir IV from Novgorod affairs. Under these conditions, it was impossible to declare a "common collapse", that is, to involve the Polish gentry in the campaign. The oppositional Novgorod boyars found themselves in international isolation.

No less important was the political preparation of the campaign, which was carried out by Ivan III under the slogans of the struggle against "treason", against me for the king, and to appoint the archbishop again to his Metropolitan Gregory the Latin being. Before leaving Moscow, Ivan III "received a blessing from Metropolitan Philip and from the entire holy cathedral." All "Latin". Thus, from the very beginning, the Grand Duke tried to give the campaign an all-Russian character. “The great prince sent to all his brothers, and to all the bishops of his land, and to princes and to his boyars, and to governors and to all his howls; and as if everyone condescended to him, then he proclaims his thought to everyone that go to Novgorod the army, because you have betrayed everyone and found the truth in them not a little. In letters sent to Pskov and Tver, Ivan III listed the “guilts” of the Novgorodians. These steps contributed to the rallying of the troops, justified the military action against Novgorod in the eyes of the masses, and provided a solid rear.

The trip itself was carefully planned. The strategic idea of ​​Ivan III was to cover Novgorod with armies from the west and east, block all roads leading to Lithuania, and cut off the city from its eastern possessions, from where help could come. The implementation of this plan was entrusted to the governors, who had to act independently, at a considerable distance from each other. The Grand Duke himself intended to come out with the main forces at a favorable moment, when the governors would approach Novgorod from different directions in converging directions.

The start of hostilities was carefully coordinated in time. Earlier than others, at the end of May, the eastern outskirts of the Novgorod land began to “fight” the army, which was to make the most distant campaign. In June, the second army marched from Moscow, headed by the governors of Kholmsky and Motley-Starodubsky. She was supposed to approach the Shelon River, join the Pskov regiments there and advance together on Novgorod from the west. The third army, under the command of Prince Obolensky-Striga, went to Vyshny Volochek in order to go further to Novgorod along the Mosty River from the east. The main forces, led by the Grand Duke himself, began the campaign on June 20 and slowly moved through Tver and Torzhok to Lake Ilmen.

The approach of the Grand Duke's regiments from different directions forced the Novgorod military leaders to split their forces. The 12,000-strong Novgorod army hastened to the east to defend Zavolochye. The selected “forged army” went to the Shelon River, against the regiments of Prince Kholmsky, the Novgorod “ship army” sailed there along Lake Ilmen. For Novgorodians, these were forced decisions: according to the chronicler, the Moscow governors went to the city “by different roads from all frontiers”. The strategic plan of Ivan III, aimed at separating the enemy forces, began to bear fruit.

On the Shelon River, the Moscow army defeated the Novgorod militia, which was not in the mood for decisive resistance. The Novgorod army, sent to the east, was defeated by the regiments of Vasily Obrazts on the Northern Dvina. The Novgorod authorities had nothing to defend the city. The main forces of the Grand Duke's troops had not yet launched military operations, and the outcome of the campaign was already a foregone conclusion. Ambassadors came from Novgorod to ask for peace "according to the will" of the Grand Duke. Ivan III himself, according to the chronicler, “do not go to Novgorod and return from the mouth of Shelon with honor and great victory.”

However, Novgorod was finally annexed to Moscow in 1478 - as a sign of this event, the veche bell was taken to Moscow. Nevertheless, Ivan III left a number of benefits to Novgorod, namely the right to maintain economic ties with Sweden, the boyars, except for the guilty ones, were not evicted from the city, Novgorodians were not sent to serve on the southern borders of the Moscow state.

Military battle against the Great Horde

On the western border, in relations with the Polish-Lithuanian state and the Livonian Order, the Grand Duke tried to act primarily by diplomatic means, reinforcing them, if necessary, with short-term military actions. Other - on the southern border. To ensure its safety from the Great Horde, and even more so to achieve the final liberation from the Horde yoke, it was possible only by military means, diplomacy should only provide the most favorable conditions for a decisive strike. And in this case, the “sovereign of all Russia”, contrary to popular belief, himself led the military operations.

The battle with the Horde in 1472 near Aleksin is one of the heroic episodes of our military history. It seemed that Aleksin - a small town on the high right bank of the Oka (that is, not even covered by a water barrier from attack from the steppe!) - could not offer serious resistance to the khan's horde of many thousands. According to the chronicler, “there were few people in it, there were no city outbuildings, no cannons, no squeakers, no self-arrows.” However, the townspeople beat off the first attack of the Horde. The next day, the Horde “packs approach the city with many forces, and set it on fire with fire, and that people were in it, everything was burnt out, and those who ran out of the fire, those were taken out.”

The sacrifices of the heroic defenders of Aleksin were not in vain, they won the main thing from the enemy - time. While the Horde stormed the wooden walls of the city, the opposite bank of the Oka, which had not yet been occupied by them, ceased to be a deserted place, as it had been the day before. Covering the fords across the Oka, the governors Pyotr Fedorovich and Semyon Beklemishev stood there. True, while they were “with very small people”, but other grand ducal regiments hurried to the rescue. According to the chronicler, the Horde “wandered along the bank to the Otsa with great force and rushed all into the river, although there was no army in that place to climb over to our side, but only Pyotr Fedorovich and Semyon Beklemishov stood here with small people. They began to shoot with them and fought a lot with them, they already had few arrows, and they thought to run away, and at that time Prince Vasilei Mikhailovich came to them with his regiment, and therefore came half a dozen to Prince Yuryeva Vasilyevich, in the same an hour after them, and Prince Yurya himself came, and the Christians began to overcome tacos.

Poltsi of the Grand Duke and all the princes came to the shore, and there was a great multitude of them. And behold, the king himself (Ahmed Khan) came to the shore and saw many regiments of the Grand Duke, like the sea oscillating, armor on them byakhu are clean velmi, like shining silver, and armament is green, and they began to retreat from the shore little by little, in the night that fear and trembling attacked him, and run away ... ”. The rapid maneuver of the Russian troops and the concentration of significant forces on crossings across the river near Aleksin were unexpected for the Horde and decided the outcome of the war. It is noteworthy that the Russian regiments appeared here a day after the first attack of the Horde against Aleksin, although the main forces of the Grand Duke's army initially stood quite far: along the banks of the Oka from Kolomna to Serpukhov. Apparently, the advance of the Horde to Aleksin was constantly recorded by Russian intelligence officers, and the governors moved along the other bank of the Oka parallel to the Horde in order to cover any place convenient for crossing. Such a coordinated movement of a large army is impossible without the skillful general leadership of Grand Duke Ivan III and his military advisers who were in Kolomna. By the way, Ivan III himself returned to Moscow only “on the 23rd day of August”.

The military defeat of Ahmed Khan in 1472 (the fact that this was precisely a defeat, despite the absence of a general battle, is beyond doubt: none of the goals of the Khan’s campaign was achieved, the Horde suffered significant losses and hastily retreated!) Had far-reaching consequences . The political authority of the khan fell significantly, his power over Russia became purely nominal. Soon Ivan III refused to pay tribute to the Horde at all. Only through a great war, and always with a decisive outcome, Akhmat Khan could hope to restore his power over the recalcitrant Russian lands. A military clash between the Horde and Russia became inevitable. Both sides were preparing for war, looking for allies.

In 1480, the Russian lands finally freed themselves from the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

From 1476, Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Horde. Horde Khan Akhmat decided to again force Russia to submit to the Mongol-Tatars and in the summer of 1480 set off on a campaign, having previously agreed with the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir IV on joint actions against Ivan III. The Horde managed to agree on a joint action against Russia with King Casimir IV, enlisted the support of the Livonian Order. From the autumn of 1479, the Livonian troops began to converge on the Russian border, and, according to the testimony of the Livonian chronicler, the master of the order von der Borch “gathered such a force against the Russian people that no master had ever gathered before him or after.”

But Ivan III managed to destroy their plans, he managed to attract to his side the enemy of the Golden Horde, the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray, who attacked the southern territories of Poland and thus thwarted the plan of Casimir IV and Khan Akhmat.

In 1480, when Ahmed Khan moved to Russia, the Livonians repeatedly attacked the Pskov lands, diverting part of the Russian regiments from the defense of the southern border. According to the Soviet historian K.V. Bazilevich, the author of a well-known work on Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 15th century, in the fall of 1480, Ivan III faced a formalized or unformed coalition of enemies: the Order, which acted in alliance with the German cities in Livonia and Estonia (Riga , Revel, Dorpat), King Casimir IV, who had the opportunity to dispose of the Polish-Lithuanian forces, and Ahmed Khan, who rose with his Great Horde.

Grand Duke Ivan III could oppose this coalition only with an alliance with the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray, using the contradictions between the Crimea and the Great Horde. After many years of difficult negotiations, the union treaty was signed on the very eve of the invasion. The Crimean Khan undertook: “And Akhmat the king will go against you, and I, Menli-Girey the king, go against Akhmat the king or let my brother go with my people. Also against the king, against the voice of our enemy, be one with you.” This was a great success for Russian diplomacy, but, as subsequent events showed, the military significance of the alliance with the Crimea was negligible. Russia had to repel the Horde invasion on its own.

In historical literature, the war with the Great Horde in 1480 sometimes comes down to “standing on the Ugra”, after which, with the onset of winter, Ahmed Khan simply took his hordes back to the steppes. In fact, these were large-scale military events in which the strategic plans of two military leaders collided: the Khan of the Great Horde and the “sovereign of all Russia”. I would like to talk about these events in more detail - they are interesting in themselves and indicative of understanding the features of Russian military art of the era of the formation of the Russian state.

Ahmed Khan began direct preparations for the invasion of Russia in the winter of 1480. Soon this became known in Moscow. According to the testimony of the Moscow chronicler, in mid-February, “the presence of the godless Tsar Akhmut the Great Hordes was already heard in Russia.” In April, the chronicler wrote more specifically about the danger of the great Horde campaign, and emphasized the far-reaching political goals of the khan: “The evil-named Tsar Akhmat of the Great Horde went to Russia, boasting of devastating and capturing everything, and the Grand Duke himself, as if under Batu Besh.” Then, in the spring, Ivan III took the first measures to defend the southern border, "let your governor go to the shore against the Tatars." The precaution was not superfluous. A Horde reconnaissance detachment appeared on the right bank of the Oka. Having made sure that the “shore” was already covered by the Moscow regiments, the Horde “captured Besputa and went away.” Apparently, Ivan III correctly assessed this raid as a deep reconnaissance on the eve of a large invasion, and began to gather troops in advance. In any case, in further chronicles about the events of 1480 there is no mention of either the dispatch of messengers to different cities, or the gathering of troops in Moscow. The Horde was expected, and the troops were already assembled to repulse the conquerors.

What was Akhmat Khan's strategic plan? He made the main bet on a joint performance with King Casimir IV. Therefore, at the first stage of the war, the main goal of the Horde was to unite with the Polish-Lithuanian army. This could be done somewhere near the Lithuanian borders, and Akhmat Khan “sent packs to the king to unite on the borders”. The Russian chronicler specified the time and place of the meeting of the Horde and the royal troops: “in the fall to the mouth of the Ugra”.

The strategic plan of Grand Duke Ivan III provided for the simultaneous solution of several complex and different military tasks, which together were to provide superiority over both Akhmat Khan and his ally, King Casimir IV.

First of all, it became necessary to reliably cover the direct path to Moscow with troops, for which significant forces were concentrated on the traditional defensive line of the “shore” of the Oka in the spring. These measures were necessary, because initially Ahmed Khan moved with his horde to the upper reaches of the Don, from where you can go straight to the Oka and turn to the Lithuanian line. It was necessary to reckon with both possibilities - it was impossible to predict exactly where the Horde would go, at least at this stage of the campaign. Moreover, Ahmed Khan himself, perhaps, allowed a breakthrough right through the crossings on the Oka, if they suddenly turned out to be insufficiently protected.

It was also necessary to think about organizing the defense of Moscow and other cities in case of an unexpected breakthrough by the Horde - such a turn of events could not be ruled out either.

It was necessary to somehow weaken the main blow of Ahmed Khan, to force him to split his forces. This could be achieved by organizing diversionary strikes against the Horde in secondary directions - a tactic that Ivan III used so successfully in the war with the Novgorod feudal republic.

In addition, it was necessary to somehow prevent King Casimir IV from providing effective assistance to his ally. An attack on the possessions of the king of the Crimean Khan, with whom Ivan III was connected by a military alliance, could pull the royal army away from the Russian borders. The armed uprisings of the Russian princes, vassals of the king, whose destinies were located in the western Russian lands temporarily occupied by Lithuania, could also tie the hands of Casimir IV.

Finally, it was necessary simply to gain time in order to overcome the internal political crisis in Russia, caused by the rebellion of the brothers of the Grand Duke - Andrei the Great and Boris. It was necessary not only to make peace with them, but also to involve the regiments of these specific princes in military operations against the khan. Internal turmoil often distracted Ivan III from the direct leadership of military operations, forced him to “move off” to the capital to negotiate with the rebellious brothers.

Circumstances dictated a wait-and-see tactic, and it was this tactic that was eventually adopted. Immediate offensive action would play into the hands of the enemy.

In Moscow, information was received about the approach of Akhmat Khan to the upper reaches of the Don, and “Prince Veliki Ivan Vasilievich, hearing that, went against him to Kolomna in the month of June on the 23rd day, and stood there until cover (until October 1). Thus, a strategic reserve was put forward to the “shore”, and the Grand Duke himself arrived for the general leadership of the defense.

At the same time, a raid of the Russian "ship's army" began along the Volga, "under the uluses of the Horde", under the command of the voivode Prince Vasily Zvenigorodsky and the Tatar "service prince" Udovlet (Nurdovlet).

Meanwhile, the direction of the main attack of the Horde finally became clear: “Tsar Akhmat went to the Lithuanian land, although bypassing the Ugra”. The war entered the next stage, which required a new regrouping of Russian troops, which was done by Grand Duke Ivan III. Regiments from Serpukhov and Tarusa were transferred further west, to the city of Kaluga and directly to the “bank” of the Ugra River. The main forces, led by the son of the Grand Duke, were ordered to stand in Kaluga, “at the mouth of the Ugra”, the rest of the regiments were to take up positions up the river. The “shore” of the Ugra became that defensive line on which it was supposed to stop the Horde.

To get ahead of Akhmat Khan, to be in time for the river, to occupy and strengthen all the places convenient for crossing, fords and "stiles" - that's what the Grand Duke was most concerned about. Grand princely governors managed to do it!

Now Ivan III's "Kolomenskoye seat" has lost its meaning, and on October 1 he returned to Moscow for negotiations with the rebellious brothers. As the chronicler reports, “at that time, his brothers, princes Ondreev and princes Borisov, came to Moscow, about the world. The prince, on the other hand, favored the great brothers, let the ambassadors go, and ordered them to come to him in the borze. Ivan III, thus, made good use of the respite, which gave him the slowness of Ahmed Khan and his bypass movement through the Lithuanian possessions, and eliminated the internal conflict: the regiments of the Grand Duke's brothers were to reinforce the Grand Duke's army.

Another purpose of the trip to Moscow was, apparently, the organization of the defense of the capital. The Grand Duke “having strengthened the city, and Metropolitan Gerontei sat in the siege in the city of Moscow, and the Grand Duchess Monk Martha, and Prince Mikhail Andreevich, and the governor of Moscow, Ivan Yuryevich, and a lot of people from many cities.” There was now no need to worry about Moscow, and on October 3, Ivan III went to the army.

The Grand Duke was located in Kremenets (the village of Kremeietskoye, between Medyn and Borovsk), about five to ten kilometers behind the Russian regiments defending the banks of the Ugra River. The choice of this particular place for his own and the general reserve of stay testifies to Ivan III's correct assessment of the general strategic situation, and his readiness, if necessary, to actively intervene in hostilities.

Historians have repeatedly drawn attention to the benefits of the Kremenets position. The Polish historian F. Pape wrote that the position of Ivan III himself under the “Kremenets village” was excellent, because it not only served as a reserve, but also shielded Moscow from Lithuania.

The main grouping of Russian troops, led by Prince Ivan Ivanovich the Less, was concentrated in the Kaluga region and covered the mouth of the Ugra. As subsequent events showed, the Russian governors correctly assessed the situation and covered the most dangerous place with their main forces: it was here that the general battle took place.

Other Russian regiments, according to the chronicler, “a hundred along the Oka and along the Ugra for 60 versts”, along the Ugra itself from Kaluga to Yukhnov. Further up the Ugra there were already Lithuanian possessions, and the governors did not go there. On this sixty-verst space, the famous “standing on the Ugra” took place. The main task of the “coastal governors” was to prevent the Horde cavalry from breaking through the river, for which it was necessary to protect all places convenient for crossing. The chronicler directly points to this: “the governors came to the stash on the Ugra, and fords and stiles were taken away.”

For the first time in Russian military history, a significant role in repelling the Horde was assigned to firearms, as evidenced by the miniatures of the chronicle “Face Code” (that is, an illustrated chronicle) dedicated to “standing on the Ugra”. They depict cannons and squeakers opposed to the Horde bows. The Vologda-Perm chronicle also names “mattresses” as part of the “attire” on the Ugra River. The “mattresses” put up in advance on the “climbings” across the river were a formidable weapon at that time. Sufficient distribution was also received by hand firearms - “hands”, they were even in service with the noble cavalry. The Russian army also included numerous detachments of “pishchalniks”, which were previously used to “protect” the fords across the border rivers.

The choice of the main defensive position along the Ugra River could be determined not only by its advantageous strategic position, but also by the desire to effectively use the “outfit” and fundamentally new types of troops - “pishchalnikov” and “fiery archers”. The “outfit”, which did not yet have sufficient maneuverability, was beneficial to use not in fleeting field battles, but in positional warfare, placing guns, heavy squeaks and “mattresses” on the fords through the Ugra. Here the Horde cavalry, deprived of freedom of maneuver, was forced to advance directly on the cannons and squeaks of the Russian troops. Ivan III, thus, imposed his strategic initiative on Akhmat Khan, forced him to start the battle in conditions unfavorable for the Horde, and made the most of his superiority in firearms.

The same considerations dictated the need for strictly defensive actions. During offensive operations beyond the Ugra, the Russian army lost its most important advantage - “fiery battle”, because the “handguns” that could be taken with them did not at all compensate for the absence of a heavy “outfit”.

When organizing the defense of the Ugra, the Grand Duke showed himself to be a skilled military leader, who managed to make the most of the strengths of his troops and, at the same time, create a situation in which the advantages of the Horde could not be fully manifested. For flank and detour maneuvers, the Horde cavalry did not have enough space, which forced them to “direct battle” at the crossings across the Ugra. In this kind of hostilities, the Russian army was stronger not only because it had firearms - the defensive weapons of the Russian soldiers were much better, and this provided them with an advantage in hand-to-hand combat. The frontal attack on cannons and mattresses, on the close formation of Russian soldiers dressed in strong armor turned out to be disastrous for the Horde, they suffered huge losses and did not succeed.

If the expression is true that a true commander wins a battle before it begins, then the Grand Duke once again confirmed this by choosing the most advantageous method of action for the Russian army and forcing the Horde to “direct battle”. Nevertheless, the creation of favorable conditions for victory is not the victory itself. Victory was to be won in fierce battles.

The army of the Russian state turned out to be just such an army, and the Russian people - such a people who were able to wage a defensive war and defeat their eternal enemy - the Horde Khan. In a difficult international and domestic situation, Grand Duke Ivan III adopted the most reliable defensive war plan in this situation. Accepted, consistently carried out and achieved victory with minimal losses.

But when the situation required it, the Grand Duke turned to active offensive operations, preferring just such tactics.

Thus, as a result of the successful military and political activities of Ivan III, the Horde yoke, which had weighed over Russian lands for more than two centuries, was overthrown. Russia began a successful struggle for the return of the Western Russian lands seized by the Lithuanian feudal lords, dealt serious blows to its eternal enemies - the Livonian crusader knights. Kazan Khan actually became a vassal of the Grand Duke of Moscow.

Karl Marx highly appreciated the state and military activities of Ivan III: “At the beginning of his reign, Ivan III was still a tributary of the Tatars; his power was still contested by other specific princes; Novgorod ... dominated the north of Russia; Poland, Lithuania sought to conquer Moscow, but the Livonian knights were still not crushed.

By the end of his reign, Ivan III becomes a completely independent sovereign. Kazan lies at his feet, and the remnants of the Golden Horde tend to his court. Novgorod and other governments of the people are brought to obedience. Lithuania is damaged, and its Grand Duke is a toy in the hands of Ivan. The Livonian Knights are defeated.

Amazed Europe, which at the beginning of the reign of Ivan III hardly suspected the existence of the Muscovite state, squeezed between Lithuanians and Tatars, was suddenly taken aback by the sudden appearance of a colossal empire on its eastern borders. Sultan Bayazet himself, before whom Europe trembled, suddenly heard one day an arrogant speech from a Muscovite.

It is clear that to achieve all this, huge military efforts were required, a whole series of victorious wars with the Horde, Livonian and Swedish knights, Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords, and their own specific princes. Large campaigns of the Grand Duke's regiments and swift raids of cavalry, sieges and assaults on fortresses, stubborn field battles and fleeting border skirmishes - this is what the pages of Russian annals of the second half of the 15th-early 16th centuries are filled with. The situation of military alarm was everyday life, service people almost did not get off their horses.

It would seem that the ruler of the state, the “sovereign of all Russia” Ivan III Vasilyevich, must constantly be on campaigns, lead regiments in large battles, and lead the siege of enemy cities. In reality, this did not happen. The German ambassador Sigismund Herberstein wrote with surprise: “Personally, he was present only once at the war, namely, when the principalities of Novgorod and Tver were captured; at other times, he usually never went into battle and yet always won a victory, so that the great Stephen, the famous palatine of Moldavia, often remembered him at feasts, saying that he, sitting at home and indulging in sleep, multiplies his power, and he he himself, fighting daily, is barely able to defend his borders.

Why, the foreigner, the German ambassador, did not understand this, and some of the compatriots, contemporaries of the first “sovereign of all Russia!” According to the tradition that has developed over the centuries, the idol of the commander was the prince-knight, who personally led the regiments into battle, like Alexander Nevsky, or even fought with a sword in the battle formation of ordinary warriors, “at the first mortar”, like Prince Dmitry Donskoy in the Battle of Kulikovo. Grand Duke Ivan III did not take personal part in the battles, often during the war he generally remained in the capital or in some other strategically important city. This gave his political opponents a reason to reproach the Grand Duke for indecision and even doubt his personal courage - unfortunately, some historians repeated these reproaches, presenting Ivan III only as a statesman and a skilled diplomat.

Transformations of Ivan III in the Russian army

Ivan III cannot be approached with the standards of a “specific period”, when the princes went into battle with their “court” and squads of “assist princes”, only with their authority ensuring the unity of action and leadership of the battle. At the turn of the 16th and 16th centuries, what the famous military historian A.N. Kirpichnikov calls a sharp break in the traditional weapon system and battle tactics took place. The essence of this breakup was the transition from feudal militias to an all-Russian army.

The basis of the army was now made up of the "sovereign's servants", the noble local cavalry, united in regiments under the command of the grand ducal governors. All appointments were carefully recorded in the category books, the goals of the campaign were also indicated there. The noble cavalry had good defensive weapons (“plank armor”), sabers convenient for hand-to-hand combat, even light firearms - “handguns”.

New for the Middle Ages military formations appeared - detachments of “fiery archers”, or “piskalnikov”, and “outfit” (artillery). "Pishchalniki" were recruited from the townspeople and were also placed under the command of the grand ducal governors. Infantry, armed with handguns, was already enough. For example, Novgorod and Pskov were obliged to put up, by order of the Grand Duke, one thousand “pischalnikov” each. From the rural population, the "farm army" was recruited into the infantry.

A clear system for collecting military people was developed. The entire military organization has become immeasurably more complex. Under these conditions, the direct conduct of hostilities was entrusted to the grand ducal governors, who practically embodied the strategic and tactical plans developed by Grand Duke Ivan III and his military advisers.

Before the campaign, the “big governors” were given a “mandate”, a detailed instruction, where the regimental governors were listed by name, it was indicated where and how to place the regiments, how to organize their interaction, what to do in a particular situation. Here, for example, what kind of “instruction” was given to the “Ugric governors” (that is, governors sent with regiments to defend the “bank” of the Ugra border river from the Horde): “... Divide pishchalnikov and field people to Prince Mikhail Ivanovich Bulgakov and horseman Ivan Andreevich on the shelves, where it is more convenient to be on the shore. And they should place the governor along the coast, up the Ugra and down the Ugra, and to the mouth, in all places where it is convenient. And if it would be more convenient, after looking at the case, separating the voivode with people from himself, send for the Ugra, and then order them to go for the Ugra - Prince Ivan Mikhailovich Vorotynsky and roundabout Peter Yakovlev, yes Prince Fyodor Pronsky, yes Prince Andrei Kurbsky, yes Alyoshka Kashin and others who are fit, and send people with them from all the regiments, as much as is fit. And looking at the case, it will be more convenient for them all to go beyond the Ugra with people, and then they will leave Prince Timofey Trostensky and Prince Andrey Obolensky, and Prince Semyon Romanovich Mezetsky on the Ugra, and they will leave the people of the boyars not much, and the pishchalniks, and the field workers people...” It would seem that in the “mandate” everything is clearly described and provided for, but its drafters did not at all fetter the independence and initiative of the voivods, on the contrary, they constantly emphasized that regiments should be placed “where it is more convenient”, act “having looked at the case”. Full confidence in the governors, encouragement of independent, active actions within the framework of the general defense plan!

Of course, this is no coincidence. The Russian army of the era of the formation of the Russian state, national in composition (foreign mercenaries prevailed in the armies of Western European states at that time), solving deeply national tasks of defending the Fatherland from external enemies and returning the Russian lands previously captured by neighbors, put forward many capable commanders, in loyalty and military whose abilities the “sovereign of all Russia” could be sure of. This made the personal presence of Ivan III in the theater of operations optional. And it is natural that he acts primarily as the military leader of a vast country, entrusting his governors with the conduct of individual operations or even an entire military campaign. As supreme commander, Ivan III had to cover the entire country with his leadership, and it was often more convenient to do this from the capital than from some border town. In addition, in connection with the entry of the Russian state into the world arena, the importance of diplomatic preparation for war has increased. The creation of a favorable foreign policy situation required constant concern on the part of the ruler of the state, and this was sometimes more important than direct participation in hostilities. The care of the Grand Duke was also what military historians call the political support of the war. It should not be forgotten that centralization had just begun, remnants of feudal fragmentation remained in the country, and internal unity was the decisive condition for victory over external enemies. And this internal cohesion was supposed to be ensured by the “sovereign of all Russia”, and there were moments when purely military affairs seemed to be relegated to the background.

Apparently, this is why many historians represent Ivan III only as an outstanding statesman and diplomat. In fact, he was also an outstanding military figure in Russia, who left a noticeable mark on the development of military art.

According to historians, Grand Duke Ivan III personally attended the war only once - during the annexation of Novgorod land. But it is precisely in this campaign of 1471 that many features of the military art of Ivan III can be traced.

Sovereign Ivan III as a politician and improver of Russian legislation

Ivan III married a second marriage to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleolog. This marriage had the significance of a political demonstration - the heiress of the fallen Byzantine house transferred his sovereign rights to Moscow. After the final fall of the yoke in 1480, Ivan III enters the international arena with the title of Sovereign of All Russia, which was formally recognized by Lithuania in the treaty of 1494. In relations with less significant foreign rulers, Ivan III calls himself tsar, which at that time meant ruler, who pays tribute to no one. From the end of the 10th century the Byzantine double-headed eagle appears on the seals of the Moscow prince, and in the annals of that time a new genealogy of Russian princes is recorded, dating back to the Roman emperors. Later, under Ivan II, the idea will arise that Moscow is the Third Rome.

The unification of the country set the task of codifying legislation, because in a single state there should be uniform legal norms. This problem was solved by the adoption of the Sudebnik in 1497.

Sudebnik 1497

The manuscript of the Sudebnik was found in one copy in 1817 and was first published in 1819. Prior to this discovery, researchers were familiar with the Code only from extracts from it translated into Latin in Herberstein's book “Comments on Muscovite Affairs”. The text does not have article-by-article numbering, the material is divided using headings and initials.

The Sudebnik of 1497, in its content, is aimed at eliminating the remnants of feudal fragmentation, at creating a central and local apparatus of power, developing norms of criminal and civil law, the judiciary and legal proceedings. The class orientation of the Sudebnik is also obvious. In this regard, of particular interest is the article establishing St. George's Day - the only period of the peasant transition allowed in the year.

A large place is occupied in the Code of Laws by the norms governing the court and the process. Given the importance of this monument of law, these norms will be considered in sufficient detail.

The Code of Law established the following types of judicial bodies: state, spiritual, patrimonial and landlord.

State judicial bodies were divided into central and local. The central state judicial bodies were the Grand Duke, the Boyar Duma, worthy boyars, officials in charge of certain branches of palace administration, and orders.

The central judiciary was the highest authority for the court of governors and volostels. Cases could move from a lower instance to a higher one on the report of the lower court or on the complaint of a party (goal).

The Grand Duke considered cases as a court of first instance in relation to the inhabitants of his domain, especially important cases or cases committed by persons who had the privilege of being judged by the prince, which usually included holders of tarkhan letters and service people (starting with the rank of stolnik), as well as cases filed personally in the name of the Grand Duke.

In addition, the prince considered cases sent to him “on a report” from a lower court for approval or cancellation of a court decision, and was also the highest appellate instance for cases decided by lower courts, carrying out the so-called “retrial”. Along with the independent consideration of cases, the Grand Duke could entrust the analysis of the case to various judicial bodies or persons specially appointed by the prince - worthy boyars and other officials who were in charge of certain branches of palace administration.

The link between the court of the Grand Duke and the rest of the courts was the Boyar Duma. The Boyar Duma consisted of "introduced boyars" - people introduced into the palace of the Grand Duke as permanent assistants in administration, former specific princes elevated to the rank of Duma boyar, and okolnichy - persons who held the highest court position. The issues of court and administration were in charge of the highest ranks of the Boyar Duma - the boyars and okolnichy. However, the nobility, seeking to limit the rights of the boyars, ensured that legal proceedings were carried out in the presence of their representatives - clerks.



Activities:

1) Unification of Russian lands under the rule of Moscow

During the reign of Ivan III, there was a significant territorial growth of the state, which received its modern name - Russia. In 1463, the territory of the Yaroslavl principality was annexed, in 1474 - Rostov, in 1472 - Dmitrov, in 1478 - Veliky Novgorod, in 1481 - Vologda, in 1485 - Tver, in 1491 - Uglich.

2) Codification of laws

In 1497, all the laws of the state were brought together, a single set of laws was created - the Sudebnik. The document for the first time sounded the provision on St. George's Day (November 26), which suggested the restriction of peasant freedom and the possibility of transferring one land owner to another a week before and a week after St. George's Day with the payment of an elderly (transition fee).

3) Strengthening the state, creating new authorities

The Palace was created (headed by the butler, initially in charge of the lands of the Grand Duke - the palace) and the Treasury (headed by the treasurer, controlled the collection of taxes and the collection of customs duties; the state seal and the state archive were kept in the Treasury; the Treasury also dealt with foreign policy issues).

4) The liberation of Russia from the Horde dependence

In 1472 (1473) Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Great Horde. Khan Akhmat, in response to these actions, decided to punish the recalcitrant prince, to repeat the "Batu invasion" of Russia. On October 8, 1480, the enemy troops met on the banks of the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka River). The “standing on the Ugra” began, it lasted until November 11, 1480. The troops of Khan Akhmat turned back. Thus, this symbolized the rejection of military confrontation with Russia and the acquisition of the last complete independence.

5) Development of architecture

Already in 1462, construction began in the Kremlin: repairs were begun on the walls that needed to be repaired. In the future, large-scale construction in the Grand Duke's residence continued: in 1472, at the direction of Ivan III, on the site of a dilapidated cathedral built in 1326-1327 under Ivan Kalita , it was decided to build a new Assumption Cathedral . The construction was entrusted to Moscow craftsmen; however, when there was very little left before the completion of the work, the cathedral collapsed. In 1475 he was invited to Russia Aristotle Fioravanti who immediately got down to business. The remains of the walls were demolished, and a temple was built in their place, which invariably aroused the admiration of contemporaries. On August 12, 1479, the new cathedral was consecrated. From 1485, intensive construction began in the Kremlin, which did not stop throughout the life of the Grand Duke. Instead of the old wooden and white stone fortifications, brick ones were built; by 1515 Italian architectsPietro Antonio Solari, Marco Ruffo , as well as a number of others, turned the Kremlin into one of the strongest fortresses of that time. Construction continued inside the walls: in 1489, Pskov craftsmen built Annunciation Cathedral, in 1491 Faceted Chamber . In total, according to chronicles, about 25 churches were built in the capital in 1479-1505. Large-scale construction (primarily of a defensive orientation) was also carried out in other parts of the country: for example, in the years 1490-1500 it was rebuilt novgorod kremlin . Fortifications were also renovated. Pskov, Staraya Ladoga, Pit, Orekhovo, Nizhny Novgorod (since 1500); in 1485 and 1492, large-scale work was carried out to strengthen Vladimir.