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English transcription

Pronunciation of English sounds.

Pronunciation of English vowels.

The pronunciation of English sounds is represented by Russian letters, you should understand that it is not possible to convey the correct English pronunciation using the Russian alphabet.

• ɑː long, deep a
• ʌ short vowel a, as in the Russian word to run.
• ɒ = ɔ - short, open about
• ɔː - long o
• зː - long vowel ё, as in the Russian word hedgehog.
• æ - open e
• e - like e in the word these
• ə - unclear unstressed sound, similar to e
• iː - long and
• ɪ - short, open and
• ʊ \u003d u - short u, pronounced with a slight rounding of the lips.
• uː - long y pronounced without much rounding of the lips.

Two-vowel sounds

Pronunciation of English consonants.

• p - p
• b - b
• m - m
• f - f
• v - in
• s - with
• z - z
• t - resembles a Russian sound tpronounced with the tongue positioned at the gums.
• d - resembles a Russian sound dpronounced with the tongue positioned at the gums.
• n - resembles a Russian sound npronounced with the tongue positioned at the gums.
• l - resembles a Russian sound l, pronounced with the tongue positioned at the gums.
• r is a very hard sound pronounced without vibration of the tongue. Corresponds to the sound p in the word lot
• ʃ - soft Russian sh
• ʒ - soft Russian zh, as in the word yeast.
• tʃ- h
• ʤ - similar to the Russian sound j (voiced h)
• k - k
• h - breath, reminiscent of a weakly pronounced sound x
• ju - long yu in the word southern
• je - the sound e in the word spruce
• jɔ - sound ё in the word Christmas tree
• jʌ - sound i in the word pit
• j - resembles the Russian sound й before vowels. Occurs in combination with vowels.

English consonants that do not have approximate equivalents in Russianː

• w - formed with rounded lips (as in a whistle). It looks like a sound delivered with only lips. In translation, it is denoted by letters in or y ː W illiams - Williams, Williams.
• ƞ - Open your mouth and say n without closing your mouth.
• ɵ - Move the slightly flattened tip of the tongue between the teeth and pronounce Russian with
• ð - Push the slightly flattened tip of the tongue between the teeth and say Russian

The sounds that represent are 44 English phonemes, which are divided into two categories: consonants and vowels. Since sounds cannot be written down, graphemes (letters or combinations of letters) are used to convey sounds in writing.

English alphabet

There are 26 letters in English. The standard one starts with the letter a and ends with the letter z.

When classifying alphabetic characters, they distinguish:

• 5 pure vowels: a, e, i, o, u;
• 19 pure consonants: b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z;
• 2 semivowels: y, w.

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Features of English consonants

A consonant combination is a set of two or three consonant letters that retain their original sound when pronounced. Such sets occur either at the beginning or at the end of a word. For example, the word brave, in which both "b" and "r" are pronounced, is the initial combination. In the word bank "-nk" is the final combination.

Classification:

1. Initial combinations are classified into sets with "l", "r", and "s". In "l" the combination ends with "l". An example would be the letters "bl" in the word blind. Similarly, the final sound in "r" in combination with "r" when "br" and "cr", for example, in the words bridge, crane. On the contrary, in "s" it starts with s, "st" and "sn" - stap, snail.
2. The final combinations are grouped into sets with "s", "l" and "n": -st, -sk, -ld, -nd, -nk. Examples, first, desk, gold, sand, sink.

Digraphs

Consonant digraphs refer to a set of consonants that form one sound. Some digraphs are both at the beginning and at the end of the word - "sh", "ch" and "th". There are also strict initial and final digraphs - "kn-" and "-ck".

Examples of digraphs:

Ch-	-ch
Kn-	— ck
Ph-	-sh
Sh-	-ss
Th-	-th
wh-	-tch
Wr-

Features of digraphs:

Table of pronunciation of English consonants

b	b	bag, band, cab	bag, band, cab
d	d	dad, did, lady, odd [ɒd]	dead, did, lady, od
f	f, ph, sometimes gh	fable , fact , if [ɪf], off [ɒf], photo , glyph	fable, fact, if, of, foutow, glyph
	g	give , flag	givew, flag
	h	hold, ham	hold, ham
j	usually represented by y, but sometimes by other vowels	yellow, yes, young, neuron, cube	Yelow, ies, yang, n (b) yueron, k (b) yu: b - the sound j is similar to the vowel sound i:.
k	k, c, q, que, ck, sometimes ch	cat, kill, queen, skin, thick [θɪk], chaos	kat, kil, qui:n, sik, keyos
l	l	lane, clip, bell, milk, sould	lane, clip, bel, milk, sould - has two sound options: pure /l/ before a vowel, “darkened” /ɫ/ before a consonant or at the end of a word
m	m	man, them [ðem], moon	man, zem, mu:n
n	n	nest, sun	nest, san
ŋ	ng	ring, sing, finger [ŋ] is sometimes followed by the sound [g]. [ŋ] if "ng" is at the end of a word or a related word (sing, singer, thing), to "-ing", which translates verbs into participles or gerunds. [ŋg], if "ng" is not at the end of a word or in related words, also in comparative degrees (longer, longest).	/ring/, /sing/, /finge/
p	p	pen, spin, tip, happy	pen, spin, type, happy
r	r	rat, reply, rainbow,	rat, ripple, rainbow - movement of the tongue close to the alveolar ridge, but without touching it
s	s, sometimes c	see, city, pass, lesson	si:, pa: s, forest
ʃ	sh, si, ti, sometimes s	she [ʃi:], crash , sheep [ʃi:p], sure [ʃʊə], session , emotion [ɪməʊʃn], leash	shi:, crash, shi:p, shue, session, imashn, li:sh
t	t	taste, sting	test, sting
tʃ	ch, sometimes t	chair [ʧɛə], nature teach beach	t che e, ney t che, ti: t h, bi: t h
θ	th	thing [θɪŋ], teeth, Athens [æθɪnz[	t sing, ti: t s, et sinz - voiceless fricative
ð	th	this [ðɪs], mother	d sis, ma d ze - voiced fricative
v	v, sometimes f	voice, five, of [ɔv]	voice, five, ov
w	w, sometimes u	wet, window, queen	y in em, y in indeu, ku in i: n - [w] is similar to
z	z	zoo, lazy	zu: lazy
ʒ	g, si, z, sometimes s	genre [ʒɑːŋr], pleasure, beige, seizure, vision	genre e, plezhe, beizh, b:zhe, vision
dʒ	j, sometimes g, dg, d	gin [ʤɪn], joy [ʤɔɪ], edge	gin, joy, edge

English vowels

Each English vowel is pronounced in three ways:

1. like a long sound;
2. like a short sound;
3. as a neutral vowel (schwa).

In the English alphabet, there are 5 vowels, but sometimes y becomes a vowel and is pronounced like i, and w replaces u, for example, in the digraph ow.

Rules for reading vowels

Short vowels, which are characterized by a "short" sound, appear when there is one vowel in a word, either at the beginning of a word or between two consonants. For example, if, elk, hop, fan. A typical short vowel pattern is consonant+vowel+consonant (CHS).

Words are taught as families that represent groups of words with a common pattern, such as in the pattern "-ag" - bag, wag, tag or "-at" - cat, bat, hat.

vowels:

Sound	Letter	Examples
[æ]	a	rag, sag, ram, jam, gap, sap mat
[ɛ]	e	hen, pen, wet, bet, let
[ɪ]	i	pig, wig, dig, pin, win, tin, tin, bit
[ɒ]	o	hop, pop, top, hot, pot, lot
[ʌ]	u	bug, lug, tug, hut, but, cut

vowels:

Sound	Writing	Examples
A	ai, ay, a+consonant+e	name, mail, gray, ace
E	e, ee, ea, y, ie ,ei, i+consonant+e	he, deep, beast, dandy, thief, receive, elite
I	i, i+gn, igh, y, i+ld, i+nd	mine, sign, high, sky, wild, kind
O	o+consonant +e, oa, ow, o+ll, ld	tone, road, note, know, roll, bold
U	ew, ue, u+consonant+e	few, due, tune

The vowel sound in unstressed syllables is expressed by the abbreviated neutral sound ("schwa"), the phonemic symbol /ə/, especially if syllabic consonants are not used.

For example:

• a in about, around, approve, above [ə bʌv];
• e in accident, mother, taken, camera ;
• i c, family, lentil, officer pencil ;
• o in memory, common, freedom, purpose, London;
• u in supply, industry, suggest, difficult, succeed, minimum ;
• and even y in sibyl;
• schwa appears in function words: to, from, are.

Features of vowel sounds in English

Vowels are divided into monophthongs, diphthongs or triphthongs. A monophthong is when there is one vowel in a syllable, a diphthong is when there are two vowels in a syllable.

Let's take a closer look:

1. Monophthongs are pure and stable vowels., whose acoustic characteristics (timbre) do not change during the time they are pronounced.
2. - a sound formed by a combination of two adjacent vowels in one syllable. Technically, the tongue (or other parts of the speech apparatus) moves when a vowel is pronounced - the first position is stronger than the second. In the transcription of a diphthong, the first character is the starting point of the body of the language, the second character is the direction of movement. For example, you should know that in /aj/ the body of the tongue is in the lower center position represented by /a/ and immediately starts moving up and forward to the position for /i/.
3. Diphthongs are often formed when separate vowels work together in rapid conversation.. Usually (in the speaker's speech) the body of the tongue does not have time to get to the position /i/. Therefore, the diphthong often ends closer to /ɪ/ or even to /e/. In the diphthong /aw/, the body of the tongue moves from the lower center position /a/, then moves up and back to the position /u/. Although single diphthongs are also distinguished, which are heard as separate vowel sounds (phonemes).
4. English also has triphthongs.(combinations of three adjacent vowels), including three sound types, for example, fire /fʌɪə/, flower /flaʊər/. But in any case, all diphthongs and triphthongs are formed from monophthongs.

Table of pronunciation of simple English vowels

All vowels are formed from only 12 monophthongs. Each, regardless of spelling, is pronounced using some combination of these sounds.

The table shows examples of simple English vowels with Russian pronunciation:

[ɪ]	pit, kiss, busy	pete, kitty, beezy
[e]	egg, let, red	eg, years, red
[æ]	apple, travel, mad	apple, travel, mead
[ɒ]	not, rock, copy	music, rock, copy
[ʌ]	cup, son, money	cap, san, mani
[ʊ]	look, foot, could	bow, foot, cool
[ə]	away, away	hey, hey
	be, meet, read	bi:, mi:t, ri:d
[ɑ:]	arm, car, father	a:m, ka:, fa:dze
[ɔ:]	door, saw, pause	to:, from:, to: from
[ɜ:]	turn, girl, learn	cho:n, gyo:l, le:n
	blue, food, too	blu:, foo:d, tu:

Diphthong pronunciation table

	day, pain, rein	dei, pein, rein
	cow, know	kou, know
	wise, island	visa, island
	now, trout	naw, trout
[ɔɪ]	noise, coins	noiz, coin
[ɪə]	near, hear	nee, hie
[ɛə]	where, air	uh uh uh
[ʊə]	pure, tourist	p (b) yue, tu e rist

Learn the transcription of English words

Consider some features of English transcription:

There are a large number of videos online on the Internet to listen to, and you can also practice using exercises.

When you start learning English, the first thing you encounter is the English alphabet (english alphabet [ˈalfəbɛt]). Writing English letters is not something completely new even at the very initial stage of learning, because any modern person daily encounters English letters on a computer and telephone keyboard. Yes, and English words are found at every step: in advertising, on the labels of various goods, in shop windows.

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But while the letters seem familiar, pronouncing them correctly in English is sometimes difficult, even for those who speak English tolerably well. Everyone is familiar with the situation when you need to spell an English word - for example, to dictate an email address or a website name. This is where the wonderful names begin: i - “like a stick with a dot”, s - “like a dollar”, q - “where is the Russian th”.

English alphabet with Russian pronunciation, transcription and voice acting

The English alphabet with Russian pronunciation is only for the very beginners. In the future, when you get acquainted with the rules of reading English and learn new words, you will need to study transcription. It is used in all dictionaries, and if you know it, it will once and for all remove the problem of the correct pronunciation of new words for you. We advise at this stage to compare the transcription icons in square brackets with the Russian equivalent. Perhaps, in these short examples, you will remember some of the ratios of English and Russian sounds.

Below is a table showing the English alphabet with transcription and Russian pronunciation. Notice how the uppercase and lowercase letters look.

← Move the table to the left to view it in full

Letter

Listen

Transcription

Russian pronunciation

Below, you can listen to all the letters of the English alphabet at once:

Alphabet Trainer

Choose the letter that matches its pronunciation.

English alphabet cards

Very effective cards of the English alphabet in its study. Bright and large letters will be easier to remember. See for yourself:

Such cards can be made independently, for example, according to the above sample. Next, print, cut out the letters and arrange them in the correct sequence.

For children, on the cards of the English alphabet, you can depict animals in addition to the letters in order to immediately memorize new words, and the learning process was not boring.

Features of some letters of the English alphabet.

In the English alphabet 26 letters: 20 consonants and 6 vowels.

The vowels are A, E, I, O, U, Y.

There are a few letters in English that we want to pay special attention to because they have certain features that need to be taken into account when learning the alphabet.

• The letter Y in English can be read as a vowel and as a consonant. For example, in the word “yes” it is a consonant sound [j] (th), and in the word “many” it is a vowel sound [i] (and).
• Consonants in words, as a rule, convey only one sound. The letter X is an exception. It is transmitted immediately by two sounds - [ ks ] (ks).
• The letter Z in the alphabet is read differently in the British and American versions (as you probably already noticed in the table). The British version is (zed), the American version is (zi).
• The pronunciation of the letter R is also different. British version - (a), American version - (ar).

To make sure that you pronounce the English letters correctly, we recommend that you not only look at them and read (using transcription or the Russian version), but also listen. To do this, we advise you to find and listen to ABC-song. This song is usually used when teaching children the alphabet, but it can also be useful for adults. ABC-song is very popular in teaching, it exists in various variations. If you sing it with the announcer several times, you can not only check the correct pronunciation of the letters, but also easily remember the alphabet along with the melody.

Listen to a song about the English alphabet:

A few words about spelling

So, we learned the alphabet of the English language. We know how English letters are pronounced individually. But turning to the rules of reading, you will immediately see that many letters in different combinations are read in a completely different way. A reasonable question arises - as the cat Matroskin would say - what is the use of memorizing the alphabet? In fact, there are practical benefits.

The point here is not the ability to tell the alphabet from beginning to end, but the ability to easily spell any English word. This skill is necessary when you need to write down English names under dictation. If you need English for work, this skill can be very useful, since English names, even if they sound the same, can be spelled in several ways. For example, Ashley or Ashlee, Mila and Milla, not to mention surnames. Therefore, for the British and Americans themselves, it is considered absolutely natural to ask to spell the name if you need to write it down (spell it) - hence the word spelling, which you can see in various tutorials.

Online exercises to consolidate the alphabet

Choose the letter that goes

Write the letter that starts the word.

Write the letter that ends the word.

Decipher the code and write down the secret message in letters. The number corresponds to the order of the letter in the alphabet.

You can apply the knowledge gained in practice with the help of. With the help of unique exercises, even at the most basic level, you can master not only reading, but also writing English words, as well as learn the basic grammar rules and continue learning further.

English alphabet is the foundation of the English language. If you are just starting to learn English, then the first thing you need to do is learn the English alphabet ( english alphabet), which consists of only 26 letters. Moreover, it has only 5 letters for vowels, and 21 letters for consonants.

English alphabet with transcription and spelling with pronunciation for beginners with translation into Russian.

Vowels include the letters A, E, I, O, U;
to consonants - B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y, Z.

Note: The letter Y is also sometimes treated as a vowel.

The history of the English alphabet is very interesting. English writing appeared already in the 5th century AD. And initially, special Anglo-Saxon runes were used for recording, which were not easy to write. In connection with the arrival of Christian missionaries from the 7th century, the runes were gradually replaced by Latin letters. Also, everyone knows the special pronunciation of English letters, and therefore special transcription characters are required.
For beginners, the English alphabet with translation into Russian will be very useful.

In the table you can see both the English version of the transcription and the translation of this transcription into Russian.

We bring to your attention the alphabet of the English language with transcription and Russian pronunciation:

№	letter	transcription	Russian spelling of the name of the letter	Latin letter name
1	A a	[ei]	hey	a
2	Bb	[bi:]	bi	bee
3	c c	[si:]	si	cee
4	D d	[di:]	di	dee
5	e e	[i:]	and	e
6	F f	[ef]	ef	ef
7	G g	[dʒi:]	ji	Gee
8	H h	[eitʃ]	h	aitch
9	I i	[ai]	ah	i
10	Jj	[dʒei]	jay	Jay
11	Kk	[kei]	kay	kay
12	l l	[el]	email	el
13	M m	[em]	Em	em
14	N n	[ en ]	en	en
15	O o	[ou]	OU	o
16	Pp	[pi:]	pi	pee
17	Q q	[kju:]	cue	cue
18	R r	[a:]	a:, ar	ar
19	S s	[es]	es	ess
20	T t	[ti:]	ti	tee
21	U u	[ju:]	Yu	u
22	Vv	[vi:]	in and	vee
23	W w	[ `dʌbl `ju: ]	double	double-u
24	X x	[ex]	the ex	ex
25	Y y	[wai]	wye	wy
26	Zz	[zed]	zed, zee	zed, zee

English alphabet for children.

You can also see below the English alphabet in pictures:

English alphabet in words.

Words for each letter of the English alphabet:

a - alphabet, abc
b - backward
c - city
d - day
e-English
f-foreign
g - German
h-help
i - international
j - joke
k - kid, key
l - letter, latin
m - mother
n - number
o - order
p-pony
q-quiz
r - rhyme
s - song, sound
t - train, test
u - unit
v-video
w - work
x-xenon
y - youtube, you
z-zoo

Publication date: 02/06/2012 13:46 UTC

• Cheerful alphabet, English, Fursenko S., 2000 - If you love boxing, You will be strong, You will be brave, You will be cunning, like ... Piglet is a funny nose. The tail is curved like a question mark. … English language books
• English, Grade 11, Balko N.S., 2010 - The proposed edition contains answers to all exercises of the textbook English for Grade 11 (authors I.I. Panova, E.B. Karnevskaya, Z.D. ... English language books

Learning English begins with learning the English alphabet. The basis of the modern English alphabet used today is the Latin alphabet. Despite the fact that the English alphabet consists of only 26 letters, but in the language itself they count, according to various sources, from 44 to 49 sounds. 5 letters represent vowels and 21 letters represent consonants. Vowels: A, E, I, O, U (Y is also sometimes treated as a vowel) Consonants: B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S , T, V, W, X, Y, Z

The specificity of the English language and the English alphabet lies in the fact that there are significant differences between how the letters of the English alphabet are written and how they are read. Therefore, in order to correctly pronounce the English letters that make up words, language teaching uses Transcription, which clearly indicates how this or that letter is pronounced in a particular word.

printed symbol	handwritten font	Approximate sounding	Phonetic transcription	Listen pronunciation
A a		hey
Bb		bi
c c		si
D d		di
e e		and	[ı:]
F f		ef
G g		ji
H h		h
I i		ah
Jj		jay
Kk		Kay
l l		email
M m		Em

printed symbol	handwritten font	Approximate sounding	Phonetic transcription	Listen pronunciation
N n		en
O o		OU
Pp		pi
Q q		cue
R r		ar	[ɑ:]
S s		es
T t		ti
U u		Yu
Vv		in and
W w		double u	["dʌbljʋ:]
X x		the ex
Y y		wye
Zz		zed

History of the origin of the English language

English belongs to a large and widespread group of languages ​​called Germanic languages. This group, in turn, is included in an even larger group of languages ​​called the Indo-European languages, which, in addition to the Germanic languages, include Romance, Slavic, Baltic, Celtic, Greek, Armenian, Iranian, Indian, Hittite and some other living and now already dead languages.
Distributed in the UK, Ireland, North America, Australia, New Zealand, as well as a number of countries in Asia and Africa. Official language of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, USA, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Ireland (in Canada - along with French, in Ireland - along with Irish), one of the official languages ​​of the Republic of India (temporarily) and 15 African states ( South Africa, the Federal Republic of Nigeria, the Republic of Ghana, the Republic of Uganda, the Republic of Kenya, the United Republic of Tanzania, etc.). One of the official and working languages ​​of the UN.

The English language comes from the language of the ancient Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons and Jutes), who migrated from the continent in the 5th-6th centuries. in Celtic-populated Britain. The interaction of the tribal dialects of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, which developed under the conditions of the formation of the English people, led to the formation of territorial dialects. In the Old English period of development, the English language (7th-11th centuries; called the Anglo-Saxon language) is represented by 4 dialects; Northumbrian, Mercian, Wessex and Kentish. The decline of the northern and northeastern regions due to the raids of the Scandinavians and the strengthening of the economic and political influence of the Kingdom of Wessex in the 9th-11th centuries. led to the formation of a literary language based mainly on the Wessex dialect and the preservation of most of the monuments of Old English writing in the Wessian version.
An example is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It exists in the form of a series of parallel chronicles, starting from the 7th century. The most important is the so-called "Parker Chronicle", which was conducted until the end of the 9th century. (891) in the Wessex dialect. Monk chroniclers, whose names remain unknown, usually wrote without pretensions to artistic processing of the text; probably the language of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" is close to the spoken language of that time. By the 9th century include translations made by King Alfred: 1) "Sura Pastoralis" ("Care of the shepherd") - the work of Pope Gregory I, who lived in the VI century. The translation is preceded by a preface written by Alfred; 2) "World History" by the Spanish monk Orosius (VB.) 3) "Consolation of Philosophy" by the Roman Christian philosopher Boethius (V-VI centuries). By the X century. include the writings of Abbot Elfric (sermons, translation of The Art of Grammar, etc.); by the 11th century - Wulfstan's sermons.

Even at the end of the VI century. The Christianization of Britain began. By the end of the 7th century Christianity was established throughout the country. The introduction of Christianity played a very important role in the further state and cultural development of the Anglo-Saxon states. Christian missionaries introduced the Latin alphabet to England. Several runic signs were added to it; thus, the runic sign þ, the so-called thorn, was used to convey the sounds /θ/ and /ð/; the same sounds were transmitted by the letter ð. Libraries were created at the monasteries from the manuscripts copied by the monks, chronicles were kept. Thus, a very important fact of the cultural influence of the church was the creation of writing. From the language of the Celtic population of Britain, it is mainly place names that have survived.

The raids of the Scandinavians (from the end of the 8th century), which ended in the subjugation of England in 1016 to the Danish king, and the creation of Scandinavian settlements led to the interaction of closely related languages ​​- English and Scandinavian, which affected the presence in modern English of a significant number of words of Scandinavian origin and contributed to the strengthening of a number of grammatical tendencies in Old English.
Borrowed words cannot be reduced to any specific lexical groups; However, these are everyday words. So, modern words go back to Scandinavian borrowed words. Fellow, husband, law, wrong; to call, to take, and a number of others. In the north-eastern regions of England, Scandinavian toponymy has been preserved, usually of a complex composition with second elements of Scandinavian origin: ~ bу - sk. "village" - Whitby, Appleby.

In 1066 England underwent the Norman Conquest. The victors brought with them the French language; more precisely, its northern dialect is Norman. In the course of the next centuries after the conquests, the so-called Anglo-Norman dialect. Anglo-Norman existed in England until the end of the 14th century, after which it disappeared without a trace. Until the XIV century. it was not only the language spoken by the nobility, but also the language of fiction. Thus, three languages ​​coexisted in England: English, French (Anglo-Norman) and Latin. The English dialects spoken by the indigenous population were equal among themselves; various works were written on them, but English was not used as the state language. The language of state correspondence, laws issued by the crown, the language of communication between teachers and students at school, the language of parliamentary debates was Anglo-Norman. Latin was the language of the church and science. With the increasing assimilation of the Norman part of the population, English penetrated into those social strata where French (Anglo-Norman) had previously been the language of everyday communication. Since the middle of the XIII century. one can trace the gradual expansion of the scope of the use of English. The first public document written in English was the Proclamation of Henry III (1258). It is written in the London dialect, which at that time was closer to the southwest, although it also included elements of the east-central dialect. In the next century, in 1362, London merchants filed a petition to conduct legal proceedings in English. The petition was granted. At the same time, teaching in schools begins to be conducted in English; for the first time English began to sound occasionally in parliament, but later on English won an increasingly strong position in parliament. By the end of the XIV century. English eventually became the official language. When English begins to function as the language of state institutions, the dialect of the administrative government center, London, acquires a special position. London dialect of the early 14th century. represented by poems by Adam Davy; the second half by the works of Geoffrey Chaucer, John Gower and John Wycliffe. Since the rise of the London dialect, the rest of the territorial dialects have gradually moved to the position of unwritten dialects.
English has learned a huge number of Romance words, not only significant, but also combatant parts of speech: prepositions and conjunctions (except, because). The bulk of borrowings is attested from the middle of the 13th century to the end of the 14th century. Later, few new French words entered the language. During this period, words belonging to the most diverse lexical areas entered the English language. Especially clearly the borrowings reflect the Norman influence in those areas of life that were associated with the implementation of the government of the country: Names directly related to the life of the royal court - court, servant, prince. But the names of the king and queen remained English - king, queen. Words related to the organization of the army and military affairs - army, battle, victory. The word knight "knight" - eng. Words related to the organization of the church - religion, chapel, to confess; with the exercise of power in a feudal state - liege, vassal, government, village; with legal proceedings - justice, judge, sentence; with city life - city, merchant; with urban crafts - butcher, painter, mason, tailor. Artisans who lived and worked in the village retained their English names - blacksmith, spinner, weaver.
The Middle English period of the development of English (12th-15th centuries; sometimes called Middle English) is characterized by phonetic and grammatical changes that sharply demarcate Middle English from the Old English period. The reduction of unstressed vowels led to a significant simplification of the morphological structure, and a new system of verbal paradigms was formed on the basis of the grammatization of verb phrases.

In the 16-17 centuries. develops so-called. early modern English. Modern English has a large number of territorial dialects: in the UK - the Scottish dialect, a group of northern, central (east-central, west-central), southern and southwestern dialects; in the USA - East English, mid-Atlantic (central), southeastern, mid-western groups. The dialectal variation of the English language in the UK is much more pronounced than in the USA, where the central dialect becomes the basis of the literary norm. The phonetic structure of the English language is characterized by the presence of specific vowels, consonants, the absence of a sharp border between diphthongs and long monophthongs. Among other Germanic languages, English is distinguished by the presence of pronounced signs of an analytical structure: the main means of expressing grammatical relations are auxiliary words (prepositions, auxiliary verbs) and word order. Analytical forms are used to express some species-temporal relations, to form degrees of comparison of adjectives. Case relations are conveyed by the position of words in a sentence and by prepositional constructions. a fixed word order is one of the main means of expressing syntactic links in a sentence structure. In English, non-affix word production (conversion) is widely used. The vocabulary has a high proportion of borrowings (about 70% of the vocabulary), among which a large group is formed by words and affixes borrowed from French and Latin, and partly from Italian and Spanish. Literary English was based on the language of London, the dialect base of which at an early stage in the formation of the literary language changed due to displacement in the 2nd half of the 13th - 1st half of the 14th centuries. southern dialect forms east-central. Typography (1476) and the popularity of the works of J. Chaucer (1340-1400), who wrote in the London dialect, contributed to the consolidation and spread of London forms. However, typography recorded some traditional spellings that did not reflect the pronunciation norms of the late 15th century. The discrepancy between pronunciation and spelling, characteristic of modern English, began. With the development of the literary language, the system of functional styles expanded and became more complicated, there was a demarcation of the forms of spoken and written speech, and the codification of literary norms. An important role in the development of the literary language was played by direct and indirect linguistic contacts of the English language with other languages, associated with the spread of the English language outside of England. The latter led to the formation of variants of standard English in the USA, Canada and Australia, which differ from standard English mainly in pronunciation and vocabulary. There are discrepancies in the lexical meaning of individual words (for example, truck "truck" in the USA and "open goods platform" in England), the use of Americanisms instead of synonymous units of the British version (for example, elevator "elevator" instead of lift, sidewalk instead of pavement "sidewalk " and etc.). Similar types of specific features are also found in the Australian variant, whose distinguishing elements are less numerous. English in Canada is heavily influenced by both American and British English.