Coronation:
Predecessor:
Successor:
Religion:	Orthodoxy
Birth:
Buried:	Peter and Paul Cathedral, Petersburg
Dynasty:	Askania (by birth) / Romanovs (by marriage)
	Christian-August of Anhalt-Zerbst
	Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp
	Pavel I Petrovich
Autograph:

Origin

Domestic politics

Imperial Council and transformation of the Senate

Laid commission

Provincial reform

Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich

Economic policy

Social politics

National politics

Legislation on estates

Religious policy

Domestic political problems

Sections of the Commonwealth

Relations with Sweden

Relations with other countries

Development of culture and art

Features of personal life

Catherine in art

In literature

In fine arts

Monuments

Catherine on coins and banknotes

Interesting Facts

(Ekaterina Alekseevna; at birth Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg) - April 21 (May 2), 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace, St. Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia (1762-1796). The period of her reign is often considered the golden age of the Russian Empire.

Origin

Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dornenburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully , finished his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elizabeth, from the family of Holstein-Gottorp, was the great aunt of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) was the king of Sweden from 1751 (elected heir in 1743). The family tree of the mother of Catherine II goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The family of the Duke of Zerbst was not rich, Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dances, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. I was brought up in strictness. She grew up a frisky, inquisitive, playful and even troubled girl, she loved to play pranks and flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the streets of Stettin. Her parents did not burden her with their upbringing and did not particularly stand on ceremony when expressing their displeasure. Her mother called her as a child Fikkhen (Ger. Figchen- comes from the name Frederica, that is, "little Frederica").

In 1744, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, together with her mother, was invited to Russia for the subsequent marriage with the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter III and her second cousin. Immediately after her arrival in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, Russian traditions, as she sought to get to know Russia as fully as possible, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (Orthodoxy teacher), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (Russian language teacher) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher). She soon fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so severe that her mother offered to bring a Lutheran pastor. Sophia, however, refused and sent for Simon Todorsky. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. June 28 (July 9), 1744 Sophia Frederick Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Catherine Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth's mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was betrothed to the future emperor.

Marriage with the heir to the Russian throne

On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Peter Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. For the first years of their life together, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them. Ekaterina will write about this later:

I saw very well that the Grand Duke did not love me at all; two weeks after the wedding, he told me that he was in love with the girl Carr, the maid of honor of the Empress. He told Count Divier, his chamberlain, that there was no comparison between this girl and me. Divyer claimed otherwise, and he became angry with him; this scene took place almost in my presence, and I saw this quarrel. To tell the truth, I told myself that with this man I would certainly be very unhappy if I succumbed to the feeling of love for him, for which they paid so poorly, and that there would be something to die of jealousy without any benefit to anyone. So, out of pride, I tried to force myself not to be jealous of a person who does not love me, but in order not to be jealous of him, there was no other choice than not to love him. If he wanted to be loved, it would not be difficult for me: I was naturally inclined and accustomed to fulfill my duties, but for this I would need to have a husband with common sense, and mine did not.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horseback riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of Catherine's lovers. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the absence of children from the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, who was immediately taken away from her by the will of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, they call him Paul (future Emperor Paul I) and deprive him of the opportunity to educate, allowing only occasionally to see. A number of sources claim that the true father of Paul was Catherine's lover S. V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the "Notes" of Catherine II, but they are also often interpreted this way). Others - that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter had an operation that eliminated the defect that made it impossible to conceive. The issue of paternity aroused public interest as well.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna finally deteriorated. Peter called his wife “reserve madam” and openly made mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing this, who during this period had a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland, which arose thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Henbury Williams. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Anna, which caused great displeasure of Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I am not at all sure whether this child is from me and whether I should take it personally. At this time, the condition of Elizabeth Petrovna worsened. All this made the prospect of expelling Catherine from Russia or concluding her in a monastery real. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine's secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, devoted to political issues, was revealed. Her former favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III alienated the spouses even more. Peter III began to openly live with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Ekaterina hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigoryevich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter with the court left the palace to look at the fire; at this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexei Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Paul I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Coup June 28, 1762

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude of the officer corps towards him. So, he concluded an unfavorable treaty for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over it during the Seven Years' War and returned the lands occupied by the Russians to it. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (an ally of Russia), in order to return Schleswig, which she had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to go on a campaign at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership and shared with others plans for the reform of church rites. Supporters of the coup accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike of Russia, complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - a smart, well-read, pious and benevolent wife, who was persecuted by her husband.

After relations with her husband finally deteriorated, and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guard intensified, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, Potemkin and Khitrovo, engaged in agitation in the guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate cause of the start of the coup was the rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the disclosure and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy - Lieutenant Passek.

In the early morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the next day, was taken into custody and died in the first days of July under unclear circumstances.

After the abdication of her husband, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as the reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, issuing a manifesto in which the basis for the removal of Peter was an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To justify her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to "the desire of all Our loyal subjects is clear and not hypocritical." On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow.

The reign of Catherine II: general information

In her memoirs, Catherine described the state of Russia at the beginning of her reign as follows:

The Empress formulated the tasks facing the Russian monarch as follows:

1. It is necessary to educate the nation, which should govern.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspire respect for its neighbors.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive, without sharp fluctuations, development. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms - judicial, administrative, provincial, etc. The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of the fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million ( in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities. As Klyuchevsky wrote:

The Russian economy continued to be agrarian. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting increased by more than 2 times (in which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the XVIII century. there were 1200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663 of them). The export of Russian goods to other European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Catherine II established a loan bank and introduced paper money into circulation.

Domestic politics

Catherine's commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine's time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian expanses and the harshness of the climate determine the regularity and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the system of government was unified. Their main idea was to criticize the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and despotic forms of government.

Soon after the coup, the statesman N.I. Panin proposed the creation of an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 higher dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as the conditions of 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another project of Panin, the Senate was transformed - 15 Dec. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, the prosecutor general became the head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost its legislative initiative and became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Laid commission

An attempt was made to convene the Legislative Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs for comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% - from the townspeople, which also included the nobles, 20% - from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As the guiding document of the Commission of 1767, the empress prepared the "Instruction" - the theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Provincial reform

Nov 7 In 1775, the "Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, county, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, county (which was based on the principle of taxable population). Of the former 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which had 300-400 thousand residents. The provinces were divided into 10-12 counties, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Governor-General (governor) - kept order in local centers and 2-3 provinces, united under his authority, were subordinate to him. He had extensive administrative, financial and judicial powers, all military units and teams located in the provinces were subordinate to him.

Governor - was at the head of the province. They reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. The provincial prosecutor was subordinate to the governors. Finance in the province was handled by the Treasury, headed by the vice-governor. Land management was carried out by the provincial land surveyor. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. The Order of Public Charity was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters (social functions), as well as estate judicial institutions: the Upper Zemstvo Court for nobles, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigation between townspeople, and the Upper Reprisal for the trial of state peasants. The criminal and civil chamber judged all classes, were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.

Captain police officer - stood at the head of the county, leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. It was the executive body of the provincial government. In the counties, as in the provinces, there are estate institutions: for the nobility (county court), for the townspeople (city magistrate) and for state peasants (lower punishment). There was a county treasurer and a county surveyor. Representatives of the estates sat in the courts.

A conscientious court is called upon to stop strife and reconcile those who argue and quarrel. This court was without class. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

Since the cities - the centers of counties were clearly not enough. Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities appeared. The population of the cities began to be called philistines and merchants.

The city was brought into a separate administrative unit. At its head, instead of the governor, a mayor was appointed, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in the cities. The city was divided into parts (districts), which were supervised by a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by a quarter warden.

Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich

Carrying out the provincial reform in the Left-bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to a common administrative division for the Russian Empire into provinces and counties, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack officers with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kyuchuk-Kainarji Treaty (1774), Russia received access to the Black Sea and Crimea. In the west, the weakened Commonwealth was on the verge of partition.

Thus, the further need to maintain the presence of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks in their historical homeland for the protection of the southern Russian borders has disappeared. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, and also in connection with the support of the Pugachev uprising by the Cossacks, Catherine II ordered the Zaporizhzhya Sich to be disbanded, which was carried out on the orders of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and created the Army of the Faithful Cossacks, later the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 Catherine signs a manifesto that gives them the Kuban for perpetual use, where the Cossacks moved, having founded the city of Yekaterinodar.

The reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

The beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of the general administrative reforms of the 1970s aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine liquidated the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby starting the process of joining the Kalmyk state to Russia, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be in charge of a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs from among Russian officials were appointed. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshuts.

This decision of Catherine was preceded by a consistent policy of the empress to limit the khan's power in the Kalmyk Khanate. Thus, in the 1960s, the khanate intensified the crisis associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture land, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the interference of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsynskaya line, thousands of families of Don Cossacks began to settle in the area of ​​the main nomad camps of the Kalmyks, cities and fortresses began to be built along the entire Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, in turn, this aggravated internal relations in the khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church to Christianize the nomads, as well as the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to work. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy was ripened with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - to Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses that had wandered along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, the army was gathered on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many noyons and zaisangs, realizing the fatality of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnos lost on the way about 100,000 people killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, diseases, as well as captured, lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people.

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in the poem "Pugachev" by Sergei Yesenin.

Regional reform in Estonia and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estonia and Livonia, a special Baltic order was abolished, which provided for more extensive rights than the Russian landowners had for local nobles to work and the personality of a peasant.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

The reform was carried out by the government without taking into account the ethnic composition of the population: the territory of Mordovia was divided between 4 provinces: Penza, Simbirsk, Tambov and Nizhny Novgorod.

Economic policy

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from the authorities. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was banned so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (the state bank and the loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (since 1770, deposits were accepted for storage). A state bank was established and for the first time the issue of paper money - banknotes - was launched.

Of great importance was the state regulation of prices for salt introduced by the Empress, which was one of the most vital goods in the country. The Senate legislated the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in the regions of mass salting of fish. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine counted on increased competition and, ultimately, improving the quality of the goods.

The role of Russia in the world economy increased - Russian sailing fabric began to be exported to England in large quantities, the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (the consumption of cast iron in the domestic Russian market also increased significantly).

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced within Russia was completely prohibited. Duties from 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys ... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the cost of exported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine went through a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the amount of which by the end of the reign of the Empress exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social politics

In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on the class-lesson system. Schools began to open. Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began, in 1764 the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics office, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783.

In the provinces there were orders of public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Orphanages for homeless children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Military Academy named after Peter the Great), where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to make such an inoculation. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to take on the character of state events that were directly within the responsibilities of the Imperial Council, the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of border and port quarantines" was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on questions of medicine have been published.

National politics

After the lands that were formerly part of the Commonwealth were annexed to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews turned up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, beyond which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764 Catherine published two manifestos. The first - "On allowing all foreigners entering Russia to settle in which provinces they wish and on the rights granted to them" called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second determined the list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, allotted for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until the settlement of those who had already entered. The creation of colonies on the Volga was on the rise: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a prominent role in the life of Russia.

By 1786, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, Crimea, Right-Bank Ukraine, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

The population of Russia in 1747 was 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36 million people.

In 1726, there were 336 cities in the country, by the beginning. XIX century - 634 cities. In con. In the 18th century, about 10% of the population lived in cities. In rural areas, 54% - privately owned and 40% - public

Legislation on estates

21 Apr. In 1785, two charters were issued: "Charter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility" and "Charter on the cities."

Both letters regulated the legislation on the rights and obligations of the estates.

Complaint to the nobility:

• Already existing rights were confirmed.
• the nobility was exempted from the poll tax
• from the quartering of military units and teams
• from corporal punishment
• from compulsory service
• confirmed the right of unlimited disposal of the estate
• the right to own houses in towns
• the right to start enterprises on the estates and engage in trade
• ownership of the subsoil
• the right to have their own estate institutions
• the name of the 1st estate changed: not “nobility”, but “noble nobility”.
• it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; estates were to be passed on to legitimate heirs.
• nobles have the exclusive right to own land, but the Charter does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs.
• Ukrainian foremen were equalized in rights with Russian nobles.
• a nobleman who did not have an officer's rank was deprived of the right to vote.
• only nobles whose income from estates exceeds 100 rubles could hold elected positions.

Certificate of rights and benefits to the cities of the Russian Empire:

• the right of the top merchants not to pay the poll tax was confirmed.
• replacement of recruitment duty with a cash contribution.

The division of the urban population into 6 categories:

1. nobles, officials and clergy ("real city dwellers") - can have houses and land in cities without engaging in trade.
2. merchants of all three guilds (the lowest amount of capital for merchants of the 3rd guild is 1000 rubles)
3. artisans registered in workshops.
4. foreign and out-of-town merchants.
5. eminent citizens - merchants with a capital of over 50 thousand rubles, rich bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), as well as urban intelligentsia: architects, painters, composers, scientists.
6. townspeople, who “feed on craft, needlework and work” (having no real estate in the city).

Representatives of the 3rd and 6th categories were called "philistines" (the word came from the Polish language through Ukraine and Belarus, originally meant "city dweller" or "citizen", from the word "place" - city and "town" - town).

Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and eminent citizens were exempted from corporal punishment. Representatives of the 3rd generation of eminent citizens were allowed to file a petition for the nobility.

Serf peasantry:

• The decree of 1763 placed the maintenance of the military teams sent to suppress peasant uprisings on the peasants themselves.
• By decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only into exile, but also to hard labor, and the period of hard labor was set by him; the landlords also had the right to return the exiled from hard labor at any time.
• The decree of 1767 forbade the peasants to complain about their master; disobedients were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court),
• Peasants could not take an oath, take payoffs and contracts.
• Trade in peasants reached a wide scale: they were sold in the markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given, forcibly married.
• The decree of May 3, 1783 forbade the peasants of the Left-bank Ukraine and Sloboda Ukraine to pass from one owner to another.

The widespread idea that Catherine distributed the state peasants to the landowners, as has now been proven, is a myth (peasants from the lands acquired during the partitions of Poland, as well as palace peasants, were used for distribution). The zone of serfdom under Catherine spread to Ukraine. At the same time, the position of the monastery peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by a cash quitrent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants stopped.

Clergy lost its autonomous existence due to the secularization of church lands (1764), which made it possible to exist without the help of the state and independently of it. After the reform, the clergy became dependent on the state that financed it.

Religious policy

In general, in Russia under Catherine II, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued. Representatives of all traditional religions did not experience pressure and harassment. Thus, in 1773, a law was issued on the tolerance of all religions, forbidding the Orthodox clergy to interfere in the affairs of other confessions; secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of temples of any faith.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands near the church. But already in Feb. In 1764, she again issued a decree depriving the Church of landed property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The jurisdiction of the state included the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic possessions was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activity.

Catherine achieved from the government of the Commonwealth the equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, persecution ceased Old Believers. The Empress initiated the return of the Old Believers, the economically active population, from abroad. They were specially assigned a place on the Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans in Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants(mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, freely perform worship. At the end of the 18th century, there were over 20,000 Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

Per Jewish Religion retained the right to public practice of faith. Religious matters and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the appropriate estate and could be elected to local governments, become judges and other civil servants.

By decree of Catherine II in 1787, the full Arabic text was printed for the first time in Russia in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. Islamic the holy book of the Koran for free distribution to the “Kyrgyz”. The publication significantly differed from the European ones primarily in that it was of a Muslim nature: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. From 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published in St. Petersburg. In 1788, a manifesto was issued in which the empress ordered "to establish in Ufa a spiritual assembly of the Mohammedan law, which has in its department all the spiritual ranks of that law, ... excluding the Tauride region." Thus, Catherine began to integrate the Muslim community into the state system of the empire. Muslims were given the right to build and rebuild mosques.

Buddhism also received state support in the regions where he traditionally practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of Khambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, the Buryat lamas recognized Ekaterina as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva of White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and humane rule.

Domestic political problems

At the time of accession to the throne of Catherine II, the former Russian Emperor Ivan VI continued to remain alive in custody in the Shlisselburg fortress. In 1764, Lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg Fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic occurred in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd took the Donskoy Monastery by storm, killed Archbishop Ambrose, who was hiding in it, and began to smash the quarantine outposts and the houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the rebellion was crushed.

Peasant War 1773-1775

In 1773-1774 there was a peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaik army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga regions. During the uprising, the Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all provinces where hostilities unfolded joined the Cossacks. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism intensified.

Main steps:

• sept. 1773 - March 1774
• March 1774 - July 1774
• July 1774-1775

17 Sept. 1773 the uprising begins. Near the Yaitsky town, government detachments, marching to suppress the rebellion, go over to the side of 200 Cossacks. Without taking the town, the rebels go to Orenburg.

March - July 1774 - the rebels seize the factories of the Urals and Bashkiria. Under the Trinity fortress, the rebels are defeated. Kazan is captured on July 12. On July 17 they were again defeated and retreated to the right bank of the Volga. 12 Sept. 1774 Pugachev was captured.

Freemasonry, Novikov Case, Radishchev Case

1762-1778 - characterized by the organizational design of Russian Freemasonry and the dominance of the English system (Yelagin Freemasonry).

In the 60s and especially in the 70s. 18th century Freemasonry is becoming increasingly popular among the educated nobility. The number of Masonic lodges increases several times, even despite the skeptical (if not semi-hostile) attitude towards Freemasonry of Catherine II. The question naturally arises why a significant part of the Russian educated society became so interested in Masonic teachings? The main reason, in our opinion, was the search for a new ethical ideal, a new meaning of life, by a certain part of the noble society. Traditional Orthodoxy could not satisfy them for obvious reasons. In the course of Peter the Great's state reforms, the church turned into an appendage of the state apparatus, serving it and justifying any, even the most immoral, actions of its representatives.

That is why the Order of Freemasons became so popular, because it offered its adherents brotherly love and sacred wisdom based on the undistorted true values ​​of early Christianity.

And, secondly, in addition to internal self-improvement, many were attracted by the opportunity to master secret mystical knowledge.

And finally, magnificent rituals, robes, hierarchy, romantic atmosphere of meetings of Masonic lodges could not fail to attract the attention of Russian nobles as people, primarily military people, accustomed to military uniforms and paraphernalia, servility, etc.

In the 1760s a large number of representatives of the highest noble aristocracy and the emerging noble intelligentsia, as a rule, are opposed to the political regime of Catherine II. Suffice it to mention Vice-Chancellor N.I. Panin, his brother General P.I. Panin, their great-nephew A.B. Kurakin (1752–1818), Kurakin’s friend Prince. G. P. Gagarin (1745–1803), Prince N. V. Repnin, future Field Marshal M. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, secretary N. I. Panin and famous playwright D. I. Fonvizin and many others.

As for the organizational structure of Russian Freemasonry of this period, its development proceeded in two directions. Most of the Russian lodges were part of the system of English or John Freemasonry, which consisted of only 3 traditional degrees with an elected leadership. The main goal was proclaimed the moral self-improvement of man, mutual assistance and charity. The head of this direction of Russian Freemasonry was Ivan Perfilievich Elagin, appointed in 1772 by the Grand Lodge of London (Old Freemasons) as the Great Provincial Master of Russia. By his name, the whole system is called Elagin Freemasonry.

A minority of the lodges worked according to various systems of Strict Supervision, which recognized the highest degrees and emphasized the achievement of higher mystical knowledge (the German direction of Freemasonry).

The exact number of lodges in Russia of that period has not yet been established. Of those that are known, the majority entered (albeit on different conditions) into an alliance led by Elagin. However, this union proved to be extremely short-lived. Yelagin himself, despite the fact that he denied higher degrees, nevertheless sympathized with the aspirations of many Masons to find the highest Masonic wisdom. It was at his suggestion that Prince A.B. Kurakin, a childhood friend of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich, under the pretext of announcing the new wedding of the heir to the Swedish royal house, went to Stockholm in 1776 with a secret mission to establish contacts with Swedish Masons, who were rumored to have this higher knowledge.

However, Kurakin's mission gave rise to another split in Russian Freemasonry.

MATERIALS ON THE PROSECUTION OF NOVIKOV, HIS ARREST AND CONSEQUENCE

The investigation file of Novikov includes a huge number of documents - letters and decrees of Ekaterina, correspondence between Prozorovsky and Sheshkovsky during the investigation - with each other and with Ekaterina, numerous interrogations of Novikov and his detailed explanations, letters, etc. The main part of the case fell into its own time in the archive and is now stored in the funds of the Central State Archive of Ancient Acts in Moscow (TsGADA, category VIII, file 218). At the same time, a significant number of the most important papers were not included in the Novikov file, since they remained in the hands of those who conducted the investigation - Prozorovsky, Sheshkovsky, and others. These originals subsequently passed into private possession and forever remained lost to us. Fortunately, some of them turned out to be published in the middle of the 19th century, and therefore we know them only from these printed sources.

The publication of the materials of the investigation of the Russian educator began in the second half of the 19th century. The first large group of documents was published by the historian Ilovaisky in the Chronicles of Russian Literature published by Tikhonravov. These documents were taken from a genuine investigative file conducted by Prince Prozorovsky. In the same years, new materials appeared in a number of publications. In 1867, M. Longinov, in his study "Novikov and the Moscow Martinists", published a number of new documents taken from the "Novikov Case", and reprinted all previously published papers from the investigation file. Thus, in Longinov's book was given the first and most complete set of documents, which until today, as a rule, were used by all scientists in the study of Novikov's activities. But this Longinus code is far from complete. Many of the most important materials were unknown to Longinov and therefore were not included in the book. Already a year after the publication of his research - in 1868 - in the II volume of the "Collection of the Russian Historical Society", Popov published a number of important papers transferred to him by P. A. Vyazemsky. Apparently, these papers came to Vyazemsky from the archives of the chief executioner Radishchev and Novikov-Sheshkovsky. From Popov's publication, for the first time, the questions posed by Sheshkovsky to Novikov became known (Longinov knew only the answers), and objections, apparently written by Sheshkovok himself. These objections are important for us in that they undoubtedly arose as a result of remarks made by Catherine on the answers of Novikov, whose case she personally dealt with. Among the questions put to Novikov was question number 21 - about his relationship with the heir Pavel (Paul's name is not indicated in the text of the question, and it was about a "person"). Longinov did not know this question and the answer to it, since it was not on the list that Longinov used. Popov was the first to publish both this question and the answer to it.

A year later, in 1869, Academician Pekarsky published the book Supplement to the History of Masons in Russia in the 18th Century. The book contained materials on the history of Freemasonry, among many papers there were also documents related to Novikov's investigative case. Pekarskaya's publication is of particular value to us, since it characterizes Novikov's educational book publishing activity in detail. In particular, papers characterizing the history of Novikov's relationship with Pokhodyashin deserve special attention, from which we learn about Novikov's most important activity - organizing assistance to starving peasants. The significance of Novikov's investigative case is extremely great. First of all, it contains abundant biographical material, which, despite the general scarcity of information about Novikov, is sometimes the only source for studying the life and work of the Russian enlightener. But the main value of these documents lies elsewhere - a careful study of them clearly convinces us that Novikov was persecuted for a long time and systematically, that he was arrested, having previously destroyed the entire book publishing business, and then secretly and cowardly, without trial, was imprisoned in the casemate of the Shlisselburg Fortress - not for Freemasonry, but for the huge educational activity independent of the government, which became a major phenomenon in public life in the 80s.

The answers to questions 12 and 21, which speak of "repentance" and pin hopes on "royal mercy", should be understood by the modern reader historically correctly, with a clear idea not only of the era, but also of the circumstances in which these confessions were made. We must also not forget that Novikov was in the hands of the cruel official Sheshkovsky, whom his contemporaries called the "house executioner" of Catherine II. Questions 12 and 21 concerned such cases, which Novikov could not deny - he published books, he knew about relations with the "special" - Pavel. Therefore, he showed that he committed these “crimes” “out of thoughtlessness about the importance of this act”, pleaded “guilty”. It is worth recalling that under similar conditions, Radishchev acted exactly the same way when, forced to admit that he really called the serfs to revolt or “threatened the tsars with a chopping block”, he showed: “I wrote this without thinking” or: “I admit my error”, etc. d.

Appeals to Catherine II were officially binding. Similarly, in Radishchev's answers to Sheshkovsky, we will encounter appeals to Catherine II, which quite obviously do not express the real attitude of the revolutionary towards the Russian Empress. The same necessity compelled Novikov to "throw himself at the feet of her Imperial Majesty". A serious illness, a depressed state of mind from the realization that not only his whole life's work was destroyed, but his name was blackened by slander - all this, of course, also determined the nature of emotional appeals to the empress.

At the same time, it must be remembered that, despite the courage shown by Novikov during the investigation, his behavior differs from that of the first Russian revolutionary. Radishchev drew the firmness so necessary in such circumstances from the proud consciousness of his historical rightness, relied in his behavior on the morality of the revolutionary forged by him, calling on him to openly go towards danger, and if necessary, even death, in the name of the triumph of the great cause of the liberation of the people. Radishchev fought, and sitting in the fortress, he defended himself; Novikov - justified.

Novikov's investigative case has not yet been subjected to systematic and scientific study. Until now, it has been used only for reference. The following two circumstances undoubtedly prevented systematic study: a) the extreme dispersal of documents among publications that have long become a bibliographic rarity, and b) the established tradition of printing documents of the Novikov investigation file surrounded by abundant materials on the history of Freemasonry. In this sea of ​​Masonic papers, the Novikov case proper was lost, the main thing in it was lost - the increase in Catherine's persecution of Novikov, and of him alone (and not Freemasonry), for book publishing, for educational activities, for writings - persecution that ended not only with arrest and imprisonment in the fortress of an advanced public figure hated by the empress, but also by the defeat of the entire educational work (the decree on the prohibition of renting the university printing house to Novikov, the closure of the bookshop, the confiscation of books, etc.).

Foreign policy of Russia in the reign of Catherine II

The foreign policy of the Russian state under Catherine was aimed at strengthening the role of Russia in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: "one must be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker ... keep one's hands free ... do not trail anyone with a tail."

Expansion of the Russian Empire

The new territorial growth of Russia begins with the accession of Catherine II. After the first Turkish war, in 1774 Russia acquired important points at the mouths of the Dnieper and Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region join. The second Turkish war ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea. At the same time, the Polish partitions give Russia Western Russia. According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received a part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Russia, the upper course of the Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third section, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia (the act of abdication of Duke Biron).

Sections of the Commonwealth

The Polish-Lithuanian federal state of the Commonwealth included the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The reason for intervening in the affairs of the Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine exerted strong pressure on the gentry in order to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising that was raised in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its success in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to divide the Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia brought in their troops.

In 1772 took place 1st section of the Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with districts, Prussia - West Prussia (Pomorye), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the partition and renounce claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targowice Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 took place 2nd section of the Commonwealth, approved by the Grodno Seimas. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right-Bank Ukraine.

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, whose goals were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A. V. Suvorov.

In 1795 took place 3rd partition of Poland. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

Russian-Turkish wars. Annexation of Crimea

An important direction in the foreign policy of Catherine II was also the territories of the Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774), using as a pretext that one of the Russian detachments, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win one victory after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the Battle of Kozludzhi, the battle of the Ryaba Mogila, the Cahul battle, the Largas battle, the Chesme battle, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi Treaty, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but became de facto dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea, along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Giray was elected khan. The previous khan - protege of Turkey Devlet IV Giray - at the beginning of 1777 tried to resist, but it was suppressed by A. V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of Turkish troops in the Crimea was prevented, and thus an attempt to unleash a new war was prevented, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as a khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by the Russian troops brought to the peninsula, and in 1783, by the manifesto of Catherine II, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the empress, together with the Austrian emperor Joseph II, made a triumphal trip to the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey took place in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both on land - the Kinburn battle, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Ackerman, etc., and the sea ones - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), The Kerch naval battle (1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Iasi Peace Treaty, which secured the Crimea and Ochakov for Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories by Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result of them, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region were ceded to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans were strengthened, and Russia's authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Georgievsky treatise

Under the king of Kartli and Kakheti, Heraclius II (1762-1798), the united Kartli-Kakheti state was significantly strengthened, its influence in Transcaucasia was growing. Turks are expelled from the country. Georgian culture is being revived, book printing is emerging. Enlightenment is becoming one of the leading directions of social thought. Heraclius turned to Russia for protection from Persia and Turkey. Catherine II, who fought with Turkey, on the one hand, was interested in an ally, on the other hand, did not want to send significant military forces to Georgia. In 1769-1772, an insignificant Russian detachment under the command of General Totleben fought against Turkey on the side of Georgia. In 1783, Russia and Georgia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk establishing a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for Russia's military protection. In 1795, the Persian Shah Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar invaded Georgia and, after the Battle of Krtsanis, ravaged Tbilisi.

Relations with Sweden

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered the war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, unleashed a war with her for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered the territory of Russia were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedes' battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm that had flown in, suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations with other countries

In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized, and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries. This agreement served as the basis for the formation of the Northern System - the union of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.

In the third quarter of the XVIII century. there was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the United States. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right to armed protection when attacked by the fleet of a belligerent country).

In European affairs, the role of Russia increased during the Austro-Prussian war of 1778-1779, when she acted as an intermediary between the warring parties at the Teschen Congress, where Catherine essentially dictated her terms of reconciliation, restoring balance in Europe. After that, Russia often acted as an arbitrator in disputes between the German states, which turned to Catherine directly for mediation.

One of Catherine's grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - the joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine's grandson Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich as emperor. According to the plans, the buffer state of Dacia is created on the site of Bessarabia, Moldavia and Wallachia, and the western part of the Balkan Peninsula is transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and the reconquest of significant Turkish territories by Russia on its own.

In October 1782, the Treaty of Friendship and Trade with Denmark was signed.

On February 14, 1787, she received the Venezuelan politician Francisco Miranda near Kyiv at the Mariinsky Palace.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of the monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she abstained from participating in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the formation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine refused all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all suspected sympathizers for the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine the Russian Empire acquired the status of a "great power". As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. the Crimean peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in three sections of the Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

The long reign of Catherine II 1762-1796 is filled with significant and highly controversial events and processes. The "golden age of the Russian nobility" was at the same time the age of Pugachevism, the "Instruction" and the Legislative Commission coexisted with persecution. And yet it was an integral era, which had its own core, its own logic, its own super-task. It was a time when the imperial government was trying to implement one of the most thoughtful, consistent and successful reform programs in the history of Russia. The ideological basis of the reforms was the philosophy of the European Enlightenment, with which the empress was well acquainted. In this sense, her reign is often called the era of enlightened absolutism. Historians argue about what enlightened absolutism was - the utopian teaching of the enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot, etc.) about the ideal union of kings and philosophers, or a political phenomenon that found its real embodiment in Prussia (Frederick II the Great), Austria (Joseph II), Russia (Catherine II) and others. These disputes are not unfounded. They reflect the key contradiction between the theory and practice of enlightened absolutism: between the need to radically change the established order of things (estate system, despotism, lack of rights, etc.) and the inadmissibility of upheavals, the need for stability, the inability to infringe on the social force on which this order rests - the nobility . Catherine II, like perhaps no one else, understood the tragic insurmountability of this contradiction: “You,” she blamed the French philosopher D. Diderot, “write on paper that will endure everything, but I, the poor empress, are on human skin, so sensitive and painful. Her position on the question of the serfs is highly indicative. There is no doubt about the negative attitude of the empress to serfdom. She often thought about ways to cancel it. But things did not go further than cautious reflections. Catherine II was clearly aware that the elimination of serfdom would be indignantly perceived by the nobles. Serfdom legislation was expanded: landowners were allowed to exile peasants to hard labor for any period, and peasants were forbidden to file complaints against landowners. The most significant transformations in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were:

• convocation and activities of the Legislative Commission1767-1768. The goal was to develop a new code of laws, which was intended to replace the Cathedral Code of 1649. Representatives of the nobility, officials, townspeople, and state peasants worked in the Legislative Commission. By the opening of the commission, Catherine II wrote the famous "Instruction", in which she used the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Beccaria and other enlighteners. It spoke about the presumption of innocence, the eradication of despotism, the spread of education, and the well-being of the people. The activities of the commission did not bring the desired result. A new set of laws was not developed, the deputies failed to rise above the narrow interests of the estates and did not show much zeal in formulating reforms. In December 1768, the empress dissolved the Legislative Commission and did not create more similar institutions;
• reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire. The country was divided into 50 provinces (300-400 thousand male souls), each of which consisted of 10-12 counties (20-30 thousand male souls). A uniform system of provincial administration was established: a governor appointed by the emperor, provincial government exercising executive power, the Treasury (collecting taxes, spending them), the Order of Public Charity (schools, hospitals, shelters, etc.). Courts were created, built according to a strictly estate principle - for nobles, townspeople, state peasants. Administrative, financial and judicial functions were thus clearly separated. The provincial division introduced by Catherine II was preserved until 1917;
• the adoption in 1785 of the Letter of Complaint to the nobility, which secured all the estate rights and privileges of the nobles (exemption from corporal punishment, the exclusive right to own peasants, transfer them by inheritance, sell, buy villages, etc.);
• adoption of the Letter of Complaint to the cities, which formalized the rights and privileges of the "third estate" - the townspeople. The urban estate was divided into six categories, received limited self-government rights, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma;
• the adoption in 1775 of a manifesto on freedom of enterprise, according to which the permission of government bodies was not required to open an enterprise;
• reforms 1782-1786 in the field of school education.

Of course, these transformations were limited. The autocratic principle of government, serfdom, the estate system remained unshakable. Pugachev's peasant war (1773-1775), the storming of the Bastille (1789) and the execution of King Louis XVI (1793) did not contribute to the deepening of reforms. They went intermittently, in the 90s. and completely stopped. The persecution of A. N. Radishchev (1790), the arrest of N. I. Novikov (1792) were not random episodes. They testify to the deep contradictions of enlightened absolutism, the impossibility of unambiguous assessments of the "golden age of Catherine II."

Nevertheless, it was precisely in this era that the Free Economic Society appeared (1765), free printing houses worked, there was a heated magazine debate, in which the empress personally participated, the Hermitage (1764) and the Public Library in St. Petersburg (1795), the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens were founded (1764) and pedagogical schools in both capitals. Historians also say that the efforts of Catherine II, aimed at encouraging the social activity of the estates, especially the nobility, laid the foundations of civil society in Russia.

Ekaterina - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who communicated so intensively and directly with their subjects through the drafting of manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical writings, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she confessed: "I cannot see a clean pen without feeling the desire to immediately dip it in ink."

She possessed an extraordinary talent as a writer, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedies "Oh, time!", "Mrs. "The Invisible Bride" (1771-1772), essays, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine "Everything", published since 1769. The Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of ​​​​the magazine was criticism of human vices and weaknesses. Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: "Satire in a smiling spirit."

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a "philosopher on the throne" and favorably treated the Enlightenment, was in correspondence with Voltaire, Diderot, d "Alembert.

Under her rule, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various areas of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families initiated by Catherine in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries. The goal was to modernize Russian science and culture.

Features of personal life

Catherine was a brunette of medium height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and commitment to "free love".

Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Ekaterinologist P.I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergey Saltykov, G.G. Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a count of the Russian Empire and a general. With Potemkin, according to some sources, Catherine was secretly married (1775, see Wedding of Catherine II and Potemkin). After 1762, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It is worth noting that Catherine's "debauchery" was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the backdrop of the general licentiousness of the mores of the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who had state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to a new favorite, tried to make “their own man” a lover to the Empress, etc.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich (1754) (it is suspected that his father was Sergei Saltykov) and Alexei Bobrinsky (1762 - son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly daughter future King of Poland Stanislaw Poniatowski) and Elizaveta Grigoryevna Tyomkina (1775 - Potemkin's daughter).

Famous figures of the Catherine era

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activities of outstanding Russian scientists, diplomats, military, statesmen, cultural and art figures. In 1873, in St. Petersburg, in the square in front of the Alexandrinsky Theater (now Ostrovsky Square), an impressive multi-figured monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M. O. Mikeshin by sculptors A. M. Opekushin and M. A. Chizhov and architects V. A. Schroeter and D. I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of a sculptural composition, the characters of which are outstanding personalities of the Catherine's era and the empress's associates:

• Grigory Alexandrovich Potemkin-Tavrichesky
• Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov
• Petr Alexandrovich Rumyantsev
• Alexander Andreevich Bezborodko
• Alexander Alekseevich Vyazemsky
• Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy
• Vasily Yakovlevich Chichagov
• Alexey Grigorievich Orlov
• Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin
• Ekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkova

The events of the last years of the reign of Alexander II - in particular, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 - prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial of the Catherine's era. D. I. Grimm developed a project for the construction in the park next to the monument to Catherine II of bronze statues and busts depicting figures of the glorious reign. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.

In growth were to be depicted: Count N. I. Panin, Admiral G. A. Spiridov, writer D. I. Fonvizin, Prosecutor General of the Senate Prince A. A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N. V. Repnin and General A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Commission on the code. In the busts - the publisher and journalist N. I. Novikov, the traveler P. S. Pallas, the playwright A. P. Sumarokov, the historians I. N. Boltin and Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, the artists D. G. Levitsky and V. L Borovikovsky, architect A. F. Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G. G. Orlov, admirals F. F. Ushakov, S. K. Greig, A. I. Cruz, military leaders: Count Z. G. Chernyshev, Prince V M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Count I. E. Ferzen, Count V. A. Zubov; Moscow governor-general Prince M.N. Volkonsky, Novgorod governor Count Ya.E. Sievers, diplomat Ya.I. Bulgakov, pacifier of the “plague riot” of 1771 in Moscow P.D. Panin and I. I. Mikhelson, the hero of the capture of the fortress Ochakov I. I. Meller-Zakomelsky.

In addition to those listed, such famous figures of the era are noted as:

• Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
• Leonard Euler
• Giacomo Quarenghi
• Vasily Bazhenov
• Jean Baptiste Vallin-Delamote
• N. A. Lvov
• Ivan Kulibin
• Matvey Kazakov

Catherine in art

To the cinema

• "The best film 2", 2009. In the role of Catherine - Mikhail Galustyan
• "Catherine's Musketeers", 2007. In the role of Catherine - Alla Oding
• "The Secret of the Maestro", 2007. In the role of Catherine - Olesya Zhurakovskaya
• "Favorite (TV series)", 2005. In the role of Ekaterina - Natalya Surkova
• "Catherine the Great", 2005. In the role of Catherine - Emily Brun
• "Emelyan Pugachev (film)", 1977; "Golden Age", 2003. In the role of Catherine - Via Artmane
• "Russian Ark", 2002. In the role of Catherine - Maria Kuznetsova, Natalia Nikulenko
• "Russian rebellion", 2000. In the role of Catherine - Olga Antonova
• "Countess Sheremeteva", 1988; "Evenings on a farm near Dikanka", 2005. In the role of Catherine - Lidia Fedoseeva-Shukshina
• "Catherine the Great", 1995. In the role of Catherine - Catherine Zeta-Jones
• "Young Catherine" ("Young Catherine"), 1991. In the role of Catherine - Julia Ormond
• "Joke", 1993 In the role of Catherine - Irina Muravyova
• “Vivat, midshipmen!”, 1991; "Midshipmen 3 (film)", 1992. In the role of Catherine - Kristina Orbakaite
• "Royal Hunt", 1990. In the role of Catherine - Svetlana Kryuchkova.
• "Dreams about Russia". In the role of Catherine - Marina Vladi
• "Captain's daughter". In the role of Catherine - Natalia Gundareva
• "Katharina und ihre wilden hengste", 1983. In the role of Ekaterina Sandra Nova.

black and white movie stars

• "Great Catherine", 1968. In the role of Catherine - Jeanne Moreau
• "Evenings on a farm near Dikanka", 1961. In the role of Catherine - Zoya Vasilkova.
• "John Paul Jones", 1959. In the role of Catherine - Bette Davis
• "Admiral Ushakov", 1953. In the role of Catherine - Olga Zhizneva.
• "A Royal Scandal", 1945. In the role of Catherine - Tallulah Bankhead.
• "The Scarlet Empress", 1934. Ch. role - Marlene Dietrich
• "Forbidden Paradise", 1924. In the role of Catherine - Pola Negri

In the theatre

• "Catherine the Great. Musical Chronicles of the Empire, 2008. People's Artist of Russia Nina Shamber as Ekaterina

In literature

• B. Show. "Great Catherine"
• V. N. Ivanov. "Empress Fike"
• V. S. PIKUL "Favorite"
• V. S. PIKUL "Pen and sword"
• Boris Akunin. "Extracurricular reading"
• Vasily Aksyonov. "Voltaireans and Voltairians"
• A. S. Pushkin. "Captain's daughter"
• Henri Troyat. "Catherine the Great"

In fine arts

Memory

In 1778, Catherine composed the following playful epitaph for herself (translated from French):
Here is buried
Catherine II, born in Stettin
April 21, 1729.
She spent 1744 in Russia, and left
There she married Peter III.
Fourteen years old
She made a triple project - like
Spouse, Elizabeth I and the people.
She used everything to achieve this success.
Eighteen years of boredom and solitude forced her to read many books.
Having ascended the Russian throne, she strove for good,
She wanted to bring happiness, freedom and property to her subjects.
She forgave easily and did not hate anyone.
Condescending, who loved the ease of life, cheerful by nature, with the soul of a republican
And a good heart - she had friends.
Work was easy for her
In society and the verbal sciences, she
I found pleasure.

Monuments

• In 1873, a monument to Catherine II was unveiled on Alexandrinskaya Square in St. Petersburg (see the section Famous Figures of Catherine's Era).
• In 1907, a monument to Catherine II was opened in Yekaterinodar (it stood until 1920, was restored on September 8, 2006).
• In 2002, in Novorzhev, founded by Catherine II, a monument was opened in her honor.
• On October 27, 2007, monuments to Catherine II were opened in Odessa and Tiraspol.
• On May 15, 2008, a monument to Catherine II was unveiled in Sevastopol.
• On September 14, 2008, a monument to Catherine II the Great was unveiled in Podolsk. The monument depicts the Empress at the moment of signing the Decree of October 5, 1781, where there is an entry: “... we graciously order the economic village of Podol to be renamed the city ...”.
• In Veliky Novgorod, on the Monument “1000th Anniversary of Russia”, among 129 figures of the most prominent personalities in Russian history (as of 1862), there is a figure of Catherine II.
• Catherine made four mistakes in a three-letter word. Instead of "more", she wrote "ischo".

The topic of this article is the biography of Catherine the Great. This empress reigned from 1762 to 1796. The era of her reign was marked by the enslavement of the peasants. Also, Catherine the Great, whose biography, photos and activities are presented in this article, significantly expanded the privileges of the nobility.

Origin and childhood of Catherine

The future empress was born on May 2 (according to the new style - April 21), 1729 in Stettin. She was the daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, who was in the Prussian service, and Princess Johanna-Elisabeth. The future empress was related to the English, Prussian and Swedish royal houses. She received her education at home: she studied French and German, music, theology, geography, history, and danced. Opening such a topic as the biography of Catherine the Great, we note that the independent nature of the future empress manifested itself already in childhood. She was a persistent, inquisitive child, had a penchant for mobile, lively games.

Baptism and wedding of Catherine

Catherine, together with her mother, was summoned by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna to Russia in 1744. Here she was baptized according to the Orthodox tradition. Ekaterina Alekseevna became the bride of Peter Fedorovich, the Grand Duke (in the future - Emperor Peter III). She married him in 1745.

Hobbies of the Empress

Catherine wanted to win the favor of her husband, the empress and the Russian people. Her personal life, however, was unsuccessful. Since Peter was infantile, there was no marital relationship between them for several years of marriage. Catherine was fond of reading works on jurisprudence, history and economics, as well as French enlighteners. All these books have shaped her worldview. The future empress became a supporter of the ideas of the Enlightenment. She was also interested in the traditions, customs and history of Russia.

Personal life of Catherine II

Today we know quite a lot about such an important historical person as Catherine the Great: biography, her children, personal life - all this is the object of research by historians and the interest of many of our compatriots. For the first time we get acquainted with this empress at school. However, what we learn in history lessons is far from complete information about such an empress as Catherine the Great. A biography (grade 4) from a school textbook omits, for example, her personal life.

Catherine II in the early 1750s began an affair with S.V. Saltykov, Guards officer. She gave birth to a son in 1754, the future Emperor Paul I. Nevertheless, rumors that Saltykov was his father are unfounded. In the second half of the 1750s, Catherine had an affair with S. Poniatowski, a Polish diplomat who later became King Stanislaw August. Also in the early 1760s - with G.G. Orlov. The Empress gave birth to his son Alexei in 1762, who received the surname Bobrinsky. As relations with her husband deteriorated, Catherine began to fear for her fate and began to recruit supporters at court. Her sincere love for her homeland, her prudence and ostentatious piety - all this contrasted with the behavior of her husband, which allowed the future empress to gain authority among the population of St. Petersburg and the high-society metropolitan society.

Proclamation of Catherine as Empress

Catherine's relationship with her husband continued to deteriorate during the 6 months of his reign, eventually becoming hostile. Peter III openly appeared in the company of his mistress E.R. Vorontsova. There was a threat of arrest of Catherine and her possible expulsion. The future empress carefully prepared the plot. She was supported by N.I. Panin, E.R. Dashkova, K.G. Razumovsky, the Orlov brothers and others. One night, from June 27 to 28, 1762, when Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine secretly arrived in St. Petersburg. She was proclaimed in the barracks of the Izmailovsky Regiment as an autocratic empress. Other regiments soon joined the rebels. The news of the empress's accession to the throne quickly spread throughout the city. Petersburgers greeted her with delight. Messengers were sent to Kronstadt and the army to prevent the actions of Peter III. He, having learned about what happened, began to send proposals for negotiations to Catherine, but she rejected them. The empress personally went to St. Petersburg, leading the regiments of the guards, and received on the way a written abdication of the throne by Peter III.

More about the palace coup

As a result of a palace coup on July 9, 1762, Catherine II came to power. It happened in the following way. Because of the arrest of Passek, all the conspirators rose to their feet, fearing that under torture they might be betrayed by the arrested person. It was decided to send Alexei Orlov for Ekaterina. The Empress at that time lived in anticipation of the name day of Peter III in Peterhof. On the morning of June 28, Alexei Orlov ran into her bedroom and told her about Passek's arrest. Ekaterina got into Orlov's carriage, she was brought to the Izmailovsky regiment. The soldiers ran out to the square on the drum beat and immediately swore allegiance to her. She then moved to the Semyonov regiment, which also swore allegiance to the Empress. Accompanied by a crowd of people, at the head of two regiments, Catherine went to the Kazan Cathedral. Here, at a prayer service, she was proclaimed empress. Then she went to the Winter Palace and found the Synod and the Senate there already assembled. They also swore allegiance to her.

Personality and character of Catherine II

Not only the biography of Catherine the Great is interesting, but also her personality and character, which left an imprint on her domestic and foreign policy. Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent connoisseur of people. The Empress skillfully chose assistants, while not being afraid of talented and bright personalities. Therefore, Catherine's time was marked by the appearance of many prominent statesmen, as well as generals, musicians, artists, and writers. Catherine was usually restrained, tactful, and patient in dealing with her subjects. She was an excellent conversationalist, she could listen carefully to anyone. By her own admission, the empress did not have a creative mind, but she caught worthwhile thoughts and knew how to use them for her own purposes.

There were almost no noisy resignations during the reign of this empress. The nobles were not subject to disgrace, they were not exiled or executed. Because of this, the reign of Catherine is considered the "golden age" of the nobility in Russia. The Empress, at the same time, was very vain and valued her power more than anything in the world. She was ready to make any compromises for the sake of her preservation, including to the detriment of her own convictions.

Religiosity of the Empress

This empress was distinguished by ostentatious piety. She considered herself the protector of the Orthodox Church and its head. Catherine skillfully used religion for political interests. Apparently, her faith was not very deep. The biography of Catherine the Great is marked by the fact that she preached religious tolerance in the spirit of the times. It was under this empress that the persecution of the Old Believers was stopped. Protestant and Catholic churches and mosques were erected. Nevertheless, the conversion to another faith from Orthodoxy was still severely punished.

Catherine - an opponent of serfdom

Catherine the Great, whose biography interests us, was an ardent opponent of serfdom. She considered him contrary to human nature and inhumane. Many sharp statements on this issue were preserved in her papers. Also in them you can find her reasoning on how serfdom can be eliminated. Nevertheless, the empress did not dare to do anything concrete in this area because of the fear of another coup and a noble rebellion. Catherine, however, was convinced that the Russian peasants are spiritually undeveloped, so there is a danger in granting them freedom. According to the empress, the life of the peasants is quite prosperous with caring landowners.

First reforms

When Catherine came to the throne, she already had a fairly definite political program. It was based on the ideas of the Enlightenment and took into account the peculiarities of Russia's development. Consistency, gradualness and consideration of public sentiment were the main principles for the implementation of this program. Catherine II in the first years of her reign reformed the Senate (in 1763). His work became more efficient as a result. The following year, in 1764, Catherine the Great carried out the secularization of church lands. The biography for the children of this empress, presented on the pages of school textbooks, surely acquaints schoolchildren with this fact. Secularization significantly replenished the treasury, and also eased the situation of many peasants. Catherine in Ukraine liquidated the hetmanship in accordance with the need to unify local government throughout the state. In addition, she invited German colonists to the Russian Empire to develop the Black Sea and Volga regions.

The foundation of educational institutions and the new Code

In the same years, a number of educational institutions were founded, including for women (the first in Russia) - the Catherine School, the Smolny Institute. In 1767, the Empress announced that a special commission was being convened to create a new Code. It consisted of elected deputies, representatives of all social groups of society, except for serfs. For the commission, Catherine wrote "Instruction", which is, in fact, the liberal program of the reign of this empress. However, her calls were not understood by the deputies. On the smallest issues they argued. Deep contradictions between social groups were revealed during these discussions, as well as the low level of political culture among many deputies and the conservatism of most of them. The established commission was dissolved at the end of 1768. The empress appreciated this experience as an important lesson that introduced her to the moods of various segments of the population of the state.

Development of legislative acts

After the Russian-Turkish war ended, which lasted from 1768 to 1774, and the Pugachev uprising was suppressed, a new stage of Catherine's reforms began. The empress began to develop the most important legislative acts herself. In particular, a manifesto was issued in 1775, according to which it was allowed to start any industrial enterprises without restrictions. Also in this year, a provincial reform was carried out, as a result of which a new administrative division of the empire was established. It survived until 1917.

Expanding the topic "Brief biography of Catherine the Great", we note that in 1785 the Empress issued the most important legislative acts. These were letters of grant to the cities and the nobility. A charter was also prepared for the state peasants, but political circumstances did not allow it to be put into effect. The main significance of these letters was associated with the implementation of the main goal of Catherine's reforms - the creation of full-fledged estates in the empire on the model of Western Europe. The diploma meant for the Russian nobility the legal consolidation of almost all the privileges and rights that they had.

Recent and unrealized reforms proposed by Catherine the Great

The biography (summary) of the empress of interest to us is marked by the fact that she carried out various reforms until her death. For example, education reform was continued into the 1780s. Catherine the Great, whose biography is presented in this article, created a network of school institutions based on the classroom system in cities. The Empress in the last years of her life continued to plan major transformations. The reform of the central administration was scheduled for 1797, as well as the introduction of legislation on the succession to the throne in the country, the creation of a supreme court based on representation from the 3 estates. However, Catherine II the Great did not have time to complete the extensive reform program. Her brief biography, however, would be incomplete if we did not mention all this. In general, all these reforms were a continuation of the reforms begun by Peter I.

Catherine's foreign policy

What else is interesting about the biography of Catherine the Great? The empress, following Peter, believed that Russia should actively act on the world stage, pursue an offensive policy, even to some extent aggressive. After accession to the throne, she broke the alliance treaty with Prussia, concluded by Peter III. Thanks to the efforts of this empress, it was possible to restore Duke E.I. Biron on the throne of Courland. Supported by Prussia, in 1763 Russia succeeded in electing Stanisław August Poniatowski, his protege, to the Polish throne. This, in turn, led to a deterioration in relations with Austria due to the fact that she feared the strengthening of Russia and began to incite Turkey to war with her. On the whole, the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774 was successful for Russia, but the difficult situation inside the country encouraged her to seek peace. And for this it was necessary to restore the old relations with Austria. In the end, a compromise was reached. Poland fell victim to it: its first division was carried out in 1772 by Russia, Austria and Prussia.

The Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty was signed with Turkey, which ensured the independence of the Crimea, which was beneficial for Russia. The empire in the war between England and the colonies of North America took neutrality. Catherine refused to help the troops of the English king. A number of European states joined the Declaration on Armed Neutrality, created at the initiative of Panin. This contributed to the victory of the colonists. In subsequent years, the position of our country in the Caucasus and in the Crimea was strengthened, which ended with the inclusion of the latter into the Russian Empire in 1782, as well as the signing of the Treaty of Georgievsk with Erekle II, King of Kartli-Kakheti, the following year. This ensured the presence of Russian troops in Georgia, and then the annexation of its territory to Russia.

Strengthening of authority in the international arena

The new foreign policy doctrine of the Russian government was formed in the 1770s. It was a Greek project. Its main goal was to restore the Byzantine Empire and declare Emperor Konstantin Pavlovich, who was the grandson of Catherine II. Russia in 1779 significantly strengthened its authority in the international arena, participating as an intermediary between Prussia and Austria in the Teschen Congress. The biography of Empress Catherine the Great can also be supplemented by the fact that in 1787, accompanied by the court, the Polish king, the Austrian emperor and foreign diplomats, she traveled to the Crimea. It became a demonstration of the military power of Russia.

Wars with Turkey and Sweden, further partitions of Poland

The biography of Catherine the Great continued with the fact that she started a new Russian-Turkish war. Russia was now acting in alliance with Austria. Almost at the same time, the war with Sweden also began (from 1788 to 1790), which tried to take revenge after the defeat in the Northern War. The Russian Empire managed to cope with both of these opponents. In 1791 the war with Turkey ended. The Peace of Jassy was signed in 1792. He secured the influence of Russia in Transcaucasia and Bessarabia, as well as the annexation of Crimea to it. The 2nd and 3rd Partitions of Poland took place in 1793 and 1795 respectively. They put an end to Polish statehood.

Empress Catherine the Great, whose brief biography we reviewed, died on November 17 (according to the old style - November 6), 1796 in St. Petersburg. So significant is her contribution to Russian history that the memory of Catherine II is kept by many works of domestic and world culture, including the works of such great writers as N.V. Gogol, A.S. Pushkin, B. Shaw, V. Pikul and others. The life of Catherine the Great, her biography inspired many directors - the creators of such films as "Caprice of Catherine II", "Royal Hunt", "Young Catherine", "Dreams of Russia", " Russian rebellion" and others.

CATHERINE II is one of the most significant figures in history
RUSSIA.
Her reign is one of the most remarkable in RUSSIAN history.

Catherine II was born on April 21, 1729 in Stettin. nee Sophia
Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst came from a poor
GERMAN princely family. Her mother was a cousin of the father of Peter III,
and the mother's brother was the groom of Elizabeth Petrovna, but died before the marriage.

On June 28, 1762, a manifesto was drawn up on behalf of Catherine, saying
about the reasons for the coup, about the emerging threat to the integrity of the fatherland.

On June 29, Peter III signed a manifesto on his abdication. Since the ascension
to the throne and before the coronation, Catherine II participated in 15 meetings of the Senate, and not without success. In 1963 the Senate was reformed.

She founded the so-called Educational House. In this house they found a shelter for orphans.
Catherine II, as Empress of the Orthodox people, has always been distinguished by piety and devotion to Orthodoxy.

The reign of Catherine II is called the era of “enlightened
absolutism."
The meaning of "enlightened absolutism" is politics
following the ideas of the Enlightenment, expressed in the implementation of reforms,
destroying some of the most obsolete feudal institutions.

Catherine II made a significant contribution to the development of CULTURE and
ARTS in Russia.

She herself received an excellent education at home: teaching foreign languages, dancing, political history, philosophy, economics, law, and was considered an intelligent and educated woman.

Under Catherine, the Russian ACADEMY, the Free Economic Society were created, many magazines were founded, a system of public education was created, the HERMITAGE was founded, public THEATERS were opened, the appearance of Russian opera, and the flourishing of PAINTING.

A number of events of the era of "enlightened absolutism" had a progressive
meaning.
Founded on the initiative of Shuvalov and Lomonosov in 1755, Moscow University played a huge role in the development of ENLIGHTENMENT, Russian national science
and culture, having produced a large number of specialists in various branches of knowledge.

In 1757 began studying at the Academy of Arts.

The secularization of church land ownership significantly improved the position of the former monastic peasants, who received arable land, meadows and other lands on which they had previously served corvee, and saved them from everyday punishments and tortures, from service in the household and forced marriages.
Much more decisively, the empress spoke out for the reform of the judiciary. She rejected torture, only in exceptional cases allowed the death penalty.

During the reign of Catherine II, such masters as Vasily
Borovikovsky, who gained fame with portraits of the Empress, Derzhavin, many nobles, Dmitry Grigoryevich Levitsky, in the 60s, an academician, taught at the Academy of Arts, Fedor Stepanovich Rokotov, who worked
together with Lomonosov, painted the coronation portrait of Catherine II.

The domestic and foreign policy of the second half of the 18th century, prepared for the events of previous reigns, was marked by important
legislative acts, outstanding military events and significant territorial annexations.
This is due to the activities of major statesmen and military figures: A. R. Vorontsov, P. A. Rumyantsev, A. G. Orlov, G. A. Potemkin,
A. A. Bezborodko, A. V. Suvorov, F. F. Ushakov and others.

The tasks of the “enlightened monarch” Catherine II imagined as follows:

1) "You need to enlighten the nation that you have to govern.
2) You need to enter a good
order in the state, to maintain society and force it to comply
laws.
3) It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4) It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5) It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspire respect for its neighbors. "

Catherine II herself actively participated in public life.
Love for Russia, its people and everything Russian was an essential motive
her activities.

Joking aside, the greatest contribution to the development of Russia was made, of course, by Catherine II (aka Frederick Sophia Augusta, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst), who received the title of Catherine the Great during her lifetime.
After the victory in the war with Turkey, on April 8, 1783, Catherine II issued a manifesto on the annexation of Crimea, where the Crimean residents were promised “holy and unshakably for themselves and the successors of our throne to support them on an equal footing with our natural subjects, to protect and protect their faces, property, temples and their natural faith...
During the wars with Sweden, the Russian Empire repeatedly found itself in such critical situations that European capitals were already wondering what concessions Petersburg would have to buy peace. But all the unfavorable circumstances for Russia were overcome by the iron will of the empress, based on the unshakable stamina of the Russian troops and on the skill of combat generals and admirals. The first strategic success was achieved in the war in the Baltic: having exhausted resources and achieved nothing, the Swedes sued for peace in 1791.
After that, it was the turn to deal with Poland. Catherine easily convinced the Prussian king of the need to change priorities, the Vienna court also joined the alliance of St. Petersburg and Berlin. And, united, the three of us set about solving the Polish question. That is, to the complete partition of Poland. At the same time, Catherine showed considerable political wisdom: having annexed Western Ukrainian, Western Belarusian and Lithuanian lands to Russia, she did not take a shred of the indigenous Polish territories, giving them to the Prussian and Austrian partners. For I understood that the Poles would never put up with the loss of their statehood.
Following the results of the third section of the Commonwealth, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Duchy of Courland and Semigalle became part of the Russian Empire. This happened after Catherine II signed the manifesto of April 15, 1795. At the same time, the annexation of the territories of the modern Baltic states to Russia was finally completed.
And, in conclusion, I want to recall the words of the wise Ukrainian (unlike today) A. Bezborodko, who held the post of Russian chancellor under Catherine the Great, which he told young diplomats: “I don’t know how it will be with you, but with us not a single gun in Europe did not dare to blurt out without our permission. width="700" height="458" alt="(!LANG:740x485 (700x458, 278Kb)" /> !}

2.

Catherine II the Great (Ekaterina Alekseevna; at the birth of Sophia Frederick Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg) - April 21 (May 2), 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace , Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia (1762-1796). The period of her reign is often considered the golden age of the Russian Empire.

Origin

Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dornenburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully , finished his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elizabeth, from the family of Holstein-Gottorp, was the great aunt of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) was the king of Sweden from 1751 (elected heir in 1743). The family tree of the mother of Catherine II goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The family of the Duke of Zerbst was not rich, Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dances, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. I was brought up in strictness. She grew up a frisky, inquisitive, playful and even troubled girl, she loved to play pranks and flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the streets of Stettin. Her parents did not burden her with their upbringing and did not particularly stand on ceremony when expressing their displeasure. Her mother called her as a child Fikchen (German: Figchen - comes from the name Frederica, that is, "little Frederica").

In 1744, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, together with her mother, was invited to Russia for the subsequent marriage with the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter III and her second cousin. Immediately after her arrival in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, Russian traditions, as she sought to get to know Russia as fully as possible, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (Orthodoxy teacher), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (Russian language teacher) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher). She soon fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so severe that her mother offered to bring a Lutheran pastor. Sophia, however, refused and sent for Simon Todorsky. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. June 28 (July 9), 1744 Sophia Frederick Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Catherine Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth's mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was betrothed to the future emperor.

Marriage with the heir to the Russian throne

Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna with her husband Peter III Fedorovich
On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Peter Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. For the first years of their life together, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them. Ekaterina will write about this later:

I saw very well that the Grand Duke did not love me at all; two weeks after the wedding, he told me that he was in love with the girl Carr, the maid of honor of the Empress. He told Count Divier, his chamberlain, that there was no comparison between this girl and me. Divyer claimed otherwise, and he became angry with him; this scene took place almost in my presence, and I saw this quarrel. To tell the truth, I told myself that with this man I would certainly be very unhappy if I succumbed to the feeling of love for him, for which they paid so poorly, and that there would be something to die of jealousy without any benefit to anyone.

So, out of pride, I tried to force myself not to be jealous of a person who does not love me, but in order not to be jealous of him, there was no other choice than not to love him. If he wanted to be loved, it would not be difficult for me: I was naturally inclined and accustomed to fulfill my duties, but for this I would need to have a husband with common sense, and mine did not.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horseback riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of Catherine's lovers. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the absence of children from the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, who was immediately taken away from her by the will of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, they call him Paul (future Emperor Paul I) and deprive him of the opportunity to educate, allowing only occasionally to see. A number of sources claim that the true father of Paul was Catherine's lover S. V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the "Notes" of Catherine II, but they are also often interpreted this way). Others - that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter had an operation that eliminated the defect that made it impossible to conceive. The issue of paternity aroused public interest as well.

Catherine after her arrival in Russia, portrait by Louis Caravaque
After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna finally deteriorated. Peter called his wife “reserve madam” and openly made mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing this, who during this period had a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland, which arose thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Henbury Williams. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Anna, which caused great displeasure of Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I am not at all sure whether this child is from me and whether I should take it personally. At this time, the condition of Elizabeth Petrovna worsened. All this made the prospect of expelling Catherine from Russia or concluding her in a monastery real. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine's secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, devoted to political issues, was revealed. Her former favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III alienated the spouses even more. Peter III began to openly live with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Ekaterina hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigoryevich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter with the court left the palace to look at the fire; at this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexei Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Paul I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Pavel I Petrovich, son of Catherine (1777)
Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude of the officer corps towards him. So, he concluded an unfavorable treaty for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over it during the Seven Years' War and returned the lands occupied by the Russians to it. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (an ally of Russia), in order to return Schleswig, which she had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to go on a campaign at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership and shared with others plans for the reform of church rites. Supporters of the coup accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike of Russia, complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - a smart, well-read, pious and benevolent wife, who was persecuted by her husband.

After relations with her husband finally deteriorated, and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guard intensified, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, Potemkin and Khitrovo, engaged in agitation in the guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate cause of the start of the coup was the rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the disclosure and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy - Lieutenant Passek.

In the early morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the next day, was taken into custody and died in the first days of July under unclear circumstances.

After the abdication of her husband, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as the reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, issuing a manifesto in which the basis for the removal of Peter was an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To justify her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to "the desire of all Our loyal subjects is clear and not hypocritical." On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow.

The reign of Catherine II: general information

Alexei Grigoryevich Bobrinsky is the illegitimate son of the Empress.
In her memoirs, Catherine described the state of Russia at the beginning of her reign as follows:

Finances were depleted. The army did not receive a salary for 3 months. Trade was in decline, because many of its branches were given over to a monopoly. There was no correct system in the state economy. The War Department was plunged into debt; the marine was barely holding on, being in utter neglect. The clergy were dissatisfied with the taking away of his lands. Justice was sold at a bargain, and the laws were governed only in cases where they favored the strong person.

The Empress formulated the tasks facing the Russian monarch as follows:

It is necessary to educate the nation, which should govern.
It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws.
It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspire respect for its neighbors.
The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive, without sharp fluctuations, development. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms - judicial, administrative, provincial, etc. The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of the fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million ( in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities. As Klyuchevsky wrote:

Grigory Orlov, one of the leaders of the coup. Portrait by Fyodor Rokotov, 1762-1763
The army from 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 ships of the line and 6 frigates, in 1790 included 67 ships of the line and 40 frigates and 300 16 million rubles rose to 69 million, that is, more than quadrupled, the success of foreign trade: the Baltic - in increasing import and export, from 9 million to 44 million rubles, the Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1900 thousand roubles. in 1796, the growth of domestic turnover was indicated by the issue of a coin in 34 years of the reign for 148 million rubles, while in the 62 previous years it was issued only for 97 million.

The Russian economy continued to be agrarian. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting increased by more than 2 times (in which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the XVIII century. there were 1200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663 of them). The export of Russian goods to other European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Catherine II established a loan bank and introduced paper money into circulation.

Domestic politics

Catherine's commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine's time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian expanses and the harshness of the climate determine the regularity and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the system of government was unified. Their main idea was to criticize the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and despotic forms of government.

Imperial Council and transformation of the Senate

Palace in Ropsha, where Peter III died
Soon after the coup, the statesman N.I. Panin proposed the creation of an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 higher dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as the conditions of 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another project of Panin, the Senate was transformed - 15 Dec. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, the prosecutor general became the head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost its legislative initiative and became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Laid commission

An attempt was made to convene the Legislative Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs for comprehensive reforms.

Virgilius Eriksen. Equestrian portrait of Catherine the Great
More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% - from the townspeople, which also included the nobles, 20% - from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As the guiding document of the Commission of 1767, the empress prepared the "Instruction" - the theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Provincial reform

Nov 7 In 1775, the "Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, county, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, county (which was based on the principle of taxable population). Of the former 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which had 300-400 thousand residents. The provinces were divided into 10-12 counties, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Governor-General (governor) - kept order in local centers and 2-3 provinces, united under his authority, were subordinate to him. He had extensive administrative, financial and judicial powers, all military units and teams located in the provinces were subordinate to him.

Governor - was at the head of the province. They reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. The provincial prosecutor was subordinate to the governors. Finance in the province was handled by the Treasury, headed by the vice-governor. Land management was carried out by the provincial land surveyor. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. The Order of Public Charity was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters (social functions), as well as estate judicial institutions: the Upper Zemstvo Court for nobles, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigation between townspeople, and the Upper Reprisal for the trial of state peasants. The criminal and civil chamber judged all classes, were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.

Portrait of Catherine II in Russian attire by an unknown artist
Captain police officer - stood at the head of the county, leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. It was the executive body of the provincial government. In the counties, as in the provinces, there are estate institutions: for the nobility (county court), for the townspeople (city magistrate) and for state peasants (lower punishment). There was a county treasurer and a county surveyor. Representatives of the estates sat in the courts.

A conscientious court is called upon to stop strife and reconcile those who argue and quarrel. This court was without class. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

Since the cities - the centers of counties were clearly not enough. Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities appeared. The population of the cities began to be called philistines and merchants.

The city was brought into a separate administrative unit. At its head, instead of the governor, a mayor was appointed, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in the cities. The city was divided into parts (districts), which were supervised by a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by a quarter warden.

Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich

Carrying out the provincial reform in the Left-bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to a common administrative division for the Russian Empire into provinces and counties, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack officers with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kyuchuk-Kainarji Treaty (1774), Russia received access to the Black Sea and Crimea. In the west, the weakened Commonwealth was on the verge of partition.

Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky
Thus, the further need to maintain the presence of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks in their historical homeland for the protection of the southern Russian borders has disappeared. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, and also in connection with the support of the Pugachev uprising by the Cossacks, Catherine II ordered the Zaporizhzhya Sich to be disbanded, which was carried out on the orders of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and created the Army of the Faithful Cossacks, later the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 Catherine signs a manifesto that gives them the Kuban for perpetual use, where the Cossacks moved, having founded the city of Yekaterinodar.

The reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

The beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of the general administrative reforms of the 1970s aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine liquidated the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby starting the process of joining the Kalmyk state to Russia, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be in charge of a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs from among Russian officials were appointed. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshuts.

Moscow Orphanage
This decision of Catherine was preceded by a consistent policy of the empress to limit the khan's power in the Kalmyk Khanate. Thus, in the 1960s, the khanate intensified the crisis associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture land, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the interference of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsynskaya line, thousands of families of Don Cossacks began to settle in the area of ​​the main nomad camps of the Kalmyks, cities and fortresses began to be built along the entire Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, in turn, this aggravated internal relations in the khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church to Christianize the nomads, as well as the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to work. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy was ripened with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - to Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses that had wandered along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, the army was gathered on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many noyons and zaisangs, realizing the fatality of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnos lost on the way about 100,000 people killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, diseases, as well as captured, lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people.

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in the poem "Pugachev" by Sergei Yesenin.

Regional reform in Estonia and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estonia and Livonia, a special Baltic order was abolished, which provided for more extensive rights than the Russian landowners had for local nobles to work and the personality of a peasant.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Plague riot of 1771
Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

The reform was carried out by the government without taking into account the ethnic composition of the population: the territory of Mordovia was divided between 4 provinces: Penza, Simbirsk, Tambov and Nizhny Novgorod.

Economic policy

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from the authorities. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was banned so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (the state bank and the loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (since 1770, deposits were accepted for storage). A state bank was established and for the first time the issue of paper money - banknotes - was launched.

Of great importance was the state regulation of prices for salt introduced by the Empress, which was one of the most vital goods in the country. The Senate legislated the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in the regions of mass salting of fish. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine counted on increased competition and, ultimately, improving the quality of the goods.

The role of Russia in the world economy increased - Russian sailing fabric began to be exported to England in large quantities, the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (the consumption of cast iron in the domestic Russian market also increased significantly).

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced within Russia was completely prohibited. Duties from 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys ... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the cost of exported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine went through a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the amount of which by the end of the reign of the Empress exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social politics

Vasily Perov "The Court of Pugachev" (1879), Russian Museum, St. Petersburg
In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on the class-lesson system. Schools began to open. Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began, in 1764 the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics office, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783.

In the provinces there were orders of public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Orphanages for homeless children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Military Academy named after Peter the Great), where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to make such an inoculation. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to take on the character of state events that were directly within the responsibilities of the Imperial Council, the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of border and port quarantines" was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on questions of medicine have been published.

National politics

After the lands that were formerly part of the Commonwealth were annexed to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews turned up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, beyond which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

Ekaterina: "Rejected Returner"
In 1762-1764 Catherine published two manifestos. The first - "On allowing all foreigners entering Russia to settle in which provinces they wish and on the rights granted to them" called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second determined the list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, allotted for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until the settlement of those who had already entered. The creation of colonies on the Volga was on the rise: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a prominent role in the life of Russia.

By 1786, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, Crimea, Right-Bank Ukraine, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

The population of Russia in 1747 was 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36 million people.

In 1726, there were 336 cities in the country, by the beginning. XIX century - 634 cities. In con. In the 18th century, about 10% of the population lived in cities. In rural areas, 54% - privately owned and 40% - public

Legislation on estates

21 Apr. In 1785, two charters were issued: "Charter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility" and "Charter on the cities."

Both letters regulated the legislation on the rights and obligations of the estates.

Complaint to the nobility:

Catherine II and Grigory Potemkin at the Monument "1000th Anniversary of Russia" in Veliky Novgorod
Already existing rights were confirmed.
the nobility was exempted from the poll tax
from the quartering of military units and teams
from corporal punishment
from compulsory service
confirmed the right of unlimited disposal of the estate
the right to own houses in towns
the right to start enterprises on the estates and engage in trade
ownership of the subsoil
the right to have their own estate institutions
the name of the 1st estate changed: not “nobility”, but “noble nobility”.
it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; estates were to be passed on to legitimate heirs.
nobles have the exclusive right to own land, but the Charter does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs.
Ukrainian foremen were equalized in rights with Russian nobles.
a nobleman who did not have an officer's rank was deprived of the right to vote.
only nobles whose income from estates exceeds 100 rubles could hold elected positions.
Certificate of rights and benefits to the cities of the Russian Empire:

The right of the top merchants not to pay the poll tax was confirmed.
replacement of recruitment duty with a cash contribution.
The division of the urban population into 6 categories:

Nobles, officials and clergy ("real city dwellers") - can have houses and land in cities without engaging in trade.
merchants of all three guilds (the lowest amount of capital for merchants of the 3rd guild is 1000 rubles)
artisans registered in workshops.
foreign and out-of-town merchants.
eminent citizens - merchants with a capital of over 50 thousand rubles, rich bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), as well as urban intelligentsia: architects, painters, composers, scientists.
townspeople, who “feed on craft, needlework and work” (having no real estate in the city).
Representatives of the 3rd and 6th categories were called "philistines" (the word came from the Polish language through Ukraine and Belarus, originally meant "city dweller" or "citizen", from the word "place" - city and "town" - town).

Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and eminent citizens were exempted from corporal punishment. Representatives of the 3rd generation of eminent citizens were allowed to file a petition for the nobility.

Sections of the Commonwealth under Catherine
Serf peasantry:

The decree of 1763 placed the maintenance of the military teams sent to suppress peasant uprisings on the peasants themselves.
By decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only into exile, but also to hard labor, and the period of hard labor was set by him; the landlords also had the right to return the exiled from hard labor at any time.
The decree of 1767 forbade the peasants to complain about their master; disobedients were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court),
Peasants could not take an oath, take payoffs and contracts.
Trade in peasants reached a wide scale: they were sold in the markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given, forcibly married.
The decree of May 3, 1783 forbade the peasants of the Left-bank Ukraine and Sloboda Ukraine to pass from one owner to another.
The widespread idea that Catherine distributed the state peasants to the landowners, as has now been proven, is a myth (peasants from the lands acquired during the partitions of Poland, as well as palace peasants, were used for distribution). The zone of serfdom under Catherine spread to Ukraine. At the same time, the position of the monastery peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by a cash quitrent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants stopped.

The clergy lost their autonomous existence due to the secularization of church lands (1764), which made it possible to exist without the help of the state and independently of it. After the reform, the clergy became dependent on the state that financed it.

Religious policy

Catherine II - Legislator in the Temple of Justice (Levitsky D. G., 1783, Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow)
In general, in Russia under Catherine II, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued. Representatives of all traditional religions did not experience pressure and harassment. Thus, in 1773, a law was issued on the tolerance of all religions, forbidding the Orthodox clergy to interfere in the affairs of other confessions; secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of temples of any faith.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands near the church. But already in Feb. In 1764, she again issued a decree depriving the Church of landed property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The jurisdiction of the state included the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic possessions was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activity.

Catherine achieved from the government of the Commonwealth the equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, the persecution of the Old Believers ceased. The Empress initiated the return of the Old Believers, the economically active population, from abroad. They were specially assigned a place on the Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans in Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants (mainly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, freely perform worship. At the end of the 18th century, there were over 20,000 Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

The Jewish religion retained the right to public practice of faith. Religious matters and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the appropriate estate and could be elected to local governments, become judges and other civil servants.

By decree of Catherine II in 1787, the full Arabic text of the Islamic holy book of the Koran was printed for the first time in Russia in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg for free distribution to the “Kyrgyz”. The publication significantly differed from the European ones primarily in that it was of a Muslim nature: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. From 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published in St. Petersburg. In 1788, a manifesto was issued in which the empress ordered "to establish in Ufa a spiritual assembly of the Mohammedan law, which has in its department all the spiritual ranks of that law, ... excluding the Tauride region." Thus, Catherine began to integrate the Muslim community into the state system of the empire. Muslims were given the right to build and rebuild mosques.

Buddhism also received state support in the regions where it was traditionally practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of Khambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, the Buryat lamas recognized Ekaterina as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva of White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and humane rule.

Domestic political problems

Portrait by Lumpy the Elder, 1793
At the time of accession to the throne of Catherine II, the former Russian Emperor Ivan VI continued to remain alive in custody in the Shlisselburg fortress. In 1764, Lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg Fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic occurred in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd took the Donskoy Monastery by storm, killed Archbishop Ambrose, who was hiding in it, and began to smash the quarantine outposts and the houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the rebellion was crushed.

Peasant War 1773-1775

In 1773-1774 there was a peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaik army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga regions. During the uprising, the Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all provinces where hostilities unfolded joined the Cossacks. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism intensified.

Main steps:

Sept. 1773 - March 1774
March 1774 - July 1774
July 1774-1775
17 Sept. 1773 the uprising begins. Near the Yaitsky town, government detachments, marching to suppress the rebellion, go over to the side of 200 Cossacks. Without taking the town, the rebels go to Orenburg.

March - July 1774 - the rebels seize the factories of the Urals and Bashkiria. Under the Trinity fortress, the rebels are defeated. Kazan is captured on July 12. On July 17 they were again defeated and retreated to the right bank of the Volga. 12 Sept. 1774 Pugachev was captured.

Freemasonry, Novikov Case, Radishchev Case

1762-1778 - characterized by the organizational design of Russian Freemasonry and the dominance of the English system (Yelagin Freemasonry).

In the 60s and especially in the 70s. 18th century Freemasonry is becoming increasingly popular among the educated nobility. The number of Masonic lodges increases several times, even despite the skeptical (if not semi-hostile) attitude towards Freemasonry of Catherine II. The question naturally arises why a significant part of the Russian educated society became so interested in Masonic teachings? The main reason, in our opinion, was the search for a new ethical ideal, a new meaning of life, by a certain part of the noble society. Traditional Orthodoxy could not satisfy them for obvious reasons. In the course of Peter the Great's state reforms, the church turned into an appendage of the state apparatus, serving it and justifying any, even the most immoral, actions of its representatives.

That is why the Order of Freemasons became so popular, because it offered its adherents brotherly love and sacred wisdom based on the undistorted true values ​​of early Christianity.

And, secondly, in addition to internal self-improvement, many were attracted by the opportunity to master secret mystical knowledge.

Portrait of Princess Anhalt-Zerbst, future Catherine II
And finally, magnificent rituals, robes, hierarchy, romantic atmosphere of meetings of Masonic lodges could not fail to attract the attention of Russian nobles as people, primarily military people, accustomed to military uniforms and paraphernalia, servility, etc.

In the 1760s a large number of representatives of the highest noble aristocracy and the emerging noble intelligentsia, as a rule, are opposed to the political regime of Catherine II. Suffice it to mention Vice-Chancellor N.I. Panin, his brother General P.I. Panin, their great-nephew A.B. Kurakin (1752–1818), Kurakin’s friend Prince. G. P. Gagarin (1745–1803), Prince N. V. Repnin, future Field Marshal M. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, secretary N. I. Panin and famous playwright D. I. Fonvizin and many others.

As for the organizational structure of Russian Freemasonry of this period, its development proceeded in two directions. Most of the Russian lodges were part of the system of English or John Freemasonry, which consisted of only 3 traditional degrees with an elected leadership. The main goal was proclaimed the moral self-improvement of man, mutual assistance and charity. The head of this direction of Russian Freemasonry was Ivan Perfilievich Elagin, appointed in 1772 by the Grand Lodge of London (Old Freemasons) as the Great Provincial Master of Russia. By his name, the whole system is called Elagin Freemasonry.

A minority of the lodges worked according to various systems of Strict Supervision, which recognized the highest degrees and emphasized the achievement of higher mystical knowledge (the German direction of Freemasonry).

The exact number of lodges in Russia of that period has not yet been established. Of those that are known, the majority entered (albeit on different conditions) into an alliance led by Elagin. However, this union proved to be extremely short-lived. Yelagin himself, despite the fact that he denied higher degrees, nevertheless sympathized with the aspirations of many Masons to find the highest Masonic wisdom. It was at his suggestion that Prince A.B. Kurakin, a childhood friend of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich, under the pretext of announcing the new wedding of the heir to the Swedish royal house, went to Stockholm in 1776 with a secret mission to establish contacts with Swedish Masons, who were rumored to have this higher knowledge.

However, Kurakin's mission gave rise to another split in Russian Freemasonry.

MATERIALS ON THE PROSECUTION OF NOVIKOV, HIS ARREST AND INTERVIEW

The investigation file of Novikov includes a huge number of documents - letters and decrees of Ekaterina, correspondence between Prozorovsky and Sheshkovsky during the investigation - with each other and with Ekaterina, numerous interrogations of Novikov and his detailed explanations, letters, etc. The main part of the case fell into its own time in the archive and is now stored in the funds of the Central State Archive of Ancient Acts in Moscow (TsGADA, category VIII, file 218). At the same time, a significant number of the most important papers were not included in the Novikov file, since they remained in the hands of those who conducted the investigation - Prozorovsky, Sheshkovsky, and others. These originals subsequently passed into private possession and forever remained lost to us. Fortunately, some of them turned out to be published in the middle of the 19th century, and therefore we know them only from these printed sources.

The publication of the materials of the investigation of the Russian educator began in the second half of the 19th century. The first large group of documents was published by the historian Ilovaisky in the Chronicles of Russian Literature published by Tikhonravov. These documents were taken from a genuine investigative file conducted by Prince Prozorovsky. In the same years, new materials appeared in a number of publications. In 1867, M. Longinov, in his study "Novikov and the Moscow Martinists", published a number of new documents taken from the "Novikov Case", and reprinted all previously published papers from the investigation file. Thus, in Longinov's book was given the first and most complete set of documents, which until today, as a rule, were used by all scientists in the study of Novikov's activities. But this Longinus code is far from complete. Many of the most important materials were unknown to Longinov and therefore were not included in the book. Already a year after the publication of his research - in 1868 - in the II volume of the "Collection of the Russian Historical Society", Popov published a number of important papers transferred to him by P. A. Vyazemsky. Apparently, these papers came to Vyazemsky from the archives of the chief executioner Radishchev and Novikov-Sheshkovsky. From Popov's publication, for the first time, the questions posed by Sheshkovsky to Novikov became known (Longinov knew only the answers), and objections, apparently written by Sheshkovok himself. These objections are important for us in that they undoubtedly arose as a result of remarks made by Catherine on the answers of Novikov, whose case she personally dealt with. Among the questions put to Novikov was question number 21 - about his relationship with the heir Pavel (Paul's name is not indicated in the text of the question, and it was about a "person"). Longinov did not know this question and the answer to it, since it was not on the list that Longinov used. Popov was the first to publish both this question and the answer to it.

Catherine II for a walk in Tsarskoye Selo park. Painting by artist Vladimir Borovikovsky, 1794
A year later, in 1869, Academician Pekarsky published the book Supplement to the History of Masons in Russia in the 18th Century. The book contained materials on the history of Freemasonry, among many papers there were also documents related to Novikov's investigative case. Pekarskaya's publication is of particular value to us, since it characterizes Novikov's educational book publishing activity in detail. In particular, papers characterizing the history of Novikov's relationship with Pokhodyashin deserve special attention, from which we learn about Novikov's most important activity - organizing assistance to starving peasants. The significance of Novikov's investigative case is extremely great. First of all, it contains abundant biographical material, which, despite the general scarcity of information about Novikov, is sometimes the only source for studying the life and work of the Russian enlightener. But the main value of these documents lies elsewhere - a careful study of them clearly convinces us that Novikov was persecuted for a long time and systematically, that he was arrested, having previously destroyed the entire book publishing business, and then secretly and cowardly, without trial, was imprisoned in the casemate of the Shlisselburg Fortress - not for Freemasonry, but for the huge educational activity independent of the government, which became a major phenomenon in public life in the 80s.

The answers to questions 12 and 21, which speak of "repentance" and pin hopes on "royal mercy", should be understood by the modern reader historically correctly, with a clear idea not only of the era, but also of the circumstances in which these confessions were made. We must also not forget that Novikov was in the hands of the cruel official Sheshkovsky, whom his contemporaries called the "house executioner" of Catherine II. Questions 12 and 21 concerned such cases, which Novikov could not deny - he published books, he knew about relations with the "special" - Pavel. Therefore, he showed that he committed these “crimes” “out of thoughtlessness about the importance of this act”, pleaded “guilty”. It is worth recalling that under similar conditions, Radishchev acted exactly the same way when, forced to admit that he really called the serfs to revolt or “threatened the tsars with a chopping block”, he showed: “I wrote this without thinking” or: “I admit my error”, etc. d.

Appeals to Catherine II were officially binding. Similarly, in Radishchev's answers to Sheshkovsky, we will encounter appeals to Catherine II, which quite obviously do not express the real attitude of the revolutionary towards the Russian Empress. The same necessity compelled Novikov to "throw himself at the feet of her Imperial Majesty". A serious illness, a depressed state of mind from the realization that not only his whole life's work was destroyed, but his name was blackened by slander - all this, of course, also determined the nature of emotional appeals to the empress.

At the same time, it must be remembered that, despite the courage shown by Novikov during the investigation, his behavior differs from that of the first Russian revolutionary. Radishchev drew the firmness so necessary in such circumstances from the proud consciousness of his historical rightness, relied in his behavior on the morality of the revolutionary forged by him, calling on him to openly go towards danger, and if necessary, even death, in the name of the triumph of the great cause of the liberation of the people. Radishchev fought, and sitting in the fortress, he defended himself; Novikov - justified.

Novikov's investigative case has not yet been subjected to systematic and scientific study. Until now, it has been used only for reference. The following two circumstances undoubtedly prevented systematic study: a) the extreme dispersal of documents among publications that have long become a bibliographic rarity, and b) the established tradition of printing documents of the Novikov investigation file surrounded by abundant materials on the history of Freemasonry. In this sea of ​​Masonic papers, the Novikov case proper was lost, the main thing in it was lost - the increase in Catherine's persecution of Novikov, and of him alone (and not Freemasonry), for book publishing, for educational activities, for writings - persecution that ended not only with arrest and imprisonment in the fortress of an advanced public figure hated by the empress, but also by the defeat of the entire educational work (the decree on the prohibition of renting the university printing house to Novikov, the closure of the bookshop, the confiscation of books, etc.).

Foreign policy of Russia in the reign of Catherine II

The foreign policy of the Russian state under Catherine was aimed at strengthening the role of Russia in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: "one must be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker ... keep one's hands free ... do not trail anyone with a tail."

Expansion of the Russian Empire

The new territorial growth of Russia begins with the accession of Catherine II. After the first Turkish war, in 1774 Russia acquired important points at the mouths of the Dnieper and Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region join. The second Turkish war ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea. At the same time, the Polish partitions give Russia Western Russia. According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received a part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Russia, the upper course of the Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third section, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia (the act of abdication of Duke Biron).

Sections of the Commonwealth

The Polish-Lithuanian federal state of the Commonwealth included the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The reason for intervening in the affairs of the Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine exerted strong pressure on the gentry in order to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising that was raised in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its success in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to divide the Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia brought in their troops.

In 1772, the 1st partition of the Commonwealth took place. Austria received all of Galicia with districts, Prussia - West Prussia (Pomorye), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the partition and renounce claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targowice Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793, the 2nd partition of the Commonwealth took place, approved by the Grodno Seim. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right-Bank Ukraine.

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, whose goals were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A. V. Suvorov.

In 1795, the 3rd partition of Poland took place. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

Russian-Turkish wars. Annexation of Crimea

An important direction in the foreign policy of Catherine II was also the territories of the Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774), using as a pretext that one of the Russian detachments, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win one victory after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the Battle of Kozludzhi, the battle of the Ryaba Mogila, the Cahul battle, the Largas battle, the Chesme battle, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi Treaty, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but became de facto dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea, along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Giray was elected khan. The previous khan - protege of Turkey Devlet IV Giray - at the beginning of 1777 tried to resist, but it was suppressed by A. V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of Turkish troops in the Crimea was prevented, and thus an attempt to unleash a new war was prevented, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as a khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by the Russian troops brought to the peninsula, and in 1783, by the manifesto of Catherine II, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the empress, together with the Austrian emperor Joseph II, made a triumphal trip to the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey took place in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both on land - the Kinburn battle, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Ackerman, etc., and the sea ones - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), The Kerch naval battle (1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Iasi Peace Treaty, which secured the Crimea and Ochakov for Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories by Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result of them, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region were ceded to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans were strengthened, and Russia's authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Georgievsky treatise

Georgievsky treatise of 1783
Under the king of Kartli and Kakheti, Heraclius II (1762-1798), the united Kartli-Kakheti state was significantly strengthened, its influence in Transcaucasia was growing. Turks are expelled from the country. Georgian culture is being revived, book printing is emerging. Enlightenment is becoming one of the leading directions of social thought. Heraclius turned to Russia for protection from Persia and Turkey. Catherine II, who fought with Turkey, on the one hand, was interested in an ally, on the other hand, did not want to send significant military forces to Georgia. In 1769-1772, an insignificant Russian detachment under the command of General Totleben fought against Turkey on the side of Georgia. In 1783, Russia and Georgia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk establishing a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for Russia's military protection. In 1795, the Persian Shah Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar invaded Georgia and, after the Battle of Krtsanis, ravaged Tbilisi.

The German Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerptskaya, known as Catherine the 2nd, was born on April 21, 1729. Her family was not rich, and the princess received only a home education, which shaped the personality of Catherine the 2nd, the future Russian Empress. In 1744, an event occurred that determined not only the further biography of Ekaterina Alekseevna, but also in many respects the fate of Russia. Princess Sophia Augusta was chosen as the bride of the heir to the Russian throne, Peter III. At the invitation of Elizabeth Petrovna, she arrived at the court. Treating Russia as her second homeland, she actively engaged in self-education, studying the language, culture, history of the country in which she was to live.

In 1744, on June 24, she was baptized into Orthodoxy under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. The wedding ceremony with Peter the 3rd took place on August 21, 1745. The husband did not pay much attention to the young wife, and balls, masquerades and hunting became Catherine's only entertainment. In 1754, on September 20, Catherine had a son, the future Emperor Paul 1st, but the child was immediately taken away from her. Relations between the Empress and Peter the 3rd deteriorated markedly. Peter the 3rd had mistresses, and Catherine herself entered into a relationship with the future Polish king Stanislav Poniatowski.

Daughter Anna, born on December 9, 1758, was not accepted by her husband, since Peter the 3rd had serious doubts about the paternity of the child. Empress Elizabeth by that time was seriously ill. Catherine's secret correspondence with the Austrian ambassador was also revealed. The fate of Catherine the Great could have turned out quite differently if it were not for the support of associates and favorites with whom the wife of Peter the 3rd surrounded herself.

Peter III ascended the throne in 1761, after the death of Elizabeth. Catherine was immediately resettled away from the matrimonial quarters, which were occupied by her mistress. Having become pregnant from G. Orlov, Catherine was forced to hide her position. Her son Alexei was born in the strictest secrecy.

The domestic and foreign policy of Peter the 3rd caused growing discontent. The smart and active Catherine looked much more beneficial against the background of such acts of Peter as the return of Prussia to the lands seized during the course. In the environment of Peter the 3rd, a conspiracy was formed. Supporters of Catherine the 2nd persuaded the guards to take part in the conspiracy. They took the oath to the future empress in St. Petersburg on June 28, 1762. The next day, Peter the 3rd was forced to abdicate in favor of his wife and arrested. Shortly thereafter, he was killed. Thus began the reign of Catherine the 2nd, called by historians the golden age of the Russian Empire.

The domestic policy of Catherine the 2nd was determined by the commitment of the Russian Empress to the ideas of enlightenment. It was during the period called the enlightened absolutism of Catherine the 2nd that the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the management system was unified, and the autocracy was strengthened. In order to carry out comprehensive and useful reforms for the country, Catherine II convened the Legislative Commission, which included deputies from the nobility, townspeople and rural population. But it was not possible to avoid internal political problems, and the largest of them was the peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev in 1773-1775.

The foreign policy of Catherine II was quite energetic and very successful. The empress sought to secure the southern borders of the country from the claims of Turkey. Perhaps, it was in Turkish companies that the interests of the Russian Empire most sharply clashed with the interests of France and England. The second most important task for Catherine the 2nd was the annexation of the lands of Belarus and Ukraine to the territory of the empire, which she achieved with the help of the partitions of Poland, carried out jointly with Austria and Prussia. It is worth noting the decree of Catherine the 2nd on the liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich.

The reign of Empress Catherine II the Great was long and lasted from 1762 to 1796. It was based on the philosophy of enlightenment. There is information that Catherine was thinking about, but did not dare to make such large-scale changes. In the era of Catherine the 2nd, the Hermitage and the Public Library, the Smolny Institute and pedagogical schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg were created. It was during this period that the foundations of civil society in Russia were laid. The death of Catherine the 2nd came from a cerebral hemorrhage that occurred on November 5, 1796. The Empress died the next day, November 6. Her son, Pavel 1st, ascended the Russian throne.

Once upon a time in the eighteenth century, no one dared to imagine that a girl born on the territory of modern Germany would become a great Russian empress.

The father of Catherine II was a German by origin. When his daughter was born, she was named Sophia Frederica. Sophia Frederica's mother was not interested, and for this reason the girl grew up as an orphan with living parents. She was engaged in a governess, as well as visiting teachers. The girl probably wanted her mother to pay at least a modicum of attention to her.
This dream came true in 1744. This is the period of life when the mother takes her young daughter Sophia to Russia. Here, on our land, a year later the girl was engaged to Peter. And she was baptized and in baptism became Catherine. Soon the young people got married.

For nine years the family lives without heirs, and only in the tenth year the Lord gives Catherine and Peter a son. The boy becomes the subject of court gossip because everyone is puzzled as to who his father really is. This fact does not sadden Catherine at all. She does not deal with her Son. The baby is raised by Empress Elizabeth.

At the end of 1761, Peter 3 became king, and his wife Catherine became empress by status. But the affairs of state are not at all interesting to her.

In marriage, Catherine is also not happy. The husband is inattentive and cruel towards his wife. Then, from idleness and inattention to her person on the part of her husband, she enters into a relationship with the military Orlov. Gregory helps Catherine overthrow her husband from the throne. She is completely successful in this endeavor.

Now Catherine is the Empress. She does everything so that power belongs only to her and the people and the environment do not oppose her. It is worth noting that Catherine is trying to change the way of life in Russia. And, I must say, in some way she succeeds in doing this.

With regard to the church, Catherine takes a radical decision of its kind - to make it part of the state.
From the side of foreign policy, it increases the area of ​​the country of Russia, especially towards modern Poland.
The year 1774 was marked by the receipt of the Russian access to the Black Sea. And this historic event happened thanks to Potemkin, Catherine's favorite at that time in her life. Thanks to his eloquence and the gift of persuasion, Crimea was also annexed.

If we talk about education, then it was under Catherine that free schools and boarding schools for girls were created, as they say boarding houses for noble maidens. In cultural terms, the breakthrough is also huge - the personal collection of the Empress is exhibited in the Hermitage. She favors writers and poets. Therefore, creative people work very fruitfully during the reign of Catherine.

Many myths and legends are still circulating about the intimate side of Catherine's life. It is proved that she had countless lovers. But the status occupied in the state did not allow her to remarry.

Catherine until the last days did not lose her clarity of mind and strength in memory. But we are all mortal. In the tenth month of 1796, the Empress was found unconscious in her private quarters. She lived another night and the next day this amazing woman was no more.

Her son ordered that the ashes of the mother be placed next to the ashes of her husband. They are both buried in the Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul.

3, 4 grade for children

Biography of Catherine II about the main thing

A wonderful ruler, the great Russian Empress Catherine II managed to raise and stabilize not only the political life, but also the culture of her people to the level of Europe.

At the time when little Catherine was just born, she was given a completely different name - Sophia Frederick Augusta. Her father's name was Christian August, who was the prince of one of the small principalities of Germany. He managed to achieve fame and universal recognition only in the war. The mother devoted very little time to raising her own daughter, which is why the girl was raised and brought up by a governess.

Numerous tutors took an active part in the education of the future great empress, among whom was the chaplain who taught the girl the lessons of religion. But, one way or another, Sofia had her own questions for some questions. In addition, she easily mastered 3 foreign languages ​​​​and was fluent in them - German, Russian and French.

In 1744, she and her mother went to Russia, where she studied with one of the greatest princes, Prince Peter. Here Sophia accepts Orthodoxy and at the time of baptism receives a new name - Catherine.

On August 21, 1745, she becomes the wife of one heir to the Russian throne, and as a result, the crown prince. But her married life was far from ideal.

For many years, she and her husband could not have children, and now, finally, an heir is born. On September 20, 1754, the children's laughter of their son Pavel appears in their family. Quite unexpectedly, strong disputes begin - who really is the boy's father. Catherine practically did not see her son, since immediately after the boy was born, Empress Elizabeth takes him to her.

Catherine could not constantly endure the tyranny and cruelty of her husband and did everything possible to overthrow him from the throne and take his place. She succeeds.

By 1796, the great ruler had absolute power over the empire for several decades.

In mid-November 1796, the body of the Empress was found in the bathroom. Everyone thought she had a stroke. The very next night, November 17 of the same year, Catherine II died.

Catherine II briefly about the main

Catherine the Great, the Russian Empress, was an extraordinary person. She was a brilliant organizer. She carried out many reforms related to different areas of the country's life. True, not all of them were accepted by the common people.

Catherine the Great was born on May 2, 1729 in Poland in a city on the border with Germany. Her full name is Sophia Augusta Frederick, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst.

Sophia was home-educated. She liked to study: geography and history. In addition to her native language, she was fluent in English and French. From childhood, she showed her independent character, was persistent and inquisitive, was a playful and agile child.

In 1744, Sophia, having arrived with her mother in Russia, was baptized according to the Orthodox custom and took the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. And she became the bride of the future emperor, Peter Fedorovich. Her marriage proved to be long-suffering, from the very beginning. Peter and Catherine were still very young, her husband did not want to know her. Therefore, the poor girl was lonely, but not bored: she read a lot, learned the language, studied the history of the country that became her new homeland.

After five years, the young wife, tired of her husband ignoring her, found herself a favorite. In the autumn of 1754 she gave birth to a son. The birth of a child became the subject of rumors at court. The debate about the origin of Paul is still ongoing. Some are convinced that the boy's father was not her husband Peter, but a lover. Others recognize the paternity of Peter. The heir, immediately after birth, was selected by the ruling empress, considering Catherine not worthy to raise her son. After the birth of the heir, the relationship of the spouses deteriorated completely. Peter openly took mistresses, even lived openly with them and moved his wife to the other end of the palace, this was already after the coronation.

In the winter of 57, the princess gave birth to a daughter. What caused the indignation of the husband, he stated that he was not sure if this was his child.

At the beginning of 1760 she gave birth to a third child - the son of Alexei. She hid her pregnancy. Since there was no married life with her husband, and everyone knew about it. During childbirth, her faithful valet deliberately set fire to his house. The emperor adored such spectacles, and went to look at the fire. The Empress calmly gave birth to a boy, who was named Alexei, he was given a different surname. Catherine did not recognize all the accusations made against her by her husband that all the children were not his. She steadfastly endured the persecution of her husband. Of course, his attacks led her to fear for her life. But she never showed her fears to anyone. Even before the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, she began to make plans to overthrow her husband from the throne. She even shared her plans with her favorite, asking for a loan for bribery, promising to act in the interests of the English crown from the English king.

After the death of his mother, Peter 3 ruled the state for six months. The guardsmen negatively treated him for his unreasonable actions. He entered into an unfavorable alliance, returned the lands conquered in the recent war. He took away from the church all the property, land and was going to reform the church rites. He was accused of dementia and betrayal of the Motherland. The people did not consider Peter 3 capable of governing the state.

The attitude towards Catherine the Great, her husband, was not just bad, he simply hated her, for the fact that she simply is. It was not difficult to organize a rebellion, she gathered like-minded people around her who helped to carry out her plan. It was not difficult, this woman was an unsurpassed organizer, with a lively mind.

Peter 3 was overthrown. The truth about his death is still unknown. There is speculation that he suffered from an illness. Allegedly, there are facts that Catherine ordered an autopsy to dispel suspicions of poisoning. According to the empress in the letter, it is indicated that the body is clean, there are no signs of poisoning. One of the historians claims that the murder is proven. Presenting evidence in copies of the letter, there were no originals, Orlov to the Great Empress. She claims that she knew about the impending murder, and even a few days before Peter 3 died, she sent a doctor who was supposed to perform an autopsy. But this is not complete proof. The deposed sovereign, according to some reports, suffered greatly from pain before his death. Perhaps, as an option, when the ruler found out about the pains that tormented him and sent a doctor, suggesting poisoning. And so that she would not be accused, she ordered to make sure that there was no poison. Why not? After all, she wanted to get the throne and the power that accompanies it.

Having risen as the Empress, she wrote an appeal in which she indicated the reason for the overthrow of her husband and her self-nomination. This is an attempt to betray the state religion and betrayal of the Motherland, by Peter. And to assert the rights to the throne, she pointed to the general request of the people.

The empress was similar in opinion with Peter 1 that Russia should take a dominant position in the world, pursuing an active, or rather aggressive policy. She broke off the alliance with Prussia, which her husband concluded. This was one of the first steps of the empress after the coronation.

Foreign policy was built on the erection of their protégés as heads of state. Thanks to her, Duke E. I. Biron became the ruler of Lithuania, and in 1763 her protege, Stanislav August Poniatowski, ascended the throne in Poland. Some states began to fear the increase in the influence of the Russian state. They began to set the old enemy of the Russian state - Turkey. The war between Russia and Turkey, which lasted more than one year, was successful for Russia. But the internal political situation did not develop very well, forcing us to look for new allies. All that remained was to renew peace with Austria. Peace was achieved at the cost of Polish territories.

The signing of a peace treaty with Turkey guaranteed the sovereignty of Crimea. In the following years, the strengthening of imperial influence continued. As a result of these actions, Crimea became part of the Russian Empire. Later, a pact was signed; it ensured the presence of the Russian army on Georgian soil. Later they became part of the Russian Empire. At the end of the 18th century, new foreign policy regimes began to be created - the so-called Greek project. Foreign policy actions returned the country's authority, which was strengthened after Russia's performance as an accomplice at the congress between Prussia and Austria.

Most of the innovations carried out in Russia were ambivalent and illogical, like the personality of the empress. During her reign, the privileges of the nobility were increased, and serfdom was fully consolidated. Serfs were deprived of all rights, and most importantly freedom. It was forbidden for the peasant to file a complaint against the master. For any disobedience they were sent into exile, to hard labor. Moreover, the landlord set the deadline. Although the monastic peasants had an easier life, they were charged a fee for their faults.

Bribing favorites with gifts, Catherine the Great herself led to the prosperity of corruption in the country.

Catherine described her personal qualities in her diaries. Historians, having studied her diaries, claim that she was remarkably versed in people, really felt their essence, and used people as she wanted. I surrounded myself with gifted, brilliant people.

Tactful, restrained and patient, she listened carefully to the speaker, paying attention to constructive thoughts, and used them.

These years were the heyday of the Russian nobility. No one, over the years, from the aristocrats was sent into exile, not to mention execution.

She was distinguished by vanity, she valued the power she won.

To maintain power, she could do anything, even at the cost of her convictions.

From the portraits of the Empress, it is clear that she was pretty. No wonder she had so many lovers.

She did not want to marry a second time. Indeed, in this case, everything: title, position, power would be lost. Although there were rumors that she entered into a secret marriage, and maybe more than one.

Like all women, she wanted love, so she surrounded herself with lovers. Her debauchery had a negative impact on the morality of the court.

In the Catherine era, education, culture and science, trade relations and diplomacy developed. Thanks to her, banks appeared, medicine developed, they were obliged to inoculate against smallpox, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. Attention was also paid to education, especially women's education, schools, colleges, institutes, the Institute of Noble Maidens were built. The import of raw materials and the export of manufactured goods improved.

But, the hardships of the common people led to an uprising. The provincial reforms were the authorities' responses to the Pugachev uprising. Which showed the weakness of power, and the inability to cope with the peasant revolt.

She was strong in character and spirit. Otherwise, it would not have been possible to achieve power and hold it for more than 30 years.

Such people take life into their own hands and build it themselves. They retreat only when they realize that they are really wrong. Catherine was a strong, wise woman who did not allow herself to be afraid of anything, and if she overcame fear, she did not show it to anyone, she acted to eliminate the causes of her fear.

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