There are many amazing things and unusual materials in the world, but these may well qualify for participation in the category "the most amazing among those invented by people." Of course, these substances “violate” the rules of physics only at first glance, in fact, everything has been scientifically explained for a long time, although this substance does not make it any less amazing.
Substances that violate the rules of physics:
1. ferrofluid- This is a magnetic fluid from which you can form very curious and intricate figures. However, as long as there is no magnetic field, the ferrofluid is viscous and unremarkable. But once you influence it with the help of a magnetic field, how its particles line up along the lines of force - and create something indescribable ...
2. Airgel Frozen Smoke(“Frozen Smoke”) is 99 percent air and 1 percent silicic anhydride. The result is a very impressionable magic: bricks hang in the air and all that. In addition, this gel is also fireproof.
Being almost imperceptible, the airgel at the same time can hold almost incredible weights, which is 4000 times the volume of the substance consumed, and it is very light itself. It is used in space: for example, to "catch" dust from comet tails and to "insulate" astronauts' suits. In the future, scientists say, it will appear in many homes: a very convenient material.
3.perfluorocarbon is a liquid that holds a large amount of oxygen, and which, in fact, you can breathe. The substance was tested back in the 60s of the last century: on mice, demonstrating a certain amount of effectiveness. Unfortunately, only certain: laboratory mice died after several hours spent in containers with liquid. Scientists have come to the conclusion that impurities are to blame ...
Today, perfluorocarbons are used for ultrasound and even to create artificial blood. In no case should the substance be used uncontrollably: it is not the most environmentally friendly. The atmosphere, for example, "warms up" 6500 times more actively than carbon dioxide.
4.Elastic conductors are made from a "mix" of ionic liquid and carbon nanotubes. Scientists are delighted with this invention: after all, in fact, these conductors can stretch without losing their properties, and then return to their original size, as if nothing had happened. And this gives reason to seriously think about all sorts of elastic gadgets.
5. non-newtonian fluid It is a liquid that can be walked on: when force is applied, it hardens. Scientists are looking for a way to apply this ability of non-Newtonian fluid in the development of military equipment and uniforms. So that soft and comfortable fabric becomes hard under the action of a bullet - and turns into a bulletproof vest.
6. Transparent aluminum oxide and at the same time, they plan to use strong metal both to create more advanced military equipment, and in the automotive industry and even in the production of windows. Why not: you can see it well, and at the same time it does not beat.
7.carbon nanotubes were already present in the fourth paragraph of the article, and now - a new meeting. And all because their possibilities are really wide, and you can talk about all sorts of delights for hours. In particular, it is the most durable of all materials invented by man.
Using this material, they are already creating super-strong filaments, ultra-compact computer processors and much, much more, and in the future the pace will only increase: super-efficient batteries, even more efficient solar panels and even a cable for the space elevator of the future...
8.hydrophobic sand and hydrophobicity is the physical property of a molecule that "tends" to avoid contact with water. The molecule itself in this case is called hydrophobic.
Hydrophobic molecules are usually non-polar and "prefer" to be among other neutral molecules and non-polar solvents. Therefore, water on a hydrophobic surface with a high contact angle is collected in drops, and oil, getting into a reservoir, is distributed over its surface.
In this (2007 - P.Z.) year we want to tell you, dear readers, about water. This series of articles will be called: the water cycle. It probably makes no sense to talk about how important this substance is for all natural sciences and for each of us. It is no coincidence that many are trying to speculate on the interest in water, take at least the sensational film "The Great Secret of Water", which attracted the attention of millions of people. On the other hand, we cannot simplify the situation and say that we know everything about water; this is not at all true, water has been and remains the most unusual substance in the world. To consider in detail the features of water, a detailed conversation is needed. And we begin with chapters from a wonderful book by the founder of our journal, Academician I.V. Petryanov-Sokolova, which was published by the Pedagogy publishing house in 1975. This book, by the way, may well serve as an example of a popular science conversation between a prominent scientist and such a difficult reader as a high school student.
Is everything already known about water?
Quite recently, in the 30s of our century, chemists were sure that the composition of water was well known to them. But once one of them had to measure the density of the rest of the water after electrolysis. He was surprised: the density was several hundred-thousandths higher than normal. Nothing is insignificant in science. This insignificant difference demanded an explanation. As a result, scientists have discovered many new great secrets of nature. They learned that water is very complex. New isotopic forms of water have been found. Extracted from ordinary heavy water; it turned out that it is absolutely necessary for the energy of the future: in a thermonuclear reaction, deuterium isolated from a liter of water will provide as much energy as 120 kg of coal. Now, in all countries of the world, physicists are working hard and tirelessly to solve this great problem. And it all started with a simple measurement of the most common, everyday and uninteresting quantity - the density of water was measured more accurately by an extra decimal place. Each new, more accurate measurement, each new correct calculation, each new observation not only increases confidence in the knowledge and reliability of what has already been mined and known, but also pushes the boundaries of the unknown and not yet known and paves new paths to them.
What is ordinary water?
There is no such water in the world. There is no ordinary water anywhere. She is always extraordinary. Even the isotopic composition of water in nature is always different. The composition depends on the history of water - on what happened to it in the infinite variety of its circulation in nature. When water evaporates, it is enriched with protium, and therefore rain water is different from lake water. River water is not like sea water. In closed lakes, the water contains more deuterium than the water of mountain streams. Each spring has its own isotopic composition of water. When the water in the lake freezes in winter, no one who skates suspects that the isotopic composition of the ice has changed: the content of heavy hydrogen has decreased, but the amount of heavy oxygen has increased. The water from melting ice is different and different from the water from which the ice was made.
What is light water?
This is the same water, the formula of which is known to all schoolchildren - H 2 16 O. But there is no such water in nature. Scientists have prepared such water with great difficulty. They needed it to accurately measure the properties of water, and primarily to measure its density. So far, such water exists only in a few of the largest laboratories in the world, where the properties of various isotopic compounds are studied.
What is heavy water?
And this water does not exist in nature. Strictly speaking, it would be necessary to call heavy water, consisting only of heavy isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen, D 2 18 O, but such water is not even in the laboratories of scientists. Of course, if science or technology needs this water, scientists will be able to find a way to get it: there is plenty of deuterium and heavy oxygen in natural water.
In science and nuclear engineering, heavy hydrogen water is conventionally called heavy water. It contains only deuterium, it does not contain the usual, light isotope of hydrogen at all. The isotopic composition of oxygen in this water usually corresponds to the composition of atmospheric oxygen.
Until quite recently, no one in the world even suspected that such water exists, and now giant factories are operating in many countries of the world that process millions of tons of water in order to extract deuterium from it and get clean heavy water.
Are there many different types of water in the water?
In what water? In the one that flows from the water tap, where it came from the river, heavy water D 2 16 O is about 150 g per ton, and heavy oxygen (H 2 17 O and H 2 18 O together) is almost 1800 g per ton of water. And in the water from the Pacific Ocean, heavy water is almost 165 g per ton.
In a ton of ice of one of the large glaciers of the Caucasus, there is 7 g more heavy water than in river water, and the same amount of heavy oxygen water. But on the other hand, in the water of the streams running along this glacier, D 2 16 O turned out to be 7 g less, and H 2 18 O - 23 g more than in the river.
Tritium water T 2 16 O falls to the ground along with precipitation, but it is very small - only 1 g per million million tons of rainwater. In ocean water, it is even less.
Strictly speaking, water is always and everywhere different. Even in the snow that falls on different days, the isotopic composition is different. Of course, the difference is small, only 1-2 g per ton. Only, perhaps, it is very difficult to say whether it is a little or a lot.
What is the difference between light natural and heavy water?
The answer to this question will depend on who it is asked to. Each of us has no doubt that he is familiar with water well. If each of us is shown three glasses with ordinary, heavy and light water, then each will give a completely clear and definite answer: in all three vessels there is plain pure water. It is equally transparent and colorless. There is no difference in taste or smell between them. It's all water. The chemist will answer this question in almost the same way: there is almost no difference between them. All their chemical properties are almost indistinguishable: in each of these waters, sodium will release hydrogen in the same way, each of them will decompose in the same way during electrolysis, all their chemical properties will almost coincide. It is understandable: after all, they have the same chemical composition. This is water.
The physicist disagrees. He will point out a noticeable difference in their physical properties: they boil and freeze at different temperatures, their density is different, their vapor pressure is also slightly different. And during electrolysis, they decompose at different rates. Light water is slightly faster, and heavy water is slower. The difference in speeds is negligible, but the rest of the water in the electrolyzer turns out to be slightly enriched with heavy water. This is how it was opened. Changes in the isotopic composition have little effect on the physical properties of matter. Those that depend on the mass of the molecules change more noticeably, for example, the rate of diffusion of vapor molecules.
The biologist, perhaps, will be at a dead end and will not immediately be able to find the answer. He will need to work on the issue of the difference between water with different isotopic compositions. Quite recently, everyone believed that living beings could not live in heavy water. It was even called dead water. But it turned out that if you very slowly, carefully and gradually replace protium in the water where some microorganisms live with deuterium, then you can accustom them to heavy water and they will live and develop well in it, and ordinary water will become harmful for them.
How many water molecules are in the ocean?
One. And this answer is not entirely a joke. Of course, everyone can, after looking in the reference book and finding out how much water is in the World Ocean, it is easy to calculate how many H 2 O molecules it contains. But this answer is not entirely correct. Water is a special substance. Due to the peculiar structure, individual molecules interact with each other. A special chemical bond arises due to the fact that each of the hydrogen atoms of one molecule pulls towards itself the electrons of oxygen atoms in neighboring molecules. Due to such a hydrogen bond, each water molecule is quite firmly bonded to four neighboring molecules.
How are water molecules built in water?
Unfortunately, this very important issue has not yet been sufficiently studied. The structure of molecules in liquid water is very complex. When ice melts, its network structure is partially preserved in the resulting water. The molecules in melt water consist of many simple molecules - aggregates that retain the properties of ice. As the temperature rises, some of them disintegrate, their sizes become smaller.
Mutual attraction leads to the fact that the average size of a complex water molecule in liquid water significantly exceeds the size of a single water molecule. Such an extraordinary molecular structure of water determines its extraordinary physical and chemical properties.
What should be the density of water?
It's a very strange question, isn't it? Remember how the unit of mass was established - one gram. This is the mass of one cubic centimeter of water. Hence, there can be no doubt that the density of water should only be as it is. Can you doubt it? Can. Theorists have calculated that if water did not retain a loose, ice-like structure in a liquid state and its molecules would be tightly packed, then the density of water would be much higher. At 25°C, it would be equal not to 1.0, but to 1.8 g/cm 3 .
At what temperature should water boil?
This question is also, of course, strange. That's right, at a hundred degrees. Everyone knows this. Moreover, it is the boiling point of water at normal atmospheric pressure that is chosen as one of the reference points of the temperature scale, conventionally designated 100°C. However, the question is put differently: at what temperature should water boil? After all, the boiling points of various substances are not random. They depend on the position of the elements that make up their molecules in the periodic system of Mendeleev.
If we compare chemical compounds of various elements of the same composition that belong to the same group of the periodic table, it is easy to see that the lower the atomic number of the element, the lower its atomic weight, the lower the boiling point of its compounds. According to its chemical composition, water can be called oxygen hydride. H 2 Te, H 2 Se and H 2 S are chemical analogues of water. If you determine the boiling point of oxygen hydride by its position in the periodic table, it turns out that water should boil at -80 ° C. Therefore, the water boils about one hundred and eighty degrees hotter than it should. The boiling point of water - this is its most common property - turns out to be extraordinary and surprising.
At what temperature does water freeze?
Isn't the question no less strange than the previous ones? Well, who does not know that water freezes at zero degrees? This is the second reference point of the thermometer. This is the most common property of water. But even in this case, one can ask: at what temperature should water freeze in accordance with its chemical nature? It turns out that oxygen hydride, based on its position in the periodic table, should have solidified at a hundred degrees below zero.
From the fact that the melting and boiling points of oxygen hydride are its anomalous properties, it follows that under the conditions of our Earth, its liquid and solid states are also anomalous. Only the gaseous state of water should be normal.
How many gaseous states of water are there?
Only one is steam. Is there only one pair? Of course not, there are as many water vapors as there are different types of water. Water vapor, different in isotopic composition, although very similar, but still different properties: they have different densities, at the same temperature they slightly differ in elasticity in the saturated state, they have slightly different critical pressures, different diffusion rate.
Can water remember?
Such a question sounds, admittedly, very unusual, but it is quite serious and very important. It concerns a great physico-chemical problem, which in its most important part has not yet been investigated. This question has only been posed in science, but it has not yet found an answer to it.
The question is whether or not the previous history of water affects its physical and chemical properties and whether it is possible, by examining the properties of water, to find out what happened to it earlier - to make the water itself "remember" and tell us about it. Yes, it is possible, surprising as it may seem. The easiest way to understand this is by a simple but very interesting and unusual example - the memory of ice.
Ice is water. When water evaporates, the isotopic composition of water and steam changes. Light water evaporates, although to a negligible extent, but faster than heavy water.
When natural water evaporates, the composition changes in the isotopic content of not only deuterium, but also heavy oxygen. These changes in the isotopic composition of the vapor are very well studied, and their dependence on temperature is also well studied.
Recently, scientists have made a remarkable experiment. In the Arctic, in the thickness of a huge glacier in the north of Greenland, a borehole was laid and a giant ice core almost one and a half kilometers long was drilled and extracted. The annual layers of growing ice were clearly visible on it. These layers were subjected to isotopic analysis along the entire length of the core, and the temperatures of the formation of annual ice layers in each section of the core were determined from the relative content of heavy isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen - deuterium and 18 O. The date of formation of the annual layer was determined by direct reading. Thus, the climatic situation on Earth was restored over the course of a millennium. Water managed to remember and record all this in the deep layers of the Greenland glacier.
As a result of isotope analyzes of the ice layers, scientists built a curve of climate change on Earth. It turned out that the average temperature in our country is subject to secular fluctuations. It was very cold in the 15th century, at the end of the 17th century and at the beginning of the 19th. The hottest years were 1550 and 1930.
What the water kept in memory completely coincided with the records in historical chronicles. The periodicity of climate change found from the isotopic composition of ice makes it possible to predict the average temperature in the future on our planet.
It's all perfectly clear and understandable. Although the thousand-year chronology of weather on Earth, recorded in the thickness of the polar glacier, is very surprising, the isotopic equilibrium has been studied quite well and there are no mysterious problems in this yet.
Then what is the mystery of the “memory” of water?
The fact is that in recent years, science has gradually accumulated many amazing and completely incomprehensible facts. Some of them are firmly established, others require quantitative reliable confirmation, and all of them are still waiting for their explanation.
For example, no one knows yet what happens to water flowing through a strong magnetic field. Theoretical physicists are absolutely sure that nothing can and does not happen to it, reinforcing their conviction with quite reliable theoretical calculations, from which it follows that after the termination of the magnetic field, the water should instantly return to its previous state and remain as it was . And experience shows that it changes and becomes different.
Dissolved salts are released from ordinary water in a steam boiler, deposited in a dense and hard, like a stone, layer on the walls of boiler pipes, and from magnetized water (as it is now called in technology) they precipitate in the form of loose sediment suspended in water. It seems like the difference is small. But it depends on the point of view. According to the employees of thermal power plants, this difference is extremely important, since magnetized water ensures the normal and uninterrupted operation of giant power plants: the walls of pipes of steam boilers do not overgrow, heat transfer is higher, and more electricity is generated. Magnetic water preparation has long been installed at many thermal power plants, and neither engineers nor scientists know how and why it works. In addition, experience has shown that after magnetic treatment of water, the processes of crystallization, dissolution, adsorption are accelerated in it, wetting changes ... however, in all cases, the effects are small and difficult to reproduce. But how in science can one evaluate what is little and what is much? Who will undertake to do this? The action of a magnetic field on water (necessarily fast-flowing) lasts a small fraction of a second, and the water “remembers” this for tens of hours. Why is unknown. In this respect, practice is far ahead of science. After all, it is not even known what exactly magnetic treatment acts on - on water or on impurities contained in it. There is no such thing as pure water.
The "memory" of water is not limited to the preservation of the effects of magnetic influence. In science, many facts and observations exist and are gradually accumulating, showing that water seems to “remember” that it was frozen before. Melt water, recently obtained by melting a piece of ice, also seems to be different from the water from which this piece of ice was formed. In melt water, seeds germinate faster and better, sprouts develop faster; even as if the chickens that receive melt water grow and develop faster. In addition to the amazing properties of melt water, established by biologists, purely physical and chemical differences are also known, for example, melt water differs in viscosity, in the value of the dielectric constant. The viscosity of melt water takes its usual value for water only 3-6 days after melting. Why this is so (if so), no one knows either. Most researchers call this field of phenomena the “structural memory” of water, believing that all these strange manifestations of the influence of the previous history of water on its properties are explained by a change in the fine structure of its molecular state. Maybe this is so, but ... to name is not the same as to explain. There is still an important problem in science: why and how water “remembers” what happened to it.
Does water know what is happening in space?
This question touches on the realm of observations so unusual, so mysterious, so far completely incomprehensible, that they fully justify the figurative formulation of the question. The experimental facts seem to be firmly established, but no explanation has yet been found for them.
The astonishing riddle to which the question relates was not immediately established. It refers to an inconspicuous and seemingly trifling phenomenon that does not have a serious meaning. This phenomenon is associated with the most subtle and yet incomprehensible properties of water, difficult to quantify - with the rate of chemical reactions in aqueous solutions and mainly with the rate of formation and precipitation of sparingly soluble reaction products. This is also one of the countless properties of water.
So, for the same reaction carried out under the same conditions, the time of appearance of the first traces of a precipitate is not constant. Although this fact was known for a long time, chemists did not pay attention to it, being satisfied, as is often the case, with the explanation of "random causes". But gradually, with the development of the theory of reaction rates and the improvement of research methods, this strange fact began to cause bewilderment.
Despite the most careful precautions in carrying out the experiment under completely constant conditions, the result is still not reproduced: either the precipitate falls out immediately, or one has to wait quite a long time for its appearance.
It would seem that it doesn’t matter if a precipitate falls in a test tube in one, two or twenty seconds? What does it matter? But in science, as in nature, nothing is unimportant.
Strange non-reproducibility more and more occupied scientists. And finally, a completely unprecedented experiment was organized and carried out. Hundreds of volunteer chemical researchers in all parts of the globe, according to a single, pre-designed program, simultaneously, at the same moment in world time, again and again repeated the same simple experiment: they determined the rate of appearance of the first traces of a precipitate of the solid phase formed as a result of reactions in aqueous solution. The experiment lasted almost fifteen years, more than three hundred thousand repetitions were carried out.
Gradually, an amazing picture began to emerge, inexplicable and mysterious. It turned out that the properties of water, which determine the course of a chemical reaction in an aqueous medium, depend on time.
Today, the reaction proceeds in a completely different way than at the same moment it went yesterday, and tomorrow it will go again in a different way.
The differences were small, but they existed and required attention, research and scientific explanation.
The results of statistical processing of the materials of these observations led scientists to a striking conclusion: it turned out that the dependence of the reaction rate on time for different parts of the globe is exactly the same.
This means that there are some mysterious conditions that change simultaneously on our entire planet and affect the properties of water.
Further processing of the materials led scientists to an even more unexpected result. It turned out that the events taking place on the Sun are somehow reflected on the water. The nature of the reaction in water follows the rhythm of solar activity - the appearance of spots and flares on the Sun.
But even this is not enough. An even more incredible phenomenon was discovered. Water in some inexplicable way responds to what is happening in space. A clear dependence on the change in the relative velocity of the Earth in its movement in outer space was established.
The mysterious connection between water and events taking place in the Universe is still inexplicable. What is the significance of the connection between water and space? No one can yet know how big it is. Our body is about 75% water; there is no life on our planet without water; In every living organism, in every cell, countless chemical reactions take place. If, using the example of a simple and crude reaction, the influence of events in space is noticed, then it is still impossible to even imagine how great the significance of this influence on the global processes of the development of life on Earth can be. Cosmobiology will probably be a very important and interesting science of the future. One of its main sections will be the study of the behavior and properties of water in a living organism.
Are all the properties of water understood by scientists?
Of course not! Water is a mysterious substance. Until now, scientists cannot yet understand and explain many of its properties.
Can there be any doubt that all such riddles will be successfully solved by science. But many new, even more amazing, mysterious properties of water, the most extraordinary substance in the world, will be discovered.
http://wsyachina.narod.ru/physics/aqua_1.html
"most extreme" option. Sure, we've all heard stories of magnets strong enough to injure kids from the inside and acids that will go through your hands in seconds, but there are even more "extreme" versions of them.
1. The blackest matter known to man
What happens if you put the edges of carbon nanotubes on top of each other and alternate layers of them? The result is a material that absorbs 99.9% of the light that hits it. The microscopic surface of the material is uneven and rough, which refracts light and is a poor reflective surface. After that, try to use carbon nanotubes as superconductors in a certain order, which makes them excellent light absorbers, and you have a real black storm. Scientists are seriously puzzled by the potential applications of this substance, since, in fact, light is not "lost", the substance could be used to improve optical devices, such as telescopes, and even be used for solar panels that operate at almost 100% efficiency.
2. The most combustible substance
Lots of things burn at amazing rates, like styrofoam, napalm, and that's just the beginning. But what if there was a substance that could set fire to the earth? On the one hand, this is a provocative question, but it was asked as a starting point. Chlorine trifluoride has the dubious reputation of being terribly flammable, though the Nazis thought it was too dangerous to work with. When people who discuss genocide believe that the purpose of their life is not to use something because it is too lethal, this encourages careful handling of these substances. It is said that one day a ton of substance was spilled and a fire started, and 30.5 cm of concrete and a meter of sand and gravel burned out until everything subsided. Unfortunately, the Nazis were right.
3. The most poisonous substance
Tell me, what would you least like to get on your face? It could very well be the most deadly poison, which will rightfully take 3rd place among the main extreme substances. Such a poison is really different from what burns through concrete, and from the strongest acid in the world (which will be invented soon). Although not entirely true, but you all, no doubt, heard from the medical community about Botox, and thanks to it the most deadly poison became famous. Botox uses botulinum toxin, which is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, and it is very deadly, and the amount of a grain of salt is enough to kill a person weighing 200 pounds (90.72 kg; approx. mixednews). In fact, scientists have calculated that it is enough to spray only 4 kg of this substance to kill all people on earth. Probably, an eagle would have acted much more humanely with a rattlesnake than this poison with a person.
4. The hottest substance
There are very few things in the world known to man to be hotter than the inside of a newly microwaved Hot Pocket, but this stuff seems set to break that record as well. Created by the collision of gold atoms at almost the speed of light, matter is called quark-gluon "soup" and it reaches a crazy 4 trillion degrees Celsius, which is almost 250,000 times hotter than the stuff inside the Sun. The amount of energy released in the collision would be enough to melt protons and neutrons, which in itself has features that you did not even suspect. Scientists say this stuff could give us a glimpse of what the birth of our universe was like, so it's worth understanding that tiny supernovae aren't created for fun. However, the really good news is that the "soup" spanned one trillionth of a centimeter and lasted for a trillionth of one trillionth of a second.
5. The most corrosive acid
Acid is a terrible substance, one of the scariest monsters in cinema was given acid blood to make it even more terrible than just a killing machine ("Alien"), so it is ingrained inside us that exposure to acid is very bad. If the "aliens" were filled with fluoride-antimonial acid, not only would they sink deep through the floor, but the fumes emitted from their dead bodies would kill everything around them. This acid is 21019 times stronger than sulfuric acid and can seep through glass. And it can explode if you add water. And during its reaction, poisonous fumes are released that can kill anyone in the room.
6 Most Explosive Explosives
In fact, this place is currently divided by two components: octogen and heptanitrocuban. Heptanitrocuban mainly exists in laboratories, and is similar to HMX, but has a denser crystal structure, which carries a greater potential for destruction. HMX, on the other hand, exists in large enough quantities that it can threaten physical existence. It is used in solid propellants for rockets, and even for detonators of nuclear weapons. And the last one is the most terrifying, because despite how easily it happens in the movies, starting a fission/fusion reaction that results in bright, glowing mushroom-like nuclear clouds is not an easy task, but octogen does an excellent job of it.
7. The most radioactive substance
Speaking of radiation, it's worth mentioning that the glowing green "plutonium" rods shown in The Simpsons are just a fantasy. Just because something is radioactive doesn't mean it glows. It's worth mentioning because "polonium-210" is so radioactive that it glows blue. Former Soviet spy Alexander Litvinenko was misled when the substance was added to his food and died of cancer shortly thereafter. This is not something you want to joke about, the glow is caused by the air around the substance that is being affected by the radiation, and indeed the objects around it can get hot. When we say "radiation", we think, for example, of a nuclear reactor or an explosion, where the fission reaction actually takes place. This is only the release of ionized particles, and not out of control splitting of atoms.
8. The heaviest substance
If you thought that the heaviest substance on earth was diamonds, that was a good but inaccurate guess. This is a technically created diamond nanorod. It is actually a collection of nano-scale diamonds, with the lowest degree of compression and the heaviest substance known to man. It doesn't really exist, but which would be quite handy, as it means that someday we could cover our cars with this material and just get rid of it when a train collision occurs (an unrealistic event). This substance was invented in Germany in 2005 and will probably be used to the same extent as industrial diamonds, except for the fact that the new substance is more resistant to wear than ordinary diamonds.
9. The most magnetic substance
If the inductor were a small black piece, then this would be the same substance. The substance, developed in 2010 from iron and nitrogen, has magnetic abilities that are 18% greater than the previous "record holder" and is so powerful that it has forced scientists to rethink how magnetism works. The person who discovered this substance distanced himself from his studies so that none of the other scientists could reproduce his work, as it was reported that a similar compound was being developed in Japan in the past in 1996, but other physicists were unable to reproduce it, therefore officially this substance was not accepted. It is unclear whether Japanese physicists should promise to make Sepuku under these circumstances. If this substance can be replicated, it could mean a new age of efficient electronics and magnetic motors, perhaps an order of magnitude more powerful.
10. The strongest superfluidity
Superfluidity is a state of matter (like solid or gaseous) that occurs at extremely low temperatures, has high thermal conductivity (every ounce of this substance must be exactly the same temperature) and no viscosity. Helium-2 is the most characteristic representative. The helium-2 cup will spontaneously rise and spill out of the container. Helium-2 will also seep through other solid materials, as the total lack of friction allows it to flow through other invisible openings through which ordinary helium (or water for this case) could not flow. "Helium-2" does not come into its proper state at number 1, as if it has the ability to act on its own, although it is also the most efficient thermal conductor on Earth, several hundred times better than copper. Heat moves so fast through "helium-2" that it travels in waves, like sound (actually known as "second sound"), rather than dissipates, it just moves from one molecule to another. By the way, the forces that govern the ability of "helium-2" to crawl along the wall are called the "third sound". You are unlikely to have anything more extreme than the substance that required the definition of 2 new types of sound.
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What happens if you put the edges of carbon nanotubes on top of each other and alternate layers of them? The result is a material that absorbs 99.9% of the light that hits it. The microscopic surface of the material is uneven and rough, which refracts light and is a poor reflective surface. After that, try to use carbon nanotubes as superconductors in a certain order, which makes them excellent light absorbers, and you have a real black storm. Scientists are seriously puzzled by the potential applications of this substance, since, in fact, light is not "lost", the substance could be used to improve optical devices, such as telescopes, and even be used for solar panels that operate at almost 100% efficiency.
2. The most combustible substance
Lots of things burn at amazing rates, like styrofoam, napalm, and that's just the beginning. But what if there was a substance that could set fire to the earth? On the one hand, this is a provocative question, but it was asked as a starting point. Chlorine trifluoride has the dubious reputation of being terribly flammable, though the Nazis thought it was too dangerous to work with. When people who discuss genocide believe that the purpose of their life is not to use something because it is too lethal, this encourages careful handling of these substances. It is said that one day a ton of substance was spilled and a fire started, and 30.5 cm of concrete and a meter of sand and gravel burned out until everything subsided. Unfortunately, the Nazis were right.
3. The most poisonous substance
Tell me, what would you least like to get on your face? It could very well be the most deadly poison, which will rightfully take 3rd place among the main extreme substances. Such a poison is really different from what burns through concrete, and from the strongest acid in the world (which will be invented soon). Although not entirely true, but you all, no doubt, heard from the medical community about Botox, and thanks to it the most deadly poison became famous. Botox uses botulinum toxin, which is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, and it is very deadly, and the amount of a grain of salt is enough to kill a person weighing 200 pounds (90.72 kg; approx. mixednews). In fact, scientists have calculated that it is enough to spray only 4 kg of this substance to kill all people on earth. Probably, an eagle would have acted much more humanely with a rattlesnake than this poison with a person.
4. The hottest substance
There are very few things in the world known to man to be hotter than the inside of a newly microwaved Hot Pocket, but this stuff seems set to break that record as well. Created by the collision of gold atoms at almost the speed of light, matter is called quark-gluon "soup" and it reaches a crazy 4 trillion degrees Celsius, which is almost 250,000 times hotter than the stuff inside the Sun. The amount of energy released in the collision would be enough to melt protons and neutrons, which in itself has features that you did not even suspect. Scientists say this stuff could give us a glimpse of what the birth of our universe was like, so it's worth understanding that tiny supernovae aren't created for fun. However, the really good news is that the "soup" spanned one trillionth of a centimeter and lasted for a trillionth of one trillionth of a second.
5. The most corrosive acid
Acid is a terrible substance, one of the scariest monsters in cinema was given acid blood to make it even more terrible than just a killing machine ("Alien"), so it is ingrained inside us that exposure to acid is very bad. If the "aliens" were filled with fluoride-antimonial acid, not only would they sink deep through the floor, but the fumes emitted from their dead bodies would kill everything around them. This acid is 21019 times stronger than sulfuric acid and can seep through glass. And it can explode if you add water. And during its reaction, poisonous fumes are released that can kill anyone in the room.
6 Most Explosive Explosives
In fact, this place is currently divided by two components: octogen and heptanitrocuban. Heptanitrocuban mainly exists in laboratories, and is similar to HMX, but has a denser crystal structure, which carries a greater potential for destruction. HMX, on the other hand, exists in large enough quantities that it can threaten physical existence. It is used in solid propellants for rockets, and even for detonators of nuclear weapons. And the last one is the most terrifying, because despite how easily it happens in the movies, starting a fission/fusion reaction that results in bright, glowing mushroom-like nuclear clouds is not an easy task, but octogen does an excellent job of it.
7. The most radioactive substance
Speaking of radiation, it's worth mentioning that the glowing green "plutonium" rods shown in The Simpsons are just a fantasy. Just because something is radioactive doesn't mean it glows. It's worth mentioning because "polonium-210" is so radioactive that it glows blue. Former Soviet spy Alexander Litvinenko was misled when the substance was added to his food and died of cancer shortly thereafter. This is not something you want to joke about, the glow is caused by the air around the substance that is being affected by the radiation, and indeed the objects around it can get hot. When we say "radiation", we think, for example, of a nuclear reactor or an explosion, where the fission reaction actually takes place. This is only the release of ionized particles, and not out of control splitting of atoms.
8. The heaviest substance
If you thought that the heaviest substance on earth was diamonds, that was a good but inaccurate guess. This is a technically created diamond nanorod. It is actually a collection of nano-scale diamonds, with the lowest degree of compression and the heaviest substance known to man. It doesn't really exist, but which would be quite handy, as it means that someday we could cover our cars with this material and just get rid of it when a train collision occurs (an unrealistic event). This substance was invented in Germany in 2005 and will probably be used to the same extent as industrial diamonds, except for the fact that the new substance is more resistant to wear than ordinary diamonds.
9. The most magnetic substance
If the inductor were a small black piece, then this would be the same substance. The substance, developed in 2010 from iron and nitrogen, has magnetic abilities that are 18% greater than the previous "record holder" and is so powerful that it has forced scientists to rethink how magnetism works. The person who discovered this substance distanced himself from his studies so that none of the other scientists could reproduce his work, as it was reported that a similar compound was being developed in Japan in the past in 1996, but other physicists were unable to reproduce it, therefore officially this substance was not accepted. It is unclear whether Japanese physicists should promise to make Sepuku under these circumstances. If this substance can be replicated, it could mean a new age of efficient electronics and magnetic motors, perhaps an order of magnitude more powerful.
10. The strongest superfluidity
Superfluidity is a state of matter (like solid or gaseous) that occurs at extremely low temperatures, has high thermal conductivity (every ounce of this substance must be exactly the same temperature) and no viscosity. Helium-2 is the most characteristic representative. The helium-2 cup will spontaneously rise and spill out of the container. Helium-2 will also seep through other solid materials, as the total lack of friction allows it to flow through other invisible openings through which ordinary helium (or water for this case) could not flow. "Helium-2" does not come into its proper state at number 1, as if it has the ability to act on its own, although it is also the most efficient thermal conductor on Earth, several hundred times better than copper. Heat moves so fast through "helium-2" that it travels in waves, like sound (actually known as "second sound"), rather than dissipates, it just moves from one molecule to another. By the way, the forces that govern the ability of "helium-2" to crawl along the wall are called the "third sound". You are unlikely to have anything more extreme than the substance that required the definition of 2 new types of sound.
Man has always sought to find materials that leave no chance for their competitors. Since ancient times, scientists have been looking for the hardest materials in the world, the lightest and heaviest. The thirst for discovery led to the discovery of an ideal gas and an ideal black body. We present you the most amazing substances in the world.
1. The blackest substance
The blackest substance in the world is called Vantablack and consists of a collection of carbon nanotubes (see carbon and its allotropic modifications). Simply put, the material consists of countless "hairs", hitting which, the light bounces from one tube to another. In this way, about 99.965% of the light flux is absorbed and only a negligible part is reflected back to the outside.
The discovery of Vantablack opens up broad prospects for the use of this material in astronomy, electronics and optics.
2. The most combustible substance
Chlorine trifluoride is the most flammable substance ever known to mankind. It is the strongest oxidizing agent and reacts with almost all chemical elements. Chlorine trifluoride can burn through concrete and easily ignites glass! The use of chlorine trifluoride is almost impossible due to its phenomenal flammability and the inability to ensure the safety of use.
3. The most poisonous substance
The most powerful poison is botulinum toxin. We know it under the name Botox, that is how it is called in cosmetology, where it has found its main application. Botulinum toxin is a chemical produced by the bacteria Clostridium botulinum. In addition to the fact that botulinum toxin is the most toxic substance, it also has the largest molecular weight among proteins. The phenomenal toxicity of the substance is evidenced by the fact that only 0.00002 mg min / l of botulinum toxin is enough to make the affected area deadly for humans for half a day.
4. The hottest substance
This is the so-called quark-gluon plasma. The substance was created using the collision of gold atoms at almost the speed of light. Quark-gluon plasma has a temperature of 4 trillion degrees Celsius. For comparison, this figure is 250,000 times higher than the temperature of the Sun! Unfortunately, the lifetime of a substance is limited to one trillionth of a trillionth of a second.
5. The most corrosive acid
Antimony fluoride H becomes the champion in this nomination. Antimony fluoride is 2×10 16 (two hundred quintillion) times more caustic than sulfuric acid. This is a very active substance that can explode when a small amount of water is added. The fumes of this acid are deadly poisonous.
6. The most explosive substance
The most explosive substance is heptanitrocuban. It is very expensive and is used only for scientific research. But a slightly less explosive HMX is successfully used in military affairs and in geology when drilling wells.
7. The most radioactive substance
Polonium-210 is an isotope of polonium that does not exist in nature, but is made by man. It is used to create miniature, but at the same time, very powerful energy sources. It has a very short half-life and is therefore capable of causing severe radiation sickness.
8. The heaviest substance
It is, of course, fullerite. Its hardness is almost 2 times higher than that of natural diamonds. You can read more about fullerite in our article The Hardest Materials in the World.
9. Strongest magnet
The world's strongest magnet is made up of iron and nitrogen. At present, details about this substance are not available to the general public, but it is already known that the new super-magnet is 18% more powerful than the strongest magnets currently in use - neodymium. Neodymium magnets are made from neodymium, iron and boron.
10. The most fluid substance
Superfluid Helium II has almost no viscosity at temperatures close to absolute zero. This property is due to its unique ability to seep and pour out of a vessel made of any solid material. Helium II has the potential to be used as an ideal thermal conductor in which heat does not dissipate.
