The structure of the molecules of organic compounds allows us to draw a conclusion about the chemical properties of substances and the close relationship between them. Compounds of other classes are obtained from substances of one class by successive transformations. Moreover, all organic substances can be represented as derivatives of the simplest compounds - hydrocarbons. The genetic relationship of organic compounds can be represented as a diagram:
C 2 H 6 → C 2 H 5 Br → C 2 H 5 OH → CH 3 -SON → CH 3 COOH →
CH 3 COOS 3 H 7 ; and etc.
According to the scheme, it is necessary to draw up equations for the chemical transformations of one substance into another. They confirm the interconnection of all organic compounds, the complication of the composition of matter, the development of the nature of substances from simple to complex.
The composition of organic substances most often includes a small number of chemical elements: hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, chlorine and other halogens. The organic substance methane can be synthesized from two simple inorganic substances, carbon and hydrogen.
C + 2H 2 = CH 4 + Q
This is one example of the fact that between all substances of nature - inorganic and organic - there is a unity and genetic connection, which are manifested in the mutual transformations of substances.
Part 2. Complete the practical task.
The task is experimental.
Prove that potatoes contain starch.
To prove the presence of starch in potatoes, a drop of iodine solution should be applied to a potato slice. The cut potato will turn blue-violet. The reaction with iodine solution is a qualitative reaction for starch.
E T A L O N
to option 25
Number of options(packages) of tasks for examinees:
Option number 25 from 25 options
Job completion time:
Option number 25 45 min.
Conditions for completing tasks
Labor protection requirements: teacher (expert) supervising the execution of tasks(safety briefing when working with reagents)
Equipment: paper, ballpoint pen, laboratory equipment
Literature for examinees reference, methodical and tables
1. Familiarize yourself with the test items, assessed skills, knowledge and assessment indicators .
Option #25 of 25
Part 1. Answer the theoretical questions:
1. Aluminum. Amphoteric aluminum. Aluminum oxides and hydroxides.
2. Proteins are natural polymers. The structure and structure of proteins. Qualitative reactions and application.
Part 2. Complete the practical task
3. The problem is experimental.
How to experimentally obtain oxygen in the laboratory, prove its presence.
Option 25 out of 25.
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The relationship between classes of substances is expressed by genetic chains
- The genetic series is the implementation of chemical transformations, as a result of which substances of another class can be obtained from substances of one class.
- To carry out genetic transformations, you need to know:
- classes of substances;
- nomenclature of substances;
- properties of substances;
- types of reactions;
- nominal reactions, for example the Wurtz synthesis:
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- What reactions should be carried out in order to obtain another from one type of hydrocarbon?
- The arrows in the diagram indicate hydrocarbons that can be directly converted into each other by a single reaction.
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Carry out several chains of transformations
Determine the type of each reaction:
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Checking
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Divide substances into classes:
C3H6; CH3COOH; CH3OH; C2H4; UNSD; CH4; C2H6; C2H5OH; NSON; C3H8; CH3COOC2H5; CH3SON; CH3COOCH3;
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Examination
- Alkanes: CH4; C2H6; С3Н8
- Alkenes: C3H6; C2H4
- Alcohols: CH3OH; C2H5OH
- Aldehydes: HSON; CH3SON
- Carboxylic acids: CH3COOH; UNSD
- Esters: CH3COOC2H5; CH3COOCH3
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- How can you get from hydrocarbons:
- a) alcohols b) aldehydes c) acids?
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Journey of carbon
- C CaC2 C2H2 CH3CHO C2H5OH
- CH3COOH CH3COOCH2CH3
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- 2C + Ca CaC2
- CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
- C2H2 + H2O CH3CHO
- CH3CHO + H2 C2H5OH
- CH3CHO + O2 CH3COOH
- CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH CH3COOC2H5
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For oxygenated compounds
write reaction equations, indicate the conditions for the course and type of reactions.
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Obtaining an ester from a hydrocarbon
C2H6 C2H5ClC2H5OH CH3CHO CH3COOH CH3COOCH2CH3
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Conclusion: Today in the lesson - on the example of the genetic connection of organic substances of different homologous series, we saw and proved with the help of transformations - the unity of the material world.
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- butane butene-1 1,2-dibromobutane butene-1
- pentene-1 pentane 2-chloropentane
- pentene-2 CO2
- Perform transformations.
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Abstract
What is nano?�
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Video demonstration.
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What is nano?�
New technologies are what moves humanity forward on its path to progress.�
The goals and objectives of this work are the expansion and improvement of students' knowledge about the world around them, new achievements and discoveries. Formation of skills of comparison, generalization. The ability to highlight the main thing, the development of creative interest, the education of independence in the search for material.
The beginning of the 21st century is marked by nanotechnologies that combine biology, chemistry, IT, and physics.
In recent years, the pace of scientific and technological progress has become dependent on the use of artificially created nanometer-sized objects. The substances and objects created on their basis with a size of 1–100 nm are called nanomaterials, and the methods of their production and use are called nanotechnologies. With the naked eye, a person is able to see an object with a diameter of about 10 thousand nanometers.
In the broadest sense, nanotechnology is research and development at the atomic, molecular and macromolecular levels on a scale of one to one hundred nanometers; creation and use of artificial structures, devices and systems, which, due to their ultra-small size, have essentially new properties and functions; manipulation of matter on the atomic scale of distances.
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Technology determines the quality of life for each of us and the power of the state in which we live.
The Industrial Revolution, which began in the textile industry, spurred the development of rail technology.
In the future, the growth of transportation of various goods became impossible without new technologies in the automotive industry. Thus, each new technology causes the birth and development of related technologies.
The present period of time in which we live is called the scientific and technological revolution or information. The beginning of the information revolution coincided with the development of computer technology, without which the life of modern society is no longer imagined.
The development of computer technology has always been associated with the miniaturization of electronic circuit elements. At present, the size of one logical element (transistor) of a computer circuit is about 10-7 m, and scientists believe that further miniaturization of computer elements is possible only when special technologies called "nanotechnologies" are developed.
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Translated from Greek, the word "nano" means dwarf, dwarf. One nanometer (nm) is one billionth of a meter (10-9 m). The nanometer is very small. A nanometer is as many times less than one meter as the thickness of a finger is less than the diameter of the Earth. Most atoms are between 0.1 and 0.2 nm in diameter, and DNA strands are about 2 nm thick. The diameter of red blood cells is 7000 nm, and the thickness of a human hair is 80,000 nm.
In the figure, from left to right, in order of increasing size, a variety of objects are shown - from an atom to the solar system. Man has already learned to benefit from objects of various sizes. We can split the nuclei of atoms, extracting atomic energy. Through chemical reactions, we obtain new molecules and substances with unique properties. With the help of special tools, a person has learned to create objects - from a pinhead to huge structures that are visible even from space.
But if you look at the figure carefully, you can see that there is a fairly large range (on a logarithmic scale), where scientists have not set foot for a long time - between a hundred nanometers and 0.1 nm. Nanotechnologies have to work with objects ranging in size from 0.1 nm to 100 nm. And there is every reason to believe that it is possible to make the nanoworld work for us.
Nanotechnologies use the latest achievements in chemistry, physics and biology.
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Recent studies have shown that in ancient Egypt, nanotechnology was used to dye hair black. To do this, a paste of Ca(OH)2 lime, lead oxide, and water was used. In the process of staining, lead sulfide (galena) nanoparticles were obtained, as a result of interaction with sulfur, which is part of keratin, which ensured uniform and stable staining.
The British Museum holds the "Lycurgus Cup" (the walls of the goblet depict scenes from the life of this great Spartan legislator), made by ancient Roman craftsmen - it contains microscopic particles of gold and silver added to the glass. Under different lighting, the goblet changes color - from dark red to light golden. Similar technologies were used to create stained-glass windows in medieval European cathedrals.
Currently, scientists have proven that the sizes of these particles are from 50 to 100 nm.
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In 1661, the Irish chemist Robert Boyle published an article in which he criticized Aristotle's statement that everything on Earth consists of four elements - water, earth, fire and air (the philosophical basis of the foundations of the then alchemy, chemistry and physics). Boyle argued that everything consists of "corpuscles" - ultra-small parts that, in different combinations, form various substances and objects. Subsequently, the ideas of Democritus and Boyle were accepted by the scientific community.
In 1704, Isaac Newton made suggestions about the study of the mystery of corpuscles;
In 1959, the American physicist Richard Feynman stated: "For the time being, we are forced to use the atomic structures that nature offers us." "But in principle a physicist could synthesize any substance with a given chemical formula."
In 1959, Norio Taniguchi first used the term "nanotechnology";
In 1980, Eric Drexler used the term.
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Richard Phillips Feyman (1918-1988), American physicist. One of the founders of quantum electrodynamics. Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965.
Feynman's famous lecture, known as "There's still a lot of room down there," is today considered the starting point in the struggle to conquer the nanoworld. It was first read at Caltech in 1959. The word "below" in the title of the lecture meant in "a very small world."
Nanotechnology emerged as a field of science in its own right and evolved into a long-term technical project following a detailed analysis by the American scientist Eric Drexler in the early 1980s and the publication of his book Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology.
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The first devices that made it possible to observe nano-objects and move them were scanning probe microscopes - an atomic force microscope and a scanning tunneling microscope operating on a similar principle. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was developed by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer, who were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1986 for these studies.
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The AFM is based on a probe, usually made of silicon and representing a thin plate-console (it is called a cantilever, from the English word "cantilever" - console, beam). At the end of the cantilever is a very sharp spike, ending in a group of one or more atoms. The main material is silicon and silicon nitride.
When the microprobe moves along the surface of the sample, the tip of the spike rises and falls, outlining the microrelief of the surface, just as a gramophone needle slides over a gramophone record. At the protruding end of the cantilever there is a mirror area, on which the laser beam falls and from which the laser beam is reflected. As the spike descends and rises on surface irregularities, the reflected beam is deflected, and this deflection is recorded by a photodetector, and the force with which the spike is attracted to nearby atoms is recorded by a piezoelectric sensor.
The photodetector and piezoelectric sensor data are used in the feedback system. As a result, it is possible to build a three-dimensional relief of the sample surface in real time.
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Another group of scanning probe microscopes uses the so-called quantum-mechanical "tunnel effect" to build the surface topography. The essence of the tunnel effect is that the electric current between a sharp metal needle and a surface located at a distance of about 1 nm begins to depend on this distance - the smaller the distance, the greater the current. If a voltage of 10 V is applied between the needle and the surface, then this "tunneling" current can be from 10 pA to 10 nA. By measuring this current and keeping it constant, the distance between the needle and the surface can also be kept constant. This allows you to build a three-dimensional surface profile. Unlike an atomic force microscope, a scanning tunneling microscope can only study the surfaces of metals or semiconductors.
A scanning tunneling microscope can be used to move any atom to a point chosen by the operator. Thus, it is possible to manipulate atoms and create nanostructures, i.e. structures on the surface, having dimensions of the order of a nanometer. Back in 1990, IBM employees showed that this was possible by putting the name of their company on a nickel plate out of 35 xenon atoms.
The bevel differential adorns the main page of the website of the Institute of Molecular Manufacturing. Compiled by E. Drexler from atoms of hydrogen, carbon, silicon, nitrogen, phosphorus, hydrogen and sulfur with a total number of 8298. Computer calculations show that its existence and functioning does not contradict the laws of physics.
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Class of lyceum students in the nanotechnology class of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after A.I. Herzen.
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Nanostructures can be assembled not only from individual atoms or single molecules, but molecular blocks. Such blocks or elements for creating nanostructures are graphene, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes.
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1985 Richard Smalley, Robert Curl and Harold Kroto discover fullerenes, for the first time able to measure a 1 nm object.
Fullerenes are molecules consisting of 60 atoms arranged in the shape of a sphere. In 1996, a group of scientists was awarded the Nobel Prize.
Video demonstration.
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Aluminum with a small additive (no more than 1%) of fullerene acquires the hardness of steel.
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Graphene is a single flat sheet of carbon atoms linked together to form a lattice, each cell of which resembles a honeycomb. The distance between the nearest carbon atoms in graphene is about 0.14 nm.
The light balls are carbon atoms, and the rods between them are the bonds that hold the atoms in the graphene sheet.
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Graphite, which is what ordinary pencil leads are made of, is a stack of sheets of graphene. The graphenes in graphite are very poorly bonded and can slide relative to each other. Therefore, if you draw graphite over paper, then the graphene sheet in contact with it is separated from the graphite and remains on the paper. This explains why graphite can be written.
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Dendrimers are one of the paths to the nanoworld in the "bottom-up" direction.
Tree-like polymers are nanostructures ranging in size from 1 to 10 nm, formed by combining molecules with a branching structure. The synthesis of dendrimers is one of the nanotechnologies that is closely related to the chemistry of polymers. Like all polymers, dendrimers are made up of monomers, and the molecules of these monomers have a branched structure.
Cavities filled with the substance in the presence of which the dendrimers were formed can form inside the dendrimer. If a dendrimer is synthesized in a solution containing a drug, then this dendrimer becomes a nanocapsule with this drug. In addition, the cavities within the dendrimer may contain radioactively labeled substances used to diagnose various diseases.
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In 13% of cases, people die from cancer. This disease kills about 8 million people worldwide every year. Many types of cancer are still considered incurable. Scientific studies show that the use of nanotechnology can be a powerful tool in the fight against this disease. Dendrimers - capsules with poison for cancer cells
Cancer cells need a lot of folic acid to divide and grow. Therefore, folic acid molecules adhere very well to the surface of cancer cells, and if the outer shell of dendrimers contains folic acid molecules, then such dendrimers will selectively adhere only to cancer cells. With the help of such dendrimers, cancer cells can be made visible if some other molecules are attached to the shell of the dendrimers, which glow, for example, under ultraviolet light. By attaching a drug that kills cancer cells to the outer shell of the dendrimer, you can not only detect them, but also kill them.
According to scientists, with the help of nanotechnology, microscopic sensors can be embedded in human blood cells that warn of the first signs of the development of the disease.
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Quantum dots are already a handy tool for biologists to see different structures inside living cells. Various cellular structures are equally transparent and unstained. Therefore, if you look at the cell through a microscope, then nothing but its edges is visible. In order to make a certain cell structure visible, quantum dots of various sizes have been created that can stick to certain intracellular structures.
Molecules were glued to the smallest, glowing green light, capable of sticking to microtubules that make up the inner skeleton of the cell. Quantum dots of medium size can stick to the membranes of the Golgi apparatus, while the largest ones can stick to the cell nucleus. The cell is dipped in a solution that contains all these quantum dots and kept in it for a while, they get inside and stick where they can. After that, the cell is rinsed in a solution that does not contain quantum dots and under a microscope. Cellular structures became clearly visible.
Red is the core; green - microtubules; yellow - Golgi apparatus.
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Titanium dioxide, TiO2, is the most common titanium compound on earth. Its powder has a dazzling white color and is therefore used as a dye in the manufacture of paints, paper, toothpastes and plastics. The reason is a very high refractive index (n=2.7).
Titanium oxide TiO2 has a very strong catalytic activity - it accelerates the course of chemical reactions. In the presence of ultraviolet radiation, it splits water molecules into free radicals - hydroxyl groups OH- and superoxide anions O2- of such high activity that organic compounds decompose into carbon dioxide and water.
Catalytic activity increases with a decrease in the size of its particles. Therefore, they are used to purify water, air and various surfaces from organic compounds, which, as a rule, are harmful to humans.
Photocatalysts can be included in the composition of road concrete, which will improve the ecology around roads. In addition, it is proposed to add powder from these nanoparticles to automotive fuel, which should also reduce the content of harmful impurities in exhaust gases.
A film of titanium dioxide nanoparticles deposited on glass is transparent and invisible to the eye. However, such glass, under the action of sunlight, is able to self-clean from organic contaminants, turning any organic dirt into carbon dioxide and water. Glass treated with titanium oxide nanoparticles is devoid of greasy stains and therefore is well wetted by water. As a result, such glass fogs up less, since water droplets immediately spread along the glass surface, forming a thin transparent film.
Titanium dioxide stops working indoors, because. In artificial light, there is practically no ultraviolet radiation. However, scientists believe that by slightly changing its structure, it will be possible to make it sensitive to the visible part of the solar spectrum. Based on such nanoparticles, it will be possible to make a coating, for example, for toilet rooms, as a result of which the content of bacteria and other organic matter on the surfaces of toilets can be reduced by several times.
Due to its ability to absorb ultraviolet radiation, titanium dioxide is already used in the manufacture of sunscreens, such as creams. Cream manufacturers began to use it in the form of nanoparticles, which are so small that they provide almost absolute transparency of sunscreen.
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Self-cleaning nanograss and the "lotus effect"
Nanotechnology makes it possible to create a surface similar to a massage microbrush. Such a surface is called nanograss, and it is a set of parallel nanowires (nanorods) of the same length, located at an equal distance from each other.
A drop of water, hitting a nanograss, cannot penetrate between the nanograss, as this is prevented by the high surface tension of the liquid.
To make the wettability of a nanograss even smaller, its surface is covered with a thin layer of a hydrophobic polymer. And then not only water, but also any particles will never stick to the nanograss, because. touch it only at a few points. Therefore, the particles of dirt that are on the surface covered with nanovilli either fall off it themselves or are carried away by rolling drops of water.
Self-cleaning of a fleecy surface from dirt particles is called the "lotus effect", because. lotus flowers and leaves are pure even when the water around is muddy and dirty. This happens due to the fact that the leaves and flowers are not wetted with water, so drops of water roll off them like balls of mercury, leaving no trace and washing away all the dirt. Even drops of glue and honey fail to stay on the surface of lotus leaves.
It turned out that the entire surface of the lotus leaves is densely covered with micropimples about 10 microns high, and the pimples themselves, in turn, are covered with even smaller microvilli. Studies have shown that all these micro-pimples and villi are made of wax, which is known to have hydrophobic properties, making the surface of lotus leaves look like nanograss. It is the pimply structure of the surface of lotus leaves that significantly reduces their wettability. In comparison, the relatively smooth surface of a magnolia leaf, which does not have the ability to self-clean.
Thus, nanotechnologies make it possible to create self-cleaning coatings and materials that also have water-repellent properties. Materials made from such fabrics remain always clean. Self-cleaning windshields are already being produced, the outer surface of which is covered with nanovilli. On such glass, the "wipers" have nothing to do. There are constantly clean rims for car wheels on sale, self-cleaning using the “lotus effect”, and now you can paint the outside of the house with paint that dirt does not stick to.
From polyester covered with many tiny silicon fibers, Swiss scientists managed to create a waterproof material.
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Nanowires are called wires with a diameter of the order of a nanometer, made of metal, semiconductor or dielectric. The length of nanowires can often exceed their diameter by a factor of 1000 or more. Therefore, nanowires are often called one-dimensional structures, and their extremely small diameter (about 100 atom sizes) makes it possible to manifest various quantum mechanical effects. Nanowires do not exist in nature.
The unique electrical and mechanical properties of nanowires create prerequisites for their use in future nanoelectronic and nanoelectromechanical devices, as well as elements of new composite materials and biosensors.
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Unlike transistors, battery miniaturization is very slow. The size of galvanic batteries, reduced to a unit of power, has decreased over the past 50 years by only 15 times, and the size of the transistor has decreased over the same time by more than 1000 times and is now about 100 nm. It is known that the size of an autonomous electronic circuit is often determined not by its electronic filling, but by the size of the current source. At the same time, the smarter the electronics of the device, the larger the battery it requires. Therefore, for further miniaturization of electronic devices, it is necessary to develop new types of batteries. Here again, nanotechnology helps.
Toshiba in 2005 created a prototype lithium-ion rechargeable battery, the negative electrode of which was coated with lithium titanate nanocrystals, as a result of which the electrode area increased several tens of times. The new battery is capable of reaching 80% of its capacity in just one minute of charging, while conventional lithium-ion batteries charge at a rate of 2-3% per minute and take an hour to fully charge.
In addition to a high recharge rate, batteries containing nanoparticle electrodes have an extended service life: after 1000 charge / discharge cycles, only 1% of its capacity is lost, and the total life of new batteries is more than 5 thousand cycles. And yet, these batteries can operate at temperatures down to -40 ° C, while losing only 20% of the charge, compared to 100% for typical modern batteries already at -25 ° C.
Since 2007, batteries with conductive nanoparticle electrodes have been on the market, which can be installed on electric vehicles. These lithium-ion batteries are capable of storing energy up to 35 kWh, charging to maximum capacity in just 10 minutes. Now the driving range of an electric car with such batteries is 200 km, but the next model of these batteries has already been developed, which allows increasing the mileage of an electric car to 400 km, which is almost comparable to the maximum mileage of gasoline cars (from refueling to refueling).
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In order for one substance to enter into a chemical reaction with another, certain conditions are necessary, and very often it is not possible to create such conditions. Therefore, a huge number of chemical reactions exist only on paper. For their implementation, catalysts are needed - substances that contribute to the reaction, but do not participate in them.
Scientists have found that the inner surface of carbon nanotubes also has great catalytic activity. They believe that when a “graphite” sheet of carbon atoms is rolled into a tube, the concentration of electrons on its inner surface becomes less. This explains the ability of the inner surface of nanotubes to weaken, for example, the bond between oxygen and carbon atoms in a CO molecule, becoming a catalyst for the oxidation of CO to CO2.
To combine the catalytic ability of carbon nanotubes and transition metals, nanoparticles from them were introduced inside nanotubes (It turned out that this nanocomplex of catalysts is able to start the reaction that was only dreamed of - the direct synthesis of ethyl alcohol from synthesis gas (a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen) obtained from natural gas, coal and even biomass.
In fact, mankind has always tried to experiment with nanotechnology without even knowing it. You and I learned about this at the beginning of our acquaintance, heard the concept of nanotechnology, learned the history and names of scientists who made it possible to make such a qualitative leap in the development of technologies, got acquainted with the technologies themselves, and even heard the story of the discovery of fullerenes from the discoverer, Nobel Prize winner Richard Smalley.
Technology determines the quality of life for each of us and the power of the state in which we live.
Further development of this direction depends on you.
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Unit 2. Heterocyclic and natural compounds
Five-membered heterocyclic compounds
1. Write the schemes and name the reaction products of aziridine with the following reagents: a) H 2 O (t); b) NH 3 (t); c) HC1 (t).
2. Give the reaction scheme for the extraction of oxirane. Write the equations and name the reaction products of oxirane: a) with H 2 O, H + ; b) with C 2 H 5 OH, H +; c) with CH 3 NH 2.
3. Give schemes of mutual transformations of five-membered heterocycles with one heteroatom (Yur'ev reaction cycle).
4. What is acidophobia? What heterocyclic compounds are acidophobic? Write reaction schemes for sulfonation of pyrrole, thiophene, and indole. Name the products.
5. Give schemes and name the products of the reactions of halogenation and nitration of pyrrole and thiophene.
6. Give schemes and name the end products of the oxidation and reduction reactions of furans and pyrrole.
7. Give the reaction scheme for the extraction of indole from N-formyl o toluidine. Write the equations for the reactions of nitration and sulfonation of indole. Name the products.
8. Give the reaction scheme for the extraction of 2-methylindole from phenylhydrazine by the Fischer method. Write equations and name the reaction products of 2-methyl-indole: a) with KOH; b) with CH 3 I.
9. Give and name the tautomeric forms of indoxyl. Write a scheme for the extraction of indigo blue from indoxyl.
10. Give schemes and name the products of the reduction and oxidation reactions of indigo blue.
11. Write the schemes and name the reaction products of 2-aminothiazole: a) with HC1; a) with (CH 3 CO) 2 O; c) with CH 3 I.
12. What type of tautomerism is characteristic of azoles, what is it due to? Give the tautomeric forms of pyrazole and imidazole.
13. Give a scheme for the synthesis of imidazole from glyoxal. Confirm the amphoteric nature of imidazole with the corresponding reaction schemes. Name the products of reactions.
14. Give schemes of reactions confirming the amphoteric nature of pyrazole, benzimidazole, nicotinic (3-pyridinecarboxylic) acid, anthranilic (2-aminobenzoic) acid.
15. Write a scheme for the synthesis of 3-methylpyrazolone-5 from acetoacetic ester and hydrazine. Give and name three tautomeric forms of pyrazolone-5.
16. Write a scheme for the synthesis of antipyrine from acetoacetic ester. Give a diagram and name the product of a qualitative reaction to antipyrine.
17. Write a scheme for the synthesis of amidopyrine from antipyrine. Specify a qualitative reaction to amidopyrine.
Six-membered heterocyclic compounds
18. Write the schemes and name the reaction products confirming the basic properties of pyridine and the amphoteric properties of imidazole.
19. Draw and name the tautomeric forms of 2-hydroxypyridine. Write equations and name the reaction products of 2-hydroxypyridine: a) with PCl 5 ; b) with CH 3 I.
20. Draw and name the tautomeric forms of 2-aminopyridine. Write an equation and name the reaction products of 2-aminopyridine and 3-aminopyridine with hydrochloric acid.
21. Give schemes and name the reaction products confirming the presence of a primary aromatic amino group in b-aminopyridine.
22. Give a scheme for the synthesis of quinoline according to the Skraup method. Name the intermediate connections.
23. Give the scheme for the synthesis of 7-methylquinoline by the Skraup method. Name all intermediate connections.
24. Give the scheme for the synthesis of 8-hydroxyquinoline by the Skraup method. Name the intermediate connections. Chemical reactions confirm the amphoteric nature of the final product.
25. Give schemes and name the products of the reactions of sulfonation, nitration and oxidation of quinoline.
26. Write schemes and name the reaction products of quinoline: a) with CH 3 I; b) with KOH; c) with K. HNO 3, K. H 2 SO 4; d) with HC1.
27. Give the schemes and name the products of the nitration reactions of indole, pyridine and quinoline.
28. Give schemes and name the reaction products of isoquinoline: a) with CH 3 I; b) with NaNH 2, NH 3; c) with Br 2, FeBr 3.
29. Give the scheme for the synthesis of acridine from N-phenylanthranilic acid according to the Rubtsov-Magidson-Grigorovsky method.
30. Give the reaction scheme for the extraction of 9-aminoacridine from acridine. Write equations and name the products of interaction of 9-aminoacridine a) with HCI; b) s (CH 3 CO) 2 O.
31. Give the schemes of reactions of oxidation and reduction of quinoline, isoquinoline and acridine. Name the end products.
32. Write equations and name the reaction products of g- Pyron with conc. hydrochloric acid. Give the formulas of natural compounds, the structure of which includes the cycles g-Pyron and a-Pyron.
33. Write the schemes and name the reaction products of pyridine: a) with HCI; b) with NaNH 2, NH 3; c) with CON.
34. Write the schemes and name the reaction products of 4-aminopyrimidine: a) with correct. NSI; b) with NaNH 2, NH 3; c) with Br 2) FeBr 3 .
35. Give a scheme for the synthesis of barbituric acid from malonic ester and urea. What causes the acidic nature of barbituric acid? Support your answer with diagrams of the corresponding reactions.
36. Give a scheme of tautomeric transformations and name the tautomeric forms of barbituric acid. Write the equation for the reaction of barbituric acid with an aqueous solution of alkali.
37. Give the reaction scheme for the extraction of 5,5-diethylbarbituric acid from malonic ester. Write equations and name the product of the interaction of the named acid with an alkali (aqueous solution).
38. Give schemes, indicate the type of tautomerism and give the names of tautomeric forms of nucleic bases of the pyrimidine group.
39. Write a diagram of the interaction of uric acid with alkali. Why is uric acid dibasic and not tribasic?
40. Give the equations of a qualitative reaction to uric acid. List the intermediate and final products.
41. Write a diagram of tautomeric equilibrium and name the tautomeric forms of xanthine. Give equations and name the reaction products that confirm the amphoteric character of xanthine.
42. Give schemes, indicate the type of tautomerism and give names to tautomeric forms of nucleic bases of the purine group.
43. Which of the following compounds is characterized by lactam-lactim tautomerism: a) hypoxanthine; b) caffeine; c) uric acid? Give schemes of corresponding tautomeric transformations.
Natural connection
44. Write the diagrams and name the reaction products of menthol: a) with HCI; b) with Na; c) with isovaleric (3-methylbutanoic) acid in the presence of k. H 2 SO. Name menthol according to the IUPAC nomenclature.
45. Give schemes of sequential reactions for obtaining camphor from a-pinene. Write the reaction equations confirming the presence of a carbonyl group in the structure of camphor. Name the products.
46. Give diagrams and name the gyroproducts of camphor interaction: a) with Br 2 ; b) with NH 2 OH; c) with H 2 , Ni.
47. Give the reaction scheme for the extraction of camphor from bornyl acetate. Write a reaction equation confirming the presence of a carbonyl group in the structure of camphor.
48. What compounds are called epimers? Using D-glucose as an example, explain the phenomenon of epimerization. Give the projection formula of hexose, epimeric D-glucose.
49. What phenomenon is called mutarotation? Give the scheme of cyclo-chain tautomeric transformations of b-D-glucopyranose in aqueous solution. Name all forms of monosaccharides.
50. Give the scheme of cyclo-chain tautomeric transformation of D-galactose in aqueous solution. Name all forms of monosaccharides.
51. Give the scheme of cyclo-chain tautomeric transformation of D-mannose in aqueous solution. Name all forms of monosaccharides.
52. Give the scheme of cyclo-chain tautomeric transformation of a-D-fructofuranose (water. solution). Name all forms of monosaccharides.
53. Write the schemes of successive reactions for the formation of fructose ozone. Do other monoses form the same ozone?
54. Give the reaction schemes proving the presence in the glucose molecule: a) five hydroxyl groups; b) napiacetal hydroxyl; c) aldehyde group. Name the reaction products.
55. Write the reaction schemes of fructose with the following reagents: a) HCN; b) C 2 H 5 OH, H +; c) over CH 3 I; r) Ag (NH 3) 2 OH. Name the resulting compounds.
56. Write the reaction schemes for the conversion of D-glucose: a) to methyl-b-D-glucopyranoside; b) into pentaacetyl-b-D-glucopyranose.
57. Give the formula and give the chemical name of the disaccharide, which upon hydrolysis will give glucose and galactose. Write the reaction schemes for its hydrolysis and oxidation.
58. What are reducing and non-reducing sugars? Of the disaccharides - maltose or sucrose, will it react with Tollens' reagent (ammonia solution of argentum oxide)? Give the formulas of these disaccharides, give them names according to the IUPAC nomenclature, write the reaction scheme. What disaccharides can be used in a- and b-forms?
59. What carbohydrates are called disaccharides? What are reducing but non-reducing sugars? Do maltose, lactose and sucrose react with Tollens' reagent (ammonia solution of argentum oxide)? Give the reaction equations, give the names according to the IUPAC nomenclature for the indicated disaccharide.
60. Write the schemes of sequential reactions for obtaining ascorbic acid from D-glucose. Indicate the acid site in the vitamin C molecule.
61. Write the reaction schemes for obtaining: a) 4-O-a-D-glucopyranoside-D-glucopyranose; b) a-D-glucopyranoside-b-D-fructofuranoside. Name the parent monosaccharides. What type of disaccharides does each of a) and b) belong to?
62. Give a reaction scheme that allows you to distinguish sucrose from maltose. Name these disaccharides according to the IUPAC nomenclature, direct the schemes of their hydrolysis.
63. Give a scheme for the synthesis of methyl-b-D-galactopyranoside from D-galactose and its acid hydrolysis.
Similar information.
The material world in which we live and of which we are a tiny part is one and at the same time infinitely diverse. The unity and diversity of the chemical substances of this world is most clearly manifested in the genetic connection of substances, which is reflected in the so-called genetic series. We single out the most characteristic features of such series:
1. All substances of this series must be formed by one chemical element. For example, a series written using the following formulas:
2. Substances formed by the same element must belong to different classes, i.e., reflect different forms of its existence.
3. Substances that form the genetic series of one element must be connected by mutual transformations. On this basis, one can distinguish between complete and incomplete genetic series.
For example, the above genetic series of bromine will be incomplete, incomplete. And here is the next row:
can already be considered as complete: it begins with the simple substance bromine and ends with it.
Summarizing the above, we can give the following definition of the genetic series:
The genetic connection is a more general concept than the genetic series, which is, albeit a vivid, but particular manifestation of this connection, which is realized in any mutual transformations of substances. Then, obviously, the first series of substances given in the text of the paragraph also fits this definition.
To characterize the genetic relationship of inorganic substances, we will consider three types of genetic series: the genetic series of the metal element, the genetic series of the non-metal element, the genetic series of the metal element, which corresponds to amphoteric oxide and hydroxide.
I. Genetic range of the metal element. The metal series is the richest in substances, in which different degrees of oxidation are manifested. As an example, consider the genetic series of iron with oxidation states +2 and +3:
Recall that for the oxidation of iron to iron (II) chloride, you need to take a weaker oxidizing agent than to obtain iron (III) chloride:
II. The genetic series of the non-metal element. Similarly to the metal series, the non-metal series with different oxidation states is richer in bonds, for example, the genetic series of sulfur with oxidation states +4 and +6:
Difficulty can cause only the last transition. If you perform tasks of this type, then follow the rule: in order to obtain a simple substance from an oxidized compound of an element, you need to take its most reduced compound for this purpose, for example, the volatile hydrogen compound of a non-metal. In our example:
By this reaction, sulfur is formed from volcanic gases in nature.
Similarly for chlorine:
III. The genetic series of the metal element, to which the amphoteric oxide and hydroxide correspond, is very rich in bonds, since they exhibit, depending on the conditions, either the properties of an acid or the properties of a base. For example, consider the genetic series of aluminum:
In organic chemistry, one should also distinguish between a more general concept - "genetic connection" and a more particular concept - "genetic series". If the basis of the genetic series in inorganic chemistry is formed by substances formed by one chemical element, then the basis of the genetic series in organic chemistry (the chemistry of carbon compounds) is made up of substances with the same number of carbon atoms in the molecule. Consider the genetic series of organic substances, in which we include the largest number of classes of compounds:
Each number corresponds to a specific reaction equation:
The last transition does not fit the definition of the genetic series - a product is formed with not two, but with many carbon atoms, but with its help, genetic bonds are most diversely represented. And finally, we will give examples of the genetic connection between the classes of organic and inorganic compounds, which prove the unity of the world of substances, where there is no division into organic and inorganic substances. For example, consider the scheme for obtaining aniline - an organic substance from limestone - an inorganic compound:
Let us take the opportunity to repeat the names of the reactions corresponding to the proposed transitions:
Questions and tasks to § 23
>> Chemistry: Genetic relationship between classes of organic and inorganic substances
Material world. in which we live and of which we are a tiny part, is one and at the same time infinitely diverse. The unity and diversity of the chemical substances of this world is most clearly manifested in the genetic connection of substances, which is reflected in the so-called genetic series. We single out the most characteristic features of such series:
1. All substances of this series must be formed by one chemical element.
2. Substances formed by the same element must belong to different classes, that is, reflect different forms of its existence.
3. Substances that form the genetic series of one element must be connected by mutual transformations. On this basis, one can distinguish between complete and incomplete genetic series.
Summarizing the above, we can give the following definition of the genetic series:
Genetic refers to a number of substances of representatives of different classes, which are compounds of one chemical element, connected by mutual transformations and reflecting the common origin of these substances or their genesis.
genetic connection - the concept is more general than the genetic series. which is, albeit a vivid, but particular manifestation of this connection, which is realized in any mutual transformations of substances. Then, obviously, the first series of substances targeted in the text of the paragraph fits this definition.
To characterize the genetic relationship of inorganic substances, we consider three types of genetic series:
II. The genetic series of a non-metal. Similarly to the metal series, the non-metal series with different oxidation states is richer in bonds, for example, the genetic series of sulfur with oxidation states +4 and +6.
Difficulty can cause only the last transition. If you perform tasks of this type, then follow the rule: in order to obtain a simple substance from a window compound of an element, you need to take its most reduced compound for this purpose, for example, the volatile hydrogen compound of a non-metal.
III. The genetic series of the metal, to which the amphoteric oxide and hydroxide correspond, is very rich in sayases. since they exhibit, depending on the conditions, either the properties of an acid or the properties of a base. For example, consider the genetic series of zinc:
In organic chemistry, one should also distinguish between a more general concept - a genetic connection and a more particular concept of a genetic series. If the basis of the genetic series in inorganic chemistry is formed by substances formed by one chemical element, then the basis of the genetic series in organic chemistry (the chemistry of carbon compounds) is made up of substances with the same number of carbon atoms in the molecule. Consider the genetic series of organic substances, in which we include the largest number of classes of compounds:
Each number above the arrow corresponds to a specific reaction equation (the reverse reaction equation is indicated by a number with a dash):
Iodine definition of the genetic series does not fit the last transition - a product is formed not with two, but with many carbon atoms, but with its help, genetic bonds are most diversely represented. And finally, we will give examples of the genetic connection between the classes of organic and inorganic compounds, which prove the unity of the world of substances, where there is no division into organic and inorganic substances.
Let us take the opportunity to repeat the names of the reactions corresponding to the proposed transitions:
1. Limestone firing:
1. Write down the reaction equations illustrating the following transitions:
3. In the interaction of 12 g of saturated monohydric alcohol with sodium, 2.24 liters of hydrogen (n.a.) were released. Find the molecular formula of alcohol and write down the formulas of the possible isomers.
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