ALLEGORY (Greek allegoria - allegory) - a concrete image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
ALLITERATION (SOUND) (lat. ad - to, with and littera - letter) - the repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.
A gorilla came out to them,
The gorilla told them
The gorilla told them
Sentenced.
(Korney Chukovsky)
ALLUSION (from Latin allusio - a joke, a hint) - a stylistic figure, a hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work.
Example: "the glory of Herostratus"
ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or response) - repetition in a line, stanza or phrase of homogeneous vowel sounds.
Oh spring without end and without edge -
Endless and endless dream! (A. Blok)
ANAPHORA (Greek anaphora - pronouncement) - repetition of initial words, lines, stanzas or phrases.
You are poor
You are abundant
You are beaten
You are almighty
Mother Russia!…
(N.A. Nekrasov)
ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a pronounced opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;
You are a prose writer, I am a poet;
You are blush, like a poppy color,
I am like death, and thin and pale. (A.S. Pushkin)
APOKOPA (Greek apokope - cutting off) - an artificial shortening of a word without losing its meaning.
... Suddenly, out of the forest
The bear opened its mouth on them ...
(A.N. Krylov)
UNION (asindeton) - a sentence with the absence of unions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.
Night, street, lamp, pharmacy,
A meaningless and dim light.
Live at least a quarter of a century -
Everything will be like this. There is no exit.
HYPERBOLE (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a kind of trail based on exaggeration. By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules.
And prevented the nuclei from flying
A mountain of bloody bodies.
(M.Yu. Lermontov)
GROTESQUE (French grotesque - bizarre, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.
Enraged at the meeting, I burst into an avalanche,
Spouting wild curses dear.
And I see: half of the people are sitting.
O devilry! Where is the other half?
(V. Mayakovsky)
GRADATION - from lat. gradatio - gradualness) - a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - an increase or decrease in their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse.
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees. (S. Yesenin)
INVERSION (lat. inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure, consisting in violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of the phrase gives it a peculiar expressive shade.
Doorman past he's an arrow
Flew up the marble steps
(A. Pushkin)
IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - an expression of mockery or slyness through allegory. A word or statement acquires in the context of speech a meaning that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, calling it into question.
Servant of powerful masters,
With what noble courage
Thunder with speech you are free
All those who had their mouths shut.
(F.I. Tyutchev)
LITOTA (Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; figurative expression, turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. There is a litote in folk tales: "a boy with a finger", "a hut on chicken legs", "a peasant with a fingernail".
Your spitz is a lovely spitz,
No more thimble!
(A.S. Griboyedov)
METAPHOR (Greek metaphora - transfer) - trope, hidden figurative comparison, transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common features (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “stone heart” ...) .
Nineteenth century, iron,
Truly a cruel age!
You in the darkness of the night, starless
Careless abandoned man!
METONYMY (Greek metonymia - renaming) - tropes; replacing one word or expression with another based on the proximity of meanings; the use of expressions in a figurative sense ("foaming glass" - meaning wine in a glass; "forest noise" - trees are meant; etc.).
The theater is already full, the boxes are shining;
Parterre and chairs, everything is in full swing ...
(A.S. Pushkin)
MULTIPLE UNION (polysyndeton) - excessive repetition of unions, creating an additional intonational coloring.
And boring and sad, and there is no one to give a hand to ...
(M.Yu. Lermontov)
IMAGE - a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.
It is not the wind that rages over the forest,
Streams did not run from the mountains,
Frost - warlord patrol
Bypasses his possessions.
(N.A. Nekrasov)
OXYMORON (Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting words that are opposite in meaning (a living corpse, a giant dwarf, the heat of cold numbers).
That sad joy that I survived? (S. Yesenin)
PERSONIFICATION (prosopopoeia, personification) - a type of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays ...).
my bells,
Steppe flowers!
What are you looking at me
Dark blue?
And what are you talking about
On a happy May day,
Among the uncut grass
Shaking your head?
(A.K. Tolstoy)
PARALLELISM (from the Greek. parallelos - walking side by side) - an identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.
Waves crash in the blue sea.
The stars are shining in the blue sky.
(A.S. Pushkin)
PARCELLATION - an expressive syntactic technique of intonational division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences.
“How gracious! Of good! Mila! Simple!”
(Griboyedov)
TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - a mismatch between the syntactic articulation of speech and articulation into verses. When transferring, the syntactic pause within a verse or half-line is stronger than at its end.
Peter comes out. His eyes
Shine. His face is terrible.
The movements are fast. He is beautiful,
He's all like God's thunderstorm.
A.S. Pushkin
PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - roundabout, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its features, as a rule, the most characteristic, enhancing the figurativeness of speech.
"Sleep, my beautiful baby..."
(M.Yu. Lermontov)
RHETORICAL QUESTION (from the Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures, such a construction of speech, mainly poetic, in which the statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not imply an answer, it only enhances the emotionality of the statement, its expressiveness.
Rhetorical exclamation (from the Greek rhetor - speaker) is one of the stylistic figures, such a construction of speech in which one or another concept is affirmed in the form of an exclamation. The rhetorical exclamation sounds emotional, with poetic enthusiasm and elation.
Yes, love like our blood loves
None of you love!
RHETORICAL APPEAL (from the Greek. rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures. In form, being an appeal, a rhetorical appeal is conditional. It gives poetic speech the necessary authorial intonation: solemnity, pathos, cordiality, irony, etc.
And you, arrogant descendants
Known meanness of the famous fathers.
(M. Lermontov)
RHYTHM (Greek "rhythmos" - harmony, proportionality) - a kind of epiphora; the consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a sense of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.
SARKASM (Greek sarkazo, literally - I tear meat) - contemptuous, caustic mockery; the highest degree of irony.
SYNECDOCH (Greek synekdoche - correlation) - one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in transferring meaning from one object to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche are:
And in the door - jackets,
overcoats, sheepskin coats...
(V. Mayakovsky)
COMPARISON - a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another.
A storm covers the sky with mist,
Whirlwinds of snow twisting;
The way the beast she howls
It will cry like a child ... (A.S. Pushkin)
DEFAULT - unspokenness, reticence. An intentional break in a statement that conveys the excitement of speech and suggests that the reader will guess what was said.
I do not like, oh Russia, your timid
A thousand years of slave poverty.
But this cross, but this ladle is white...
Humble, native traits!
(I.A. Bunin)
ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - loss, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of the sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech, a tense change of action is transmitted.
We sat down - in ashes, cities - in dust,
In swords - sickles and plows.
EPITET (Greek epitheton - application) - a figurative definition that gives an additional artistic characteristic to someone or something, "a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities or features. A sign expressed by an epithet, as it were joins the subject, enriching it in a semantic and emotional sense.
But I love the golden spring
Your solid, wonderfully mixed noise;
You rejoice, not ceasing for a moment,
Like a child without care and thoughts... (N. Nekrasov)
EPIFOR (Greek epiphora - repetition) - a stylistic figure opposite to anaphora: repetition of the last words or phrases. Rhyme is a kind of epiphora (repetition of the last sounds).
Here the guests came to the shore,
Tsar Saltan invites them to visit... (A.S. Pushkin)
hyperbole exaggeration character
Means of artistic expression: Paths.
Trope is a word or expression used figuratively to create artistic image and achieve greater expressiveness. Pathways include techniques such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes referred to as hyperbolas and litotes. No work of art is complete without tropes. The artistic word is polysemantic; the writer creates images, playing with the meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this makes up the artistic possibilities of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Note!
When creating a trail, the word is always used in a figurative sense.
Consider the different types of trails:
EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) - this is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. An epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature ... (F. Tyutchev); transparent maiden (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frantic dragon (A. Blok); takeoff radiant(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes together with their surrounding context: There he is, leader without squad(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My dove is swarthy!(M. Tsvetaeva).
Each epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author's perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: a wooden shelf is not an epithet, so there is no artistic definition, a wooden face is an epithet that expresses the impression of the interlocutor speaking about the facial expression, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote burly kind well done, clear the sun, as well as tautological, that is, epithets-repetitions that have the same root with the word being defined: Oh you, grief is bitter, boredom is boring, mortal! (A. Blok).
In a work of art An epithet can perform various functions:
Describe the object figuratively: shining eyes, eyes diamonds;
Create atmosphere, mood gloomy morning;
combine all previous functions in equal proportions (in most cases, the use of the epithet).
Note! All color terms in a literary text are epithets.
COMPARISON- this is an artistic technique (tropes), in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, similes, in that it always has a strict formal feature: a comparative construction or a turnover with comparative conjunctions. as, as if, as if, exactly, as if and the like. Type expressions he looked like... cannot be considered a comparison as a trope.
Comparison examples:
Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called extended comparison, revealing various signs of a phenomenon or conveying one's attitude to several phenomena. Often the work is entirely based on comparison, as, for example, V. Bryusov's poem "Sonnet to Form":
PERSONALIZATION- an artistic technique (tropes), in which an inanimate object, phenomenon or concept is given human properties (do not confuse, it is human!). Personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the whole work is built (“You are my abandoned land” by S. Yesenin, “Mom and the evening killed by the Germans”, “Violin and a little nervously” by V. Mayakovsky and others). Personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).
Impersonation task- correlate the depicted object with a person, make it closer to the reader, figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Personification is one of the oldest figurative means of art.
HYPERBOLA(Greek Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative sense to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite to hyperbole in content is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) is an artistic understatement.
Hyperbole allows the author to show the reader in an exaggerated form the most characteristic features of the depicted object. Often, hyperbole and litotes are used by the author in an ironic vein, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author's point of view, sides of the subject.
METAPHOR(Greek Metaphora, transfer) - a type of so-called complex trope, speech turnover, in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. Metaphor contains a hidden comparison, a figurative likening of phenomena using the figurative meaning of words, what the object is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that "to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities."
Metaphor examples:
METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of trail: a figurative designation of an object according to one of its signs.
Examples of metonymy:
Perhaps the most confusing and most difficult topic for those who are not friends with literature and verbal figures. If you have never been impressed by classical literature, and especially poetry, then perhaps familiarity with this topic will allow you to look at many works through the eyes of the author, will generate interest in the artistic word.
Trails - verbal turns
Paths make speech brighter and more expressive, more interesting and richer. These are words and their combinations used in a figurative sense, which is why the very expressiveness of the text appears. Paths help convey various shades of emotions, recreate true images and pictures in the mind of the reader, with their help, the master of the word evokes certain associations in the mind of the reader.
Along with the syntactic means of the language, tropes (relating to lexical means) are quite powerful weapons in the literary sphere. It is worth paying attention to the fact that many tropes have moved from the literary language to colloquial speech. We have become so accustomed to them that we have ceased to notice the indirect meaning of such words, which is why they have lost their expressiveness. It is not uncommon: the tropes are so "beaten" with colloquial speech that they become clichés and clichés. The once expressive phrases "black gold", "brilliant mind", "golden hands" have become habitual and hackneyed.
Trail classification
In order to understand and clearly find out which words and expressions, in what context, are referred to as figurative and expressive means of the language, we turn to the following table.
| trails | Definition | Examples |
| Epithet | Called to define something artistically (object, action), most often expressed by an adjective or adverb | Turquoise eyes, monstrous character, indifferent sky |
| Metaphor | In fact, this is a comparison, but hidden by transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another. | The soul sings, consciousness floats away, the head buzzes, an icy look, a sharp word |
| Metonymy | Rename. This is the transfer of the properties of one object, phenomenon to another on the basis of adjacency | Brew chamomile (and not chamomile tea), the school went on a subbotnik (replacing the word "students" with the name of the institution), read Mayakovsky (replacing the work with the name of the author) |
| Synecdoche (is a type of metonymy) | Transferring the name of an object from part to whole and vice versa | Save a penny (instead of money), the berry has ripened this year (instead of the berry), the buyer is now demanding (instead of buyers) |
| Hyperbola | Trope based on excessive exaggeration (properties, sizes, events, meanings, etc.) | I told you a hundred times, stood in line all day, scared me to death |
| paraphrase | Semantically indivisible expression that figuratively describes any phenomenon, object, indicating its feature (with a negative or positive meaning) | Not a camel, but a ship of the desert, not Paris, but the capital of fashion, not an official, but a clerical rat, not a dog, but a friend of man |
| Allegory | Allegory, expression of an abstract concept using a concrete image | Fox - cunning, ant - diligence, elephant - clumsiness, dragonfly - carelessness |
| Litotes | Same as hyperbole, only in reverse. Understatement of something in order to give expressiveness | How the cat cried, I earn my penny, thin as a reed |
| Oxymoron | Combination of incompatible, contrasting, contradictory | Loud silence, back to the future, hot cold, beloved enemy |
| Irony | Using a word in a sense completely opposite to its meaning for the purpose of ridicule | Come into my mansions (about a small apartment), it will cost you a pretty penny (big money) |
| personification | Transferring the properties and qualities of living beings to inanimate objects and concepts to which they are not inherent | The rain is crying, the foliage is whispering, the blizzard is howling, sadness has attacked |
| Antithesis | A trope based on a sharp opposition of any images or concepts |
|
| Euphemism | An emotionally and semantic neutral word or combination of words used instead of unpleasant, rude, indecent expressions | Places are not so remote (instead of prison), it has a peculiar character (instead of bad, hard) |
From the examples, it becomes clear that the figurative and expressive means of the language, namely the tropes, are used not only in works of art, but also in lively colloquial speech. It is not necessary to be a poet in order to have a competent, juicy, expressive speech. It is enough to have a good vocabulary and the ability to express thoughts outside the box. Saturate your lexical pantries with reading quality literature, this is extremely useful.
Figurative means of phonetics
Paths are only part of the arsenal of artistic means of expression. That which is intended to act specifically on our hearing is called phonetic figurative and expressive means of language. Once having delved into the essence of the phonetic component of the artistry of the language, you begin to look at many things with different eyes. There comes an understanding of the play on words in the verses of the school curriculum, once studied "through force", the poetics and beauty of the syllable are revealed.
It is best to consider examples of the use of phonetic means of expression, relying on classical Russian literature, this is the richest source of alliteration and assonance, as well as other types of sound writing. But it would be wrong to think that examples of figurative and expressive means of language are not found in contemporary art. Advertising, journalism, songs and poems by modern performers, proverbs, sayings, tongue twisters - all this is an excellent base for finding figures of speech and tropes, you just need to learn to hear and see them.
Alliteration, assonance and others
Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonants or their combinations in a poem, which gives the verse sound expressiveness, brightness, originality. For example, the sound [h] of Vladimir Mayakovsky in "A Cloud in Pants":
You entered
sharp, like "here!",
mucha suede gloves,
"You know -
I'm getting married".
or right there:
I'll get stronger.
See -
how calm!
Like the pulse of the dead.
Remember?...
And here is a modern example. From the singer Yuta ("Fall"):
I will smoke and eat bread,
Staring in the hallway at the dusty ceiling ...
Assonance - a specially organized repetition of consonant sounds (more often in a poetic text), which gives the verse musicality, harmony, song. Masterfully created phonetic device can convey the atmosphere, setting, state of mind and even surrounding sounds. Vladimir Mayakovsky's carefully crafted assonance bears a tinge of fluid hopelessness:
Your son is very sick!
He has a heart of fire.
Tell the sisters
Luda and Ole,—
he has nowhere to go.
In Vladimir Vladimirovich, in any poem, figurative and expressive means of a phonetic nature are combined with tropes and syntactic figures. This is the author's uniqueness.
Punning rhymes are combinations of words and sounds built on the similarity of sound.
The area of rhymes is my element,
And I write poetry easily,
Without hesitation, without delay
I run to line from line
Even to the Finnish brown rocks
I'm dealing with a pun.
D. D. Minaev
Syntactic means of expression in the language
Epiphora and anaphora, inversion, parcellation and a number of other syntactic means help the master of verbal art to saturate his works with expressiveness, creating an individual style, character, rhythm.
Some syntactic techniques enhance the expressiveness of speech, logically highlight what the author wants to emphasize. Others give the narrative dynamism, tension, or, conversely, make you stop and think, re-read and feel. Many writers and poets have their own individual style based precisely on syntax. Suffice it to recall A. Blok:
"Night, street, lamp, pharmacy"
or A. Akhmatov:
"Twenty-one. Night. Monday"
The individual author's style, of course, consists not only of syntax, there is a whole set of all components: semantic, linguistic, as well as rhythm and vision of reality. And yet an important role is played by what figurative and expressive means of language the artist of the word prefers.
Syntax to help artistic expression
Inversion (permutation, reversal) is a reverse or non-standard word order in a sentence. In prose, it is used to semantic highlight any part of a sentence. In poetic form, it is necessary to create a rhyme, focusing on the most important points. In Marina Tsvetaeva's poem "An Attempted Jealousy", the inversion conveys an emotional strain:
How do you live - hello -
Maybe? Singing - how?
With a plague of immortal conscience
How are you, poor man?
A. S. Pushkin considered inversion to be perhaps the most important means of poetic expression, his poems are mostly inversion, which is why they are so musical, expressive, and simple.
A rhetorical question in a literary text is one that does not require an answer.
The day was innocent and the wind was fresh.
The dark stars went out.
- Grandmother! — This cruel rebellion
In my heart - is it not from you? ..
A. Akhmatova
In the lyrics of Marina Tsvetaeva, the favorite devices were a rhetorical question and a rhetorical exclamation:
I'll ask for a chair, I'll ask for a bed:
“For what, for what do I endure and suffer?”
I taught to live in the fire itself,
I threw it myself - into the icy steppe!
That's what you, dear, did to me!
My dear, what have I done to you?
Epiphora, Anaphora, Ellipse
Anaphora - the repetition of similar or identical sounds, words, phrases at the beginning of each line, stanza, sentence. A classic example is Yesenin's poems:
I did not know that love is an infection,
I didn't know love was a plague....
Ah, wait. I don't scold her.
Ah, wait. I don't curse her...
Epiphora - the repetition of the same elements at the end of phrases, stanzas, lines.
Foolish heart, don't beat!
We are all deceived by happiness
The beggar only asks for participation ...
Foolish heart, don't beat.
Both stylistic figures are more characteristic of poetry than prose. Such techniques are found in all types and genres of literature, including oral folk art, which is very natural, given its specificity.
An ellipse is an omission in a literary text of any language unit (it is easy to restore), while the meaning of the phrase does not suffer.
The fact that yesterday is waist-deep,
Suddenly - to the stars.
(Exaggerated, that is:
In all - growth.)
M. Tsvetaeva
This gives dynamism, brevity, highlights the desired element in the sentence intonationally.
In order to clearly navigate in all the variety of linguistic figures and professionally understand the name of a visual and expressive means, experience, knowledge of theory and language disciplines are needed.
The main thing is not to overdo it
If we perceive the surrounding information through the prism of linguistic means of expression, we can conclude that even colloquial speech refers to them quite often. It is not necessary to know the name of the figurative-expressive means of the language in order to use it in speech. Rather, it happens unintentionally, imperceptibly. Another thing is when various figures of speech flow in the media, to the point and not quite. The abuse of tropes, stylistic devices, and other means of expression makes speech hard to perceive, oversaturated. Publicism and advertising are especially guilty of this, apparently because they deliberately use the power of language to influence the audience. The poet, in the impulse of the creative process, does not think about what figurative and expressive means to use, this is a spontaneous, "emotional" process.
Language is the strongest tool in the hands of the classics
Each era leaves its mark on the language and its visual means. Pushkin's language is far from the creative style of Mayakovsky. The poetics of Tsvetaeva's heritage differs sharply from the unique texts of Vladimir Vysotsky. The poetic language of A. S. Pushkin is permeated with epithets, metaphors, personifications, I. A. Krylov is a fan of allegory, hyperbole, irony. Each writer has his own style, created by him in the creative process, in which his favorite pictorial images play an important role.
It is known that not a single European lexicon can be compared with juiciness: this opinion is expressed by many literary critics who have studied its expressiveness. It has Spanish expansion, Italian emotionality, French tenderness. Language tools used by Russian writers resemble the strokes of an artist.
When experts talk about the expressiveness of a language, they mean not only the figurative means that they study at school, but also an inexhaustible arsenal of literary devices. There is no single classification of figurative and expressive means, however, language means are conditionally divided into groups.
In contact with
Lexical means
Expressive means, working at the lexical language level, are an integral part of a literary work: poetic or written in prose. These are words or phrases used by the author in a figurative or allegorical sense. The most extensive group of lexical means of creating imagery in the Russian language is literary tropes.
Varieties of trails
There are more than two dozen tropes used in the works. Table with examples combined the most used:
| № | trails | Explanations for the term | Examples |
| 1 | Allegory | Replacing an abstract concept with a concrete image. | "In the hands of Themis", which means: in justice |
| 2 | These are paths based on figurative comparison, but without the use of conjunctions (like, as if). Metaphor involves the transfer of the qualities of one object or phenomenon to some other. | Bubbling voice (voice as if murmuring). | |
| 3 | Metonymy | Substitution of one word for another, based on the adjacency of concepts. | The class was noisy |
| 4 | Comparison | What is comparison in literature? Comparison of objects on a similar basis. Comparisons are art media, with enhanced imagery. | Comparison: hot as fire (other examples: turned white like chalk). |
| 5 | personification | The transfer of human properties to inanimate objects or phenomena. | Whispered tree leaves |
| 6 | Hyperbola | These are tropes based on literary exaggeration, which enhances a certain characteristic or quality on which the author focuses the reader's attention. | Sea of work. |
| 7 | Litotes | Artistic understatement of the described object or phenomenon. | Man with nails. |
| 8 | Synecdoche | Replacing some words with others regarding quantitative relations. | Invite to zander. |
| 9 | Occasionalisms | Artistic means formed by the author. | The fruits of education. |
| 10 | Irony | A subtle mockery based on an outwardly positive assessment or a serious form of expression. | What do you say, smart guy? |
| 11 | Sarcasm | A caustic subtle mockery, the highest form of irony. | The works of Saltykov-Shchedrin are full of sarcasm. |
| 12 | paraphrase | Substitution of a word with an expression similar in lexical meaning. | King of beasts |
| 13 | Lexical repetition | In order to strengthen the meaning of a particular word, the author repeats it several times. | Lakes all around, deep lakes. |
The article contains main trails, known in the literature, which are illustrated by a table with examples.
Sometimes archaisms, dialectisms, professionalisms are referred to as paths, but this is not true. These are means of expression, the scope of which is limited to the depicted era or area of application. They are used to create the color of the era, the place described or the working atmosphere.
Specialized expressive means
- words that were once called objects familiar to us (eyes - eyes). Historicisms mean objects or phenomena (actions) that have gone out of use (caftan, ball).
Both archaisms and historicisms - means of expression, which are readily used by writers and screenwriters who create works on historical topics (examples are "Peter the Great" and "Prince Silver" by A. Tolstoy). Poets often use archaisms to create a sublime style (bosom, right hand, finger).
Neologisms are figurative means of language that have entered our lives relatively recently (gadget). They are often used in a literary text to create an atmosphere of a youth environment and an image of advanced users.
Dialectisms - words or grammatical forms used in colloquial speech of the inhabitants of one locality (kochet - rooster).
Professionalisms are words and expressions that are typical for representatives of a particular profession. For example, a pen for a printer is, first of all, a spare material that was not included in the room, and only then the place where the animals live. Naturally, a writer who tells about the life of a printing hero will not bypass the term.
Jargon is the vocabulary of informal communication used in the colloquial speech of people belonging to a certain circle of communication. For example, linguistic features of the text about the life of students will allow the word "tails" to be used in the sense of "exam debt", and not parts of the body of animals. This word often appears in works about students.
Phraseological turns
Phraseological expressions are lexical language means, whose expressiveness is determined by:
- Figurative meaning, sometimes with mythological background (Achilles' heel).
- Everyone belongs to the category of high set expressions (sink into oblivion), or colloquial turns (hang ears). These can be linguistic means that have a positive emotional coloring (golden hands - a load of approving meaning), or with a negative expressive assessment (small fry - a shade of disdain for a person).
Phraseologisms use, to:
- to emphasize the clarity and figurativeness of the text;
- build the necessary stylistic tone (colloquial or elevated), having previously assessed the linguistic features of the text;
- express the author's attitude to the reported information.
The figurative expressiveness of phraseological turns is enhanced due to their transformation from well-known to individual author's ones: to shine throughout Ivanovskaya.
A special group is aphorisms ( idioms). For example, happy hours are not observed.
Aphorisms include works of folk art: proverbs, sayings.
These artistic means are used in literature quite often.
Attention! Phraseologisms as figurative and expressive literary means cannot be used in an official business style.
Syntactic tricks
Syntactic figures of speech are turns used by the author in order to better convey the necessary information or the general meaning of the text, sometimes to give the passage an emotional coloring. Here are some syntactic means expressiveness:
- Antithesis is a syntactic means of expressiveness based on opposition. "Crime and Punishment". Allows you to emphasize the meaning of one word with the help of another, opposite in meaning.
- Gradations are expressive means that use synonymous words arranged according to the principle of the rise and fall of a feature or quality in the Russian language. For example, the stars shone, burned, shone. Such a lexical chain highlights the main conceptual meaning of each word - “shine”.
- oxymoron - right opposite words nearby. For example, the expression "fiery ice" figuratively and vividly creates the contradictory character of the hero.
- Inversions are syntactic expressive means based on the unusual construction of a sentence. For example, instead of "he sang" it says "he sang". At the beginning of the sentence, the word that the author wants to emphasize is taken out.
- Parceling is the intentional division of one sentence into several parts. For example, Ivan is nearby. Worth watching. In the second sentence, an action, quality or sign is usually taken out, which takes on the author's emphasis.
Important! These figurative means Representatives of a number of scientific schools refer to stylistic. The reason for the replacement of the term lies in the influence exerted by the expressive means of this group on the style of the text, albeit through syntactic constructions.
Phonetic means
Sound devices in Russian are the smallest group of literary figures of speech. This is a special use of words with the repetition of certain sounds or phonetic groups in order to depict artistic images.
Usually such figurative means of language used by poets in poetry, or writers in lyrical digressions, when describing landscapes. The authors use repetitive sounds to convey thunder or the rustling of leaves.
Alliteration is the repetition of a series of consonants that create sound effects that enhance the imagery of the described phenomenon. For example: "In the silky rustle of snow noise." The pumping of sounds С, Ш and Ш creates the effect of imitation of the whistle of the wind.
Assonance - the repetition of vowel sounds in order to create an expressive artistic image: "March, march - we wave the flag / / We march to the parade." The vowel “a” is repeated to create an emotional fullness of feelings, a unique feeling of universal joy and openness.
Onomatopoeia - the selection of words that combine a certain set of sounds that creates a phonetic effect: the howl of the wind, the rustle of grass and other characteristic natural sounds.
Expressive means in Russian, tropes
Use of words of speech expressiveness
Conclusion
It is the abundance of figurative means expressiveness in Russian makes it truly beautiful, juicy and unique. Therefore, foreign literary critics prefer to study the works of Russian poets and writers in the original.
| I linguistic means | Definition | Example |
| Anaphora (unity) | Repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence | Hands let gowhen a person reads one thing in the newspapers, but sees another in life. Hands let gofrom constant confusion, mismanagement, terry bureaucracy.Hands let gowhen you realize that no one around you is responsible for anything and that everything is “to the point”. That's what gives up! (R. Rozhdestvensky) |
| Antithesis (oppositions)) | A sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of a sharp contrast | I divide all world literature into 2 types -literature at home and literature of homelessness. The literature of achieved harmony and the literature of longing for harmony. Mad unrestrainedDostoevsky-and powerful slow rhythmTolstoy. howdynamicTsvetaeva and howstaticAkhmatova! (F. Iskander) |
| Hyperbola | Artistic exaggeration. | Russia is stricken with the most severe ideological disease, which is more severe than the hydrogen bomb of the 20th century. The name of this disease is xenophobia (I. Rudenko). |
| gradation | A syntactic construction within which homogeneous expressive means are arranged in order of strengthening or weakening of a feature. | The Vedas and the truth: what is the use of courage, in fearlessness, in selfless courage, if there is no conscience behind them ?! It is not good, unworthy, stupid and disgusting to laugh at a person. (L. Panteleev) |
| Grotesque | Artistic exaggeration to the incredible, fantastic. | If some universal saboteurs were sent to destroy all life on Earth and turn it into a dead stone, if they carefully developed this operation of theirs, they could not act more intelligently and insidiously than we people living on Earth act. (V. Soloukhin) |
| Inversion | Reverse word order in a sentence. (In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition is before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition is after it, the addition is after the control word, the circumstances of the mode of action are before the verb. And with inversion, the words are arranged in a different order than established by grammatical rules). | The month came out on a dark night, looking lonely from a black cloud at deserted fields, at distant villages, at nearby villages. (M. Neverov) A dazzlingly bright flame escaped from the furnace (N. Gladkov) I do not believe in the good intentions of today's new Russians. (D.Granin) |
| Irony | A type of other statement when a mockery is hidden behind an outwardly positive assessment. | Men's suits for sale, one style. And what are the colors? Oh what a great selection of colors! Black, black-gray, gray-black, blackish gray, slate, slate, emery, the color of transfer iron, coconut color, peat, earthen, garbage, cake color and the color that in the old days was called "robber's dream". In general, you yourself understand, there is only one color, pure mourning at a poor funeral. (I.Ilf, E.Perov) |
| Litotes | Artistic understatement. | We, with our ambitions, are less than forest ants. (V. Astafiev) |
| Metaphor (including expanded) | The transfer to an object or phenomenon of any sign of another phenomenon or object (an extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently carried out throughout a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole | There were, are, and, I hope, will always be more good people in the world than bad and evil ones, otherwise disharmony would set in in the world, it would be warped, ………tipped over and sank. It is cleansed, the soul is, and it seems to me, the whole world held its breath, this bubbling, formidable world of ours thought, ready to fall on its knees with me, repent, fall with a withered mouth to the holy spring of goodness .... (N. Gogol) |
| Metonymy | Transfer value (rename) based on the adjacency of phenomena. | Winter. Freezing. The village smokes into the cold clear sky with gray smoke (V. Shukshin) Funeral Mozart sounded under the vaults of the cathedral (V. Astafiev). Black tailcoats were worn upright and in heaps here and there. (N. Gogol). |
| Personification (personification) | Assignment to objects of inanimate nature of the properties of living beings. | Hop, crawling along the ground, grabs on to oncoming herbs, but they turn out to be rather weak for him, and he crawls, crouching, farther and farther ..... He must constantly look around and fumble around, looking for something to grab onto, on which to rely on a reliable earth support. (V. Soloukhin) |
| rhetorical question | Expression of the statement in interrogative form. | Who among us has not admired the sunrise, the summer herbs of the meadows, the raging sea? Who has not admired the shades of colors of the evening sky? Who hasn't been thrilled by the sight of a sudden valley in the mountain gorges? (V. Astafiev) |
| Rhetorical exclamation | Expression of a statement in exclamation form. | What magic, kindness, light in the word teacher! And how great is its role in the life of each of us! (V. Sukhomlinsky) |
| Rhetorical address | A figure of speech in which the attitude of the author to what is being said is expressed in the form of an address. | My dears! But who, besides us, will think about ourselves? (V. Voinovich) And you, mentally wretched vandals, also shout about patriotism? (P. Voshchin) |
| Sarcasm | Caustic irony. | And every time, frankly hacking at work (“it will do ..!”, blinding something at random (“it will grind ..!”), not thinking something up, not calculating, not checking (“come on, it will cost ..! ”), closing our eyes to our own negligence (“I don’t care ..!”), we ourselves, with our own hands, with our own so-called labor, are building training grounds for the upcoming demonstration of mass heroism, we are preparing tomorrow’s accidents and disasters for ourselves! (R. Rozhdestvensky |
| Epithet | Artistic definition, that is, colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in a certain word. | There is only my contemptuous, incorporeal soul, it oozes incomprehensible pain and tears of quiet delight .... Let the vaults of the cathedral collapse, and instead of an executioner about a bloody, criminally folded path, people will be carried away to the heart by the music of a genius, and the unanimal roar of a murderer. (V. Astafiev) |
| Epiphora | The same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc. | We know how the French influenced Pushkin. We know how Schiller influenced Dostoevsky. We know how Dostoevsky influenced all the latest world literature. |
Test 1
Exercise:
1. Under it, a stream of lighter azure.
(M. Lermontov.)
2. A heroic horse jumps through the forest.
(Epic)
3. The golden stars dozed off.
(S. Yesenin.)
4. Ahead is a deserted September day.
(K. Paustovsky.)
5. Water is tired of singing, tired of flowing,
Shine, flow and shimmer.
(D. Samoilov.)
6. Sleep dandelions went to bed with us,
children, and stood up with us.
(M. Prishvin.)
7. She chirps and sings
On the eve of boron,
as if guarding the entrance
In forest burrows.
(B. Pasternak.)
8. Forests clad in crimson and gold.
(A. Pushkin.)
9. Autumn will wake up soon
and cry awake.
(K. Balmont.)
10. But it's still cold
And not to sing, but, like armor, to ring.
(D. Samoilov.)
Test 2 .
Exercise: Name the means of expression used by the author.
1. Life is a mouse run ...
What are you worrying me about? (A. Pushkin)
2. A boy with a finger.
3. The forest is like a painted tower. (I. Bunin)
4.When people….
Belinsky and Gogol
From the market will carry. (N. Nekrasov)
5. O Volga, my cradle! (N. Nekrasov)
6. It's snowy, it's snowy all over the earth,
To all limits.
The candle burned on the table
The candle was burning. (B.Pasternak)
7. They got along. Wave and stone
Poetry and prose, ice and fire,
Not so different from each other. (A. Pushkin)
8. We have not seen each other for a hundred years!
9. Seahorses seemed much more interesting. (V. Kataev)
10. And punch flame blue. (A. Pushkin
Test #1Answers: 1. Comparison (simple). 2. Hyperbole.3. Personification. 4. Epithet. 5. Homogeneous members of the proposal. 6. Personification. 7. Comparison.8.Metaphor 9. Personifications 10. Comparison.
Test number 2 Answers: 1. Rhetorical question 2. Litota 3. Comparison 4. Metonymy 5. Appeal 6. Lexical repetition 7. Antithesis8. Hyperbole 9. Comparison10. Metaphor
