V. M. Vasnetsov. Varangians. 1909. Oil on canvas. House-Museum of V. M. Vasnetsov, Moscow

Formation of the Old Russian state- a key event in Russian history, which continues to cause ongoing controversy in our time. Most often, there are two main hypotheses for the formation of the Old Russian state. According to the Norman theory, based on the "Tale of Bygone Years" of the XII century and numerous Western European and Byzantine sources, statehood was introduced to Russia from outside by the Varangians - the brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor in 862. The anti-Norman theory is based on the concept of the impossibility of introducing statehood from outside, on the idea of ​​the emergence of the state as a stage in the internal development of society. The founder of this theory in Russian historiography is Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov.

Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state

1. The development of agriculture, trade, crafts, crafts.
2. Complication of intra-tribal relations.
3. Increasing the role of the prince and the squad in society (military and judicial functions).
4. The struggle between the tribes led to the formation of intertribal alliances.
5. The desire to capture trade routes in the West and South.
6. Interaction with various civilizations (in particular, with the Byzantine Empire), various borrowings from them.
7. The presence of common pagan cults.
8. The presence of a single enemy - in a particular case, the Khazar Khaganate, which had to be resisted.

Folding steps

1. VIII - ser. 9th century - the formation of intertribal unions and the rise of their centers, the formation of tribal principalities, the emergence of the polyudye system (the polyudye was originally voluntary, being compensation for military and administrative services).
2. 2nd half of IX - ser. 10th century - acceleration of the formation of the state, which falls on the reigns of Rurik, Oleg, Igor.
3. The final stage (945 - 980) - the establishment of lessons and graveyards, polyudye was replaced by a cart, the liquidation of tribal principalities (complete) under St. Vladimir Svyatoslavich.

Specific Features

Characteristic features of the Old Russian state

1. Dynastic (tribal) power of the prince.
2. The presence of a primitive state apparatus: squads and governors.
3. Tribute collection system (tributary system - polyudye).
4. The territorial principle of settlement is the displacement of the tribal type of settlement.
5. Monotheism (the adoption of Christianity in Russia by Vladimir Svyatoslavich in 988).

Features of the formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs

1. Remoteness from the centers of ancient civilization (and, as a result, a slowdown in the process of folding the state).
2. Severity of climatic conditions.
3. Initially, the ancient Russian state was multi-ethnic in its composition.

The historical significance of the formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs

1. It created favorable conditions for the further development of crafts and trade.
2. The state influenced the formation of the social structure of society.
3. A powerful impetus has been given to the development of Russian culture.
4. The formation of a single ancient Russian nationality began - three branches: Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian.
5. The Old Russian state was able to repulse the attack of waves of steppe nomads.
6. Russia became a "bridge" of economic and trade exchange between the West and the East, that is, we can say that Russia began to occupy an intercivilizational position.

Story

duality

It is worth mentioning right away that there is very little information about the time period that will be discussed below, since the first chronicles were written much later than these events. There are other sources of information about ancient tribes and settlements (archaeology, etc.), but such information is also difficult to take for granted. Moreover, the chronicles themselves could be corrected (“The winner writes history”).

In particular, there are two versions of the emergence of the Old Russian state: the Norman theory and the anti-Norman theory. We will mainly consider the Norman theory.

The calling of the Varangians

V. M. Vasnetsov. Varangians. 1909. Oil on canvas. House-Museum of V. M. Vasnetsov, Moscow

Before the appearance of the Old Russian state itself, conflicts, military alliances, and civil strife constantly took place on the lands of the East Slavic tribes. In general, the situation was very unfavorable and restless.

In particular, the tribes living on the coast of the Baltic (Varangian at that time) Sea had to pay tribute to the Varangians. But in 862 they expelled the Varangians and stopped paying tribute to them. In fact, the coastal tribes became independent, which almost destroyed them: when clans claim power, the most severe civil strife begins (“My clan is older and nobler than yours!”). This is what led to constant inter-tribal wars.

Perhaps it was then that it was decided to call on the prince from outside, perhaps not because those peoples could not solve their problems in any way, but because the "alien", without friends, the prince was simply obliged to rule so that everyone was happy. In fact, this is a very competent political, so to speak, move.

In this regard, the headman of Novgorod decided to call on the prince from the outside, so that he would rule everything in justice and unite all the hostile tribes into one. This event was called " Calling Varangians", It happened in 862.

862 - Calling the Varangians

As a result, the Varangian king Rurik came to rule in Novgorod (the first capital of the Old Russian state).

Prince Rurik (reigning 862-879)

H. W. Koekkoek. "Rorik". 1912

968 - 969 - war with the Bulgarian kingdom. Byzantium sent its embassy to Svyatoslav. They asked to crush the Bulgarian kingdom, and also paid in gold for their service. At this time, Princess Olga dies. Therefore, Svyatoslav transfers the reign of Kyiv to his son, Yaropolk (Yaropolk ruled for 8 years), and he himself goes on a campaign against the Bulgarian kingdom. As a result, the Bulgarian kingdom asks for help from Byzantium, which wanted to destroy this kingdom by proxy. But Byzantium is slow to help its old enemies. Then the Bulgarian kingdom, in alliance with Svyatoslav, went to war against Byzantium.

970 - 971 - the campaign of the army of Svyatoslav in alliance with the Bulgarian kingdom against Byzantium. During the general battle, the troops of Svyatoslav and Bulgaria were defeated. Although, according to another version, the allied troops reached Constantinople itself and retreated only after taking a large tribute. After Byzantium began the persecution of the outgoing armies of the allied forces, as a result of which Svyatoslav himself was wounded and was forced to sign an allied treaty. Almost all Bulgarian lands began to belong to Byzantium.

Death and legacy

Svyatoslav died in the spring of 972 while crossing the mouth of the Dnieper. The Pechenegs attacked him and his army. Svyatoslav had three sons - Yaropolk, Oleg, Vladimir. In particular, during a campaign against the Bulgarian kingdom, he distributed power in Russia between them. Yaropolk ruled in Kyiv.

The beginning of civil strife

B. Chorikov."Murder of Yaropolk". Engraving from the album "Picturesque Karamzin"

It is not known for certain whether there were any civil strife up to this point, but after the death of Svyatoslav, a conflict broke out between his sons for the main, Kyiv throne.

Reason: the absence of any laws for the transfer of the throne. In fact, after the death of the prince, absolutely anyone could seize power. In particular, Svyatoslav had three sons. Without the laws of succession to the throne, they all, in fact, had exactly the same rights to the throne.

Also, this point (the death of Svyatoslav) can be considered the beginning of the feudal fragmentation of Russia. Yaropolk, who ruled in Kyiv, attacked Oleg's lands. He captured them and killed Oleg himself. Upon learning of this, Vladimir fled for a while, and Yaropolk, for a short period of time, began to rule all of Russia. But then Vladimir returned with the Varangian army. Among the subjects of Yaropolk was a traitor who forced the prince to hide in the city of Rodnya. Yaropolk could not hold this city for a long time and was forced to enter into negotiations with Vladimir. At this very moment, two Varangians (Blud and Vladimir) killed Yaropolk.

Vladimir began to rule all of Russia.

Prince Vladimir (reign: 978 - 1015)

Vladimir's conversation with a Greek philosopher about Christianity. Radziwill Chronicle, l. 49 vol.

Vladimir, who killed his brother Yaropolk, became a Christian, and also baptized all of Russia. Vladimir also undertook a number of campaigns, but nevertheless his main activity was the strengthening of the state.

Key dates and activities

988 - the famous baptism of Russia. Reason: Vladimir noticed that the squad, the people and much more are tied to the prince only by bonds of fear. Vladimir did not like this very much. He also noticed that local priests are highly respected among the people. He wanted to hold the lands of Russia together with something more than just fear. And, I must say, it worked. As a result of baptism, the population, in general, became more educated, there was a formation of a single language. The Church began to eradicate already cruel pagan customs.

It must be said that Vladimir chose a religion for adoption for quite a long time. When his choice focused on the choice of Christianity, he had a second choice - to accept the Byzantine system of Christianity, or to accept Catholic Christianity. Subsequently, he chose the Byzantine system because of its flexibility. For example, Catholic Christianity assumed that all ceremonies were conducted in Latin. Byzantine Christianity was more flexible, rites and prayers were translated into local languages.

By the way, around the same time there was a split in Christianity. This was due to the gradual divergence of Christianity in the Holy Roman Empire and Christianity in Byzantium. As a result, the Pope even excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople from the church, and only in 2001 were they apologized for that event.

In general, the transition to Christianity in Russia went smoothly. Relations between Byzantium and Russia improved, etc. Although ancient rituals and customs were preserved in Russia, the new church either turned a blind eye to them, or began to consider them Christian (a manifestation of the flexibility of the new religion). Vladimir made many different campaigns in the future. It is not necessary to mention them (see the prince's wiki if interested). Moreover, Vladimir even adopted laws, and also coordinated them with his squad.

Death and legacy

AT last years During his lifetime, Vladimir was probably going to change the principle of succession to the throne and bequeath power to his beloved son Boris. In any case, it was to Boris that he entrusted his squad. The two eldest surviving sons - Svyatopolk and Yaroslav - almost simultaneously rebelled against their father in 1014. Therefore, when Vladimir died of illness in the country residence of Berestov on July 15, 1015, those around him hid his death. The fact is that Svyatopolk was in Kyiv: he should not have known about this before the townspeople, otherwise he would have tried to usurp power. The body of the prince, wrapped in a carpet, was secretly taken out at night on a sleigh and brought to the Kyiv Church of the Tithes, where he was buried; marble sarcophagi of Vladimir and his wife stood in the middle of the temple. The tithe church was destroyed by the Mongols in 1240.

Vladimir had a huge number of children. You can also get acquainted with all of them on the wiki page about the prince.

The beginning of civil strife

Svyatoslav had three sons. And you already know perfectly well what they did in Russia in the struggle for power. So, Vladimir had 10 sons and 13 daughters. Again, it should be repeated that there were naturally no laws for the transfer of the throne in the event of the death of the prince.

In this situation, Vladimir, perhaps, before his death, wanted to transfer the reign to his beloved son Boris. But his other son, Svyatopolk, killed almost all of his brothers, including Boris. Svyatopolk became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, but not for long (he ruled for only a couple of years).

But Svyatopolk still had a brother - Yaroslav. Yaroslav marched with his army against Svyatopolk. Both armies did not dare to attack each other. Yaroslav was the first to attack, moreover, at the moment when Svyatopolk was feasting with his retinue. The troops of the Kyiv prince were defeated and thrown into the lake, and Yaroslav captured Kyiv.

The defeated prince retired to Poland, where he called for help from his father-in-law, Prince Boleslav I the Brave. In 1018, with the support of the Polish and Pecheneg troops, Svyatopolk and Boleslav set off on a campaign against Kyiv. The squads met on the Bug, where the Polish army under the command of Boleslav defeated the Novgorodians, Yaroslav again fled to Novgorod. Svyatopolk again occupied Kyiv. Not wanting to support the troops of Boleslav, placed in Russian cities to feed, he broke the alliance and expelled the Poles. Together with Boleslav, many Kievan boyars also left. Less than a year later, having lost his military strength, Svyatopolk was forced to flee from Kyiv again from Yaroslav, who returned with the Varangians. The Kyiv prince called for help from other allies, the Pechenegs, hoping to return power with their help. In the decisive battle on the Alta River (near the place where Boris died), Svyatopolk suffered a decisive defeat. According to the Novgorod First Chronicle, after the battle on Alta, Svyatopolk fled to the Pechenegs, and his further fate is not indicated. After that, Yaroslav became the Grand Duke of Kyiv.

Dates to remember

Board dates

1. 862 - 879 - Prince Rurik.
2. 879 - 912 - Prince Oleg the Prophetic.
3. 912 - 945 - Prince Igor.
4. 945 - 962 - Princess Olga.
5. 945 - 972 - Prince Svyatoslav.
6. 972 - 978 - Prince Yaropolk.
7. 978 - 1015 - Prince Vladimir.

Significant events

1. 862 - Calling the Varangians
2. 882 - Unification of Novgorod and Kyiv
3. 988 - Baptism of Russia

Questions and assignments to the topic "Formation of the Old Russian State"

• Name the founder of the ancient Russian state.
• Name the main features of the formed ancient Russian state.
• Briefly describe the main events of the reigns of the first Kievan princes.
• Read more about the baptism of Russia by Prince Vladimir I.

• Dumin, S. V. Where did the Russian land come from / S. V. Dumin, A. A. Turilov // History of the Fatherland. People, ideas, solutions. Essays on the history of Russia IX-early. XX centuries / comp. S. V. Mironenko. - M.: Politizdat, 1991. - 365 p. - S. 7-33.
• Gorsky, A. A. Russia: From the Slavic Settlement to the Muscovite Kingdom / A. A. Gorsky. - M.: Languages ​​of Slavic culture, 2004. - 368 p. - ISBN 5-94457-191-8. Vernadsky, G. V. Ancient Russia. Ch. 8. Formation of Kievan Rus (839-878) [Electronic resource] // Gumilevica: hypotheses, theories, outlook of LN Gumilyov. - Electron. text. data. - Access mode: http://gumilevica.kulichki.net/VGV/vgv181.htm#vgv181para01, free.
• Zuckerman, K. Two stages of the formation of the Old Russian state [Electronic resource] // Archeology, Kiev: Institute of Archeology HAH Ukraine. - 2003. - No. 1. - Electron. article version. - Access mode: http://www.iananu.kiev.ua/archaeology/2003-1/zukerman.htm, free.
• Shapov, Ya. N. Baptism of Russia [Electronic resource] / Ya. N. Shapov // Great Soviet Encyclopedia: in 30 volumes. T. 13: Konda - Kun. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1973. - 608 p. - S. 418. - Electron. article version. - Access mode: http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/bse/99943/Baptism. , free.

Video footage

• Russian knowledge base. History of the Old Russian state. 1: Prologue [Video] / Russian Knowledge Base // YouTube. - Electron. video given. - Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/embed/ajkmiWGpHAo, free.
• Russian knowledge base. History of the Old Russian state. 2: The Education of Russia [Video] / Russian Knowledge Base // YouTube. - Electron. video given. - Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/embed/Sc9583D2eRY, free.

The ancient homeland of the Slavs is Central Europe, where the Danube, Elbe and Vistula take their sources. From here, the Slavs moved further to the east, to the banks of the Dnieper, Pripyat, Desna. These were the tribes of glades, drevlyans, northerners. Another stream of settlers moved northwest to the banks of the Volkhov and Lake Ilmen. These tribes were called Ilmen Slovenes. Part of the settlers (Krivichi) settled on a hill, from where the Dnieper, the Moscow River, the Oka flow. This migration took place not earlier than the 7th century. In the course of the development of new lands, the Slavs ousted and subjugated the Finno-Ugric tribes, who were the same as the Slavs, pagans.

Foundation of the Russian state

In the center of the possessions of the glades on the Dnieper in the 9th century. a city was built, which received the name of the leader Kiy, who ruled in it with the brothers Shchek and Khoriv. Kyiv stood in a very convenient place at the intersection of roads and quickly grew as a shopping center. In 864, two Scandinavian Varangians Askold and Dir captured Kyiv and began to rule there. They went on a raid on Byzantium, but returned, badly battered by the Greeks. It was no coincidence that the Varangians ended up on the Dnieper - it was part of a single waterway from the Baltic to the Black Sea (“from the Varangians to the Greeks”). In some places the waterway was interrupted by hills. There the Varangians dragged their light boats on their backs or dragged.

According to legend, civil strife began in the land of the Ilmen Slovenes and the Finno-Ugric peoples (Chud, Merya) - “family against clan arose”. Tired of the strife, the local leaders decided to invite King Rurik and his brothers, Sineus and Truvor, from Denmark. Rurik readily responded to the tempting offer of the ambassadors. The custom of inviting a ruler from across the sea was generally accepted in Europe. People hoped that such a prince would rise above the unfriendly local leaders and thereby ensure peace and tranquility in the country. Having built Ladoga (now Staraya Ladoga), Rurik then went up the Volkhov to Ilmen and settled there at a place called "Rurik's settlement". Then Rurik built the city of Novgorod nearby and took possession of all the surrounding lands. Sineus settled in Beloozero, and Truvor - in Izborsk. Then the younger brothers died, and Rurik began to rule alone. Together with Rurik and the Vikings, the word "Rus" came to the Slavs. That was the name of the warrior-rower on the Scandinavian boat. Then Rus was called the Viking warriors who served with the princes, then the name "Rus" was transferred to all the Eastern Slavs, their land, state.

The ease with which the Varangians took power in the lands of the Slavs is explained not only by the invitation, but also by the similarity of faith - both the Slavs and the Varangians were pagan polytheists. They revered the spirits of water, forests, brownies, goblin, had extensive pantheons of "major" and minor gods and goddesses. One of the most revered Slavic gods, the lord of thunder and lightning Perun, looked like the Scandinavian supreme god Thor, whose symbols - hammers of archaeologists are also found in Slavic burials. The Slavs worshiped Svarog - the master of the universe, the god of the sun Dazhbog and the god of the earth Svarozhich. They respected the god of cattle - Veles and the goddess of needlework - Mokosh. The sculptural images of the gods were placed on the hills, the sacred temples were surrounded by a high fence. The gods of the Slavs were very severe, even ferocious. They demanded reverence from people, frequent offerings. Upstairs, to the gods, gifts rose in the form of smoke from the burnt sacrifices: food, dead animals and even people.

The first princes - Rurikovich

After the death of Rurik, power in Novgorod passed not to his young son Igor, but to Rurik's relative Oleg, who had previously lived in Ladoga. In 882, Oleg approached Kyiv with his retinue. Under the guise of a Varangian merchant, he appeared before Askold and Dir. Suddenly, Oleg's warriors jumped out of the boats and killed the Kyiv rulers. Kyiv obeyed Oleg. So for the first time the lands of the Eastern Slavs from Ladoga to Kyiv were united under the rule of one prince.

Prince Oleg largely followed the policy of Rurik and annexed more and more new lands to the new state, called Kievan Rus by historians. In all the lands, Oleg immediately "began to set up cities" - wooden fortresses. The famous act of Oleg was the 907 campaign against Tsargrad (Constantinople). His large squad of Varangians and Slavs on light ships suddenly appeared at the walls of the city. The Greeks were not ready for defense. Seeing how the barbarians who came from the north were robbing and burning in the vicinity of the city, they went to negotiate with Oleg, made peace and paid tribute to him. In 911 Oleg's ambassadors Karl, Farlof, Velmud and others signed a new treaty with the Greeks. Before leaving Constantinople, Oleg, as a sign of victory, hung his shield on the gates of the city. At home, in Kyiv, people were amazed at the rich booty with which Oleg returned, and gave the prince the nickname "Prophetic", that is, a wizard, a magician.

Oleg's successor Igor (Ingvar), nicknamed "Old", the son of Rurik, ruled for 33 years. He lived in Kyiv, which became his home. Little is known about Igor's personality. It was a warrior, a stern Varangian, who almost continuously conquered the tribes of the Slavs, imposed tribute on them. Like Oleg, Igor raided Byzantium. In those days, in an agreement with Byzantium, the name of the country of the Rus appeared - "Russian Land". At home, Igor was forced to repel the raids of the nomads - the Pechenegs. Since that time, the danger of nomadic attacks has never weakened. Russia was a loose, unstable state, stretching for a thousand miles from north to south. The strength of a single princely power - that's what kept the lands distant from each other.

Every winter, as soon as the rivers and swamps froze, the prince went to the polyudye - he traveled around his lands, judged, sorted out disputes, collected tribute (“lesson”) and punished the tribes “deposited” over the summer. During the polyudya of 945 in the land of the Drevlyans, it seemed to Igor that the tribute of the Drevlyans was small, and he returned for more. The Drevlyans were indignant at this lawlessness, seized the prince, tied him by the legs to two bent mighty trees and let them go. So ingloriously died Igor.

The unexpected death of Igor forced his wife Olga to take power into her own hands - after all, their son Svyatoslav was only 4 years old. According to legend, Olga (Helga) herself was a Scandinavian. The terrible death of her husband became the cause of Olga's no less terrible revenge, who brutally dealt with the Drevlyans. The chronicler tells us exactly how Olga deceived the Drevlyansk ambassadors. She suggested that they take a bath before starting negotiations. While the ambassadors were enjoying the steam room, Olga ordered her soldiers to close the doors of the bathhouse and set it on fire. There, the enemies burned down. This is not the first mention of the bath in the Russian chronicle. In the Nikon chronicle there is a legend about the visit of the Holy Apostle Andrew to Russia. Then, returning to Rome, he spoke with surprise about a strange action in Russian land: “I saw wooden baths, and they would heat them up strongly, and they would undress and be naked, and pour leather kvass on themselves, and the young would raise the rods and beat themselves, and they will finish themselves to such an extent that they will barely get out, barely alive, and will douse themselves with icy water, and only in this way will they come to life. And they do this all the time, they are not tormented by anyone, but they torment themselves, and then they make ablution for themselves, and not torment. After that, the sensational theme of an unusual Russian bath with a birch broom for many centuries will become an indispensable attribute of many travel notes of foreigners from medieval times to the present day.

Princess Olga rode through her possessions and set clear dimensions for the lesson there. In the legends, Olga became famous for her wisdom, cunning, and energy. It is known about Olga that she was the first of the Russian rulers to receive foreign ambassadors in Kyiv from the German Emperor Otto I. Twice Olga was in Constantinople. The second time, in 957, Olga was received by Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. And after that, she decided to be baptized, and the emperor himself became her godfather.

By this time, Svyatoslav had grown up and began to rule Russia. He fought almost continuously, raiding his neighbors with his retinue, and very distant ones - the Vyatichi, Volga Bulgars, defeated the Khazar Khaganate. Contemporaries compared these campaigns of Svyatoslav with the jumps of a leopard, swift, silent and powerful.

Svyatoslav was a blue-eyed, lush mustache man of medium height, he cut his head bald, leaving a long tuft at the top of his head. An earring with precious stones hung in his ear. Dense, strong, he was tireless in campaigns, his army did not have a wagon train, and the prince made do with the food of nomads - dried meat. All his life he remained a pagan and a polygamist. At the end of the 960s. Svyatoslav moved to the Balkans. His army was hired by Byzantium to conquer the Bulgarians. Svyatoslav defeated the Bulgarians, and then settled in Pereslavets on the Danube and did not want to leave these lands. Byzantium started a war against a disobedient mercenary. At first, the prince defeated the Byzantines, but then his army became very thin, and Svyatoslav agreed to leave Bulgaria forever.

Without joy, the prince sailed on boats up the Dnieper. Even earlier, he told his mother: “I don’t like Kyiv, I want to live in Pereyaslavets on the Danube - there is the middle of my land.” He had a small squad with him - the rest of the Varangians went to rob neighboring countries. On the Dnieper rapids, the squad was ambushed by the Pechenegs, and Svyatoslav died in a battle with the nomads at the threshold of Nenasytninsky. From his skull, the enemies made a goblet decorated with gold for wine.

Even before going to Bulgaria, Svyatoslav distributed the lands (destinies) between his sons. He left the elder Yaropolk in Kyiv, sent the middle one Oleg to the land of the Drevlyans, and planted the younger one Vladimir in Novgorod. After the death of Svyatoslav, Yaropolk attacked Oleg, and he died in battle. Vladimir, learning about this, fled to Scandinavia. He was the son of Svyatoslav and a concubine - a slave Malusha, Olga's housekeeper. This made him not equal to his brothers - after all, they came from noble mothers. The consciousness of his inferiority aroused in the young man the desire to establish himself in the eyes of people with strength, intelligence, deeds that would be remembered by everyone.

Two years later, with a detachment of the Varangians, he returned to Novgorod and moved through Polotsk to Kyiv. Yaropolk, not having much strength, locked himself in the fortress. Vladimir managed to persuade Yaropolk's close adviser Blud to treason, and as a result of the conspiracy, Yaropolk was killed. So Vladimir captured Kyiv. Since then, the history of fratricide in Russia begins, when the thirst for power and ambition drowned out the voice of native blood and mercy.

The fight against the Pechenegs became a headache for the new Kyiv prince. These wild nomads, who were called "the most cruel of all pagans", aroused general fear. There is a story about a confrontation with them on the Trubezh River in 992, when for two days Vladimir could not find a fighter among his troops who would go out to duel with the Pechenegs. The honor of the Russians was saved by the mighty Nikita Kozhemyak, who simply lifted into the air and strangled his opponent. The city of Pereyaslavl was placed on the site of Nikita's victory. Fighting the nomads, making campaigns against different tribes, Vladimir himself did not differ in daring and militancy, like his ancestors. It is known that during one of the battles with the Pechenegs, Vladimir fled from the battlefield and, saving his life, climbed under the bridge. It is difficult to imagine in such a humiliating form his grandfather, the conqueror of Constantinople, Prince Igor, or his father, Svyatoslav-Bars. In the construction of cities in key places, the prince saw a means of protection against nomads. Here he invited daredevils from the north like the legendary Ilya Muromets, who were interested in the dangerous life on the border.

Vladimir understood the need for change in matters of faith. He tried to unite all pagan cults, to make Perun the only god. But the reform failed. Here it is appropriate to tell the legend about the birdie. At first, faith in Christ and his atoning sacrifice made its way with difficulty into the harsh world of the Slavs and Scandinavians who came to rule them. How could it be otherwise: hearing the peals of thunder, could there be any doubt that this terrible god of 6 dins on a black horse, surrounded by valkyries - magical horsewomen, is galloping to hunt for people! And how happy is a warrior dying in battle, knowing that he will immediately fall into Valhalla - a giant chamber for the chosen heroes. Here, in the paradise of the Vikings, he will be blissful, his terrible wounds will instantly heal, and the wine that the beautiful Valkyries will bring to him will be fine ... But the Vikings were sharpened by one thought: the feast in Valhalla will not last forever, the terrible day of Ragnarok will come - the end of the world, when the bdin's army fights the giants and monsters of the abyss. And all of them will die - heroes, wizards, gods with Odin at the head in an unequal battle with the gigantic serpent Jörmungand... Listening to the saga about the inevitable death of the world, the king-king was sad. Beyond the wall of his long, low house, a blizzard howled, shaking the hide-covered entrance. And then the old Viking raised his head, who had converted to Christianity during the campaign against Byzantium. He said to the king: “Look at the entrance, you see: when the wind lifts the skin, a small bird flies to us, and that brief moment, until the skin closes the entrance again, the bird hangs in the air, it enjoys our warmth and comfort, so that in the next moment jump out again into the wind and cold. After all, we live in this world only one moment between two eternities of cold and fear. And Christ gives hope for the salvation of our souls from eternal death. Let's follow him!" And the king agreed...

The great world religions convinced the pagans that there is eternal life and even eternal bliss in heaven, you just need to accept their faith. According to legend, Vladimir listened to various priests: Jews, Catholics, Orthodox Greeks, Muslims. In the end, he chose Orthodoxy, but he was in no hurry to be baptized. He did this in 988 in the Crimea - and not without political benefits - in exchange for the support of Byzantium and consent to marriage with the sister of the Byzantine emperor Anna. Returning to Kyiv with his wife and Metropolitan Michael appointed from Constantinople, Vladimir first baptized his sons, relatives and servants. Then he took on the people. All the idols were thrown from the temples, burned, chopped. The prince issued an order for all pagans to come to the river bank for baptism. There, the people of Kiev were driven into the water and baptized en masse. To justify their weakness, people said that the prince and the boyars would hardly have accepted a worthless faith - after all, they would never wish anything bad for themselves! However, later an uprising broke out in the city dissatisfied with the new faith.

On the site of the ruined temples, churches immediately began to be built. The church of St. Basil was erected on the sanctuary of Perun. All churches were wooden, only the main temple - the Cathedral of the Assumption (Church of the Tithes) was built by the Greeks from stone. Baptism in other cities and lands was also not voluntary. A rebellion even began in Novgorod, but the threat of those sent from Vladimir to burn the city made the Novgorodians change their minds, and they climbed into the Volkhov to be baptized. The stubborn ones were dragged into the water by force and then checked to see if they were wearing crosses. Stone Perun was drowned in Volkhov, but faith in the power of the old gods was not destroyed by that. They secretly prayed to them even many centuries after the Kyiv "baptists": getting into the boat, the Novgorodian threw a coin into the water - a sacrifice to Perun, so that he would not drown for an hour.

But gradually Christianity was established in Russia. This was largely facilitated by the Bulgarians - the Slavs who had previously converted to Christianity. Bulgarian priests and scribes came to Russia and carried with them Christianity in an understandable Slavic language. Bulgaria has become a kind of bridge between Greek, Byzantine and Russian-Slavic cultures.
Despite the harsh measures of Vladimir's rule, the people loved him, called him the Red Sun. He was generous, unforgiving, complaisant, ruled not cruelly, skillfully defended the country from enemies. The prince also loved his squad, advice (thought) with which he introduced it into custom at frequent and plentiful feasts. Vladimir died in 1015, and, having learned about this, the crowds rushed to the church to weep and pray for him as their intercessor. People were alarmed - after Vladimir there were 12 of his sons, and the struggle between them seemed inevitable.

Already during the life of Vladimir, the brothers, planted by their father on the main lands, lived unfriendly, and even during the life of Vladimir, his son Yaroslav, who was sitting in Novgorod, refused to carry the usual tribute to Kyiv. The father wanted to punish his son, but did not have time - he died. After his death, Svyatopolk, the eldest son of Vladimir, came to power in Kyiv. He received the nickname "Cursed", given to him for the murder of his brothers Gleb and Boris. The latter was especially loved in Kyiv, but, having sat on the Kyiv "golden table", Svyatopolk decided to get rid of his opponent. He sent assassins who stabbed Boris, and then killed another brother, Gleb. The struggle between Yaroslav and Svyatopolk was hard. Only in 1019 Yaroslav finally defeated Svyatopolk and fortified himself in Kyiv. Under Yaroslav, a code of laws (“Russian Truth”) was adopted, which limited blood feud, replaced it with a fine (vira). The judicial customs and traditions of Russia were also recorded there.

Yaroslav is known as "Wise", that is, a scientist, smart, educated. He, sickly by nature, loved and collected books. Yaroslav built a lot: he founded Yaroslavl on the Volga, Yuryev (now Tartu) in the Baltic states. But Yaroslav became especially famous for the construction of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. The cathedral was huge, had many domes and galleries, and was decorated with rich frescoes and mosaics. Among these magnificent Byzantine mosaics of St. Sophia Cathedral, in the altar of the temple, the famous mosaic “Indestructible Wall”, or “Oranta” - the Mother of God with raised hands has been preserved. This piece will amaze everyone who sees it. It seems to believers that since the time of Yaroslav, for almost a thousand years now, the Mother of God, like a wall, has stood unbreakably to her full height in the golden glow of the sky, raising her hands, praying and shielding Russia with herself. People were surprised by the mosaic floor with patterns, the marble altar. Byzantine artists, in addition to the image of the Virgin and other saints, created a mosaic on the wall depicting the family of Yaroslav.
In 1051 the Caves Monastery was founded. A little later, hermit monks, who lived in caves (pechers) dug in the sandy mountain near the Dnieper, united in a monastic community headed by Abbot Anthony.

With Christianity, the Slavic alphabet came to Russia, which was invented in the middle of the 9th century by brothers from the Byzantine city of Thessalonica Cyril and Methodius. They adapted the Greek alphabet to the Slavic sounds, creating the "Cyrillic alphabet", translated the Holy Scripture into the Slavic language. Here, in Russia, the first book was the Ostromir Gospel. It was created in 1057 on the instructions of the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir. The first Russian book was of extraordinary beauty with miniatures and colored headpieces, as well as a postscript stating that the book was written in seven months and that the scribe asks the reader not to scold him for mistakes, but to correct them. Let us note in passing that in another similar work, the Arkhangelsk Gospel of 1092, a scribe named Mitka admits why he made so many mistakes: “voluptuousness, lust, slander, quarrels, drunkenness, simply speaking, everything evil!” Another ancient book - "Izbornik Svyatoslav" in 1073 - one of the first Russian encyclopedias, contained articles on various sciences. "Izbornik" is a copy from a Bulgarian book, rewritten for the prince's library. In the Izbornik, praise is sung to knowledge, it is recommended to read each chapter of the book three times and remember that "beauty is a weapon for a warrior, and a sail for a ship, tacos for a righteous man - book reverence."

Chronicles began to be written in Kyiv in the times of Olga and Svyatoslav. Under Yaroslav in 1037-1039. St. Sophia Cathedral became the center of the work of chroniclers. They took old chronicles and reduced them to a new edition, which they supplemented with new entries. Then the monks of the Caves Monastery began to keep the chronicle. In 1072-1073. there was another edition of the annalistic code. Abbot of the monastery Nikon collected and included new sources in it, checked the chronology, corrected the style. Finally, in 1113, the chronicler Nestor, a monk of the same monastery, created the famous compendium The Tale of Bygone Years. It remains the main source on the history of Ancient Russia. The imperishable body of the great chronicler Nestor rests in the dungeon of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, and behind the glass of his coffin you can still see the fingers of his right hand folded on his chest - the same one that wrote for us the ancient history of Russia.

Yaroslav's Russia was open to Europe. It was connected with the Christian world by the family relations of the rulers. Yaroslav married Ingigerd, daughter of the Swedish king Olaf, son of Vsevolod, he married the daughter of Emperor Constantine Monomakh. Three of his daughters immediately became queens: Elizabeth - Norwegian, Anastasia - Hungarian, and daughter Anna became the French queen, having married Henry I.

Yaroslavichi. Strife and crucify

As the historian N. M. Karamzin wrote, “Ancient Russia buried its power and prosperity with Yaroslav.” After the death of Yaroslav, discord and strife reigned among his descendants. Three of his sons entered into a dispute for power, and the younger Yaroslavichi, the grandchildren of Yaroslav, also mired in strife. All this happened at a time when for the first time a new enemy came to Russia from the steppes - the Polovtsians (Turks), who expelled the Pechenegs and themselves began to attack Russia frequently. The princes, warring with each other, for the sake of power and rich destinies, entered into an agreement with the Polovtsians and brought their hordes to Russia.

Of the sons of Yaroslav, Rus was ruled the longest by his youngest son Vsevolod (1078-1093). He was reputed to be an educated man, but he ruled the country poorly, unable to cope either with the Polovtsy, or with hunger, or with the pestilence that devastated his lands. He also failed to reconcile the Yaroslavichs. His only hope was his son Vladimir, the future Monomakh.
Vsevolod was especially annoyed by the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav, who lived a life full of adventures and adventures. Among the Rurikovichs, he was a black sheep: he, who brought misfortune and grief to everyone, was called "Gorislavich". For a long time he did not want peace with his relatives, in 1096, in the struggle for destinies, he killed the son of Monomakh Izyaslav, but then he himself was defeated. After that, the rebellious prince agreed to come to the Lubech Congress of Princes.

This congress was organized by the then specific Prince Vladimir Monomakh, who understood better than others the disastrous strife for Russia. In 1097, close relatives met on the banks of the Dnieper - Russian princes, they divided the lands, kissed the cross as a sign of loyalty to this agreement: “Let the Russian land be a common ... fatherland, and whoever rises against his brother, we will all rise against him ". But immediately after Lyubech, one of the princes Vasilko was blinded by another prince - Svyatopolk. Distrust and anger reigned again in the family of princes.

The grandson of Yaroslav, and by his mother - the Byzantine emperor Konstantin Monomakh, he adopted the nickname of the Greek grandfather and became one of the few Russian princes who thought about the unity of Russia, the fight against the Polovtsians and peace among relatives. Monomakh entered the Kyiv gold table in 1113 after the death of the Grand Duke Svyatopolk and an uprising against wealthy usurers that began in the city. Monomakh was invited by the Kyiv elders with the approval of the people - "people". In the cities of pre-Mongol Russia, the influence of the city assembly - vecha - was significant. The prince, with all his might, was not an autocrat of a later era and, when making decisions, usually consulted with the veche or the boyars.

Monomakh was an educated man, had the mind of a philosopher, had the gift of a writer. He was a red-haired, curly-haired man of medium height. A strong, brave warrior, he made dozens of campaigns, more than once looked into the eyes of death in battle and hunting. Under him, peace was established in Russia. Where by authority, where by weapons he forced the appanage princes to quiet down. His victories over the Polovtsians averted the threat from the southern borders. Monomakh was also happy in his family life. His wife Gita, the daughter of the Anglo-Saxon King Harold, bore him several sons, among whom stood out Mstislav, who became Monomakh's successor.

Monomakh sought the glory of a warrior on the battlefield with the Polovtsians. He organized several campaigns of Russian princes against the Polovtsians. However, Monomakh was a flexible politician: suppressing the warlike khans by force, he was friends with the peace-loving ones and even married his son Yuri (Dolgoruky) to the daughter of the allied Polovtsian khan.

Monomakh thought a lot about the futility of human life: “What are we, sinful and thin people? - he wrote to Oleg Gorislavich, - today they are alive, and tomorrow they are dead, today in glory and honor, and tomorrow they are forgotten in the coffin. The prince took care that the experience of his long and difficult life was not wasted, that his sons and descendants would remember his good deeds. He wrote the "Instruction", which contains memories of past years, stories about the prince's eternal travels, about dangers in battle and hunting: of two moose, one trampled with his feet, the other gored with his horns; a boar tore off my sword on my hip, a bear bit my sweatshirt at my knee, a fierce beast jumped on my hips and overturned my horse with me. And God kept me safe. And he fell a lot from his horse, broke his head twice, and injured his arms and legs, ”But Monomakh’s advice:“ What my boy should do, he did it himself - in war and hunting, night and day, in heat and cold without giving yourself rest. Not relying on the posadniks, nor on the privet, he himself did what was necessary. Only an experienced warrior can say this:

“When you go to war, do not be lazy, do not rely on the governor; indulge neither in drink nor in food, nor in sleep; dress up the watchmen yourself and at night, placing guards on all sides, lie down near the soldiers, and get up early; and do not take off your weapons in a hurry, without looking around out of laziness. And then follow the words, under which everyone will sign: "A man dies suddenly." But these words are addressed to many of us: “Learn, believer, to control the eyes, the language of abstinence, the mind to humility, the body to submit, anger to suppress, to have pure thoughts, prompting yourself to good deeds.”

Monomakh died in 1125, and the chronicler said of him: “Decorated with a good disposition, glorious with victories, he did not exalt himself, did not magnify himself.” Vladimir's son Mstislav sat on the Kiev golden table. Mstislav was married to the daughter of the Swedish king Christina, he enjoyed authority among the princes, he had a reflection of the great glory of Monomakh. However, he ruled Russia for only seven years, and after his death, as the chronicler wrote, "the whole Russian land was inflamed" - a long period of fragmentation began.

By this time, Kyiv had already ceased to be the capital of Russia. Power passed to the specific princes, many of whom did not even dream of a Kiev golden table, but lived in their small inheritance, judged subjects and feasted at the weddings of their sons.

Vladimir-Suzdal Rus

The first mention of Moscow dates back to the time of Yuri, where in 1147 Dolgoruky invited his ally Prince Svyatoslav: “Come to me, brother, to Moe-kov.” The very same city of Moscow on a hill among the forests, Yuri ordered to build in 1156, when he had already become the Grand Duke. For a long time he “pulled his hand” from his Zalesye to the Kyiv table, for which he received his nickname. In 1155 he captured Kyiv. But Yuri ruled there for only 2 years - he was poisoned at a feast. Chroniclers wrote about Yuri that he was a tall, fat man with small eyes, a crooked nose, "a great lover of wives, sweet food and drink."

The eldest son of Yuri, Andrei was a smart and powerful man. He wanted to live in Zalesye and even went against the will of his father - he arbitrarily left Kyiv for Suzdal. Leaving his father, Prince Andrei Yuryevich decided to secretly take with him from the monastery a miraculous icon of the Mother of God of the late 11th - early 12th centuries, painted by a Byzantine icon painter. According to legend, the Evangelist Luke wrote it. Andrei succeeded in stealing, but already on the way to Suzdal, miracles began: the Mother of God appeared to the prince in a dream and ordered that the image be taken to Vladimir. He obeyed, and on the spot where he saw a wonderful dream, he then built a church and founded the village of Bogolyubovo. Here, in a specially built stone castle adjoining the church, he lived quite often, which is why he got his nickname "Bogolyubsky". The icon of the Mother of God of Vladimir (it is also called “Our Lady of Tenderness” - the Virgin Mary gently presses her cheek to the baby Christ) - has become one of the shrines of Russia.

Andrei was a new type of politician. Like his fellow princes, he wanted to take possession of Kyiv, but at the same time he wanted to rule all of Russia from Vladimir, his new capital. This became the main goal of his campaigns against Kyiv, which he subjected to a terrible defeat. In general, Andrei was a stern and cruel prince, he did not tolerate objections and advice, he conducted affairs of his own free will - "autocratically." In those pre-Moscow times it was new, unusual.

Andrei immediately began to decorate his new capital, Vladimir, with temples of marvelous beauty. They were built of white stone. This soft stone served as a material for carvings on the walls of buildings. Andrei wanted to create a city that would surpass Kyiv in beauty and wealth. It had its own Golden Gates, Church of the Tithes, and the main temple - the Assumption Cathedral was higher than St. Sophia of Kyiv. Foreign craftsmen built it in just three years.

The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, built under him, was especially glorified by Prince Andrei. This temple, still standing among the fields under the bottomless dome of the sky, causes admiration and joy for everyone who goes to him from afar along the path. This is exactly the impression that the master sought, who in 1165 erected this slender, elegant white-stone church on an artificial hill above the quiet river Nerl, which immediately flows into the Klyazma. The hill itself was covered with white stone, and wide steps went from the water itself to the gates of the temple. During the flood - the time of intensive shipping - the church appeared on the island, served as a noticeable landmark and sign for those who sailed, crossing the border of the Suzdal land. Perhaps here the guests and ambassadors who came from the Oka, the Volga, from distant lands, got off the ships, climbed up the white stone stairs, prayed in the temple, rested on its gallery and then sailed on - to where the prince's palace shone with whiteness in Bogolyubovo, built in 1158-1165. And even further, on the high bank of the Klyazma, like heroic helmets, the golden domes of Vladimir's cathedrals sparkled in the sun.

In the palace in Bogolyubovo at night in 1174, conspirators from the prince's entourage killed Andrei. Then the crowd began to rob the palace - everyone hated the prince for his cruelty. The murderers drank in joy, and the naked, bloodied corpse of the formidable prince lay for a long time in the garden.

The most famous successor of Andrei Bogolyubsky was his brother Vsevolod. In 1176, the people of Vladimir elected him to the princes. The 36-year reign of Vsevolod turned out to be a boon for Zalesye. Continuing Andrei's policy of raising Vladimir, Vsevolod avoided extremes, reckoned with the squad, ruled humanely, and was loved by the people.
Vsevolod was an experienced and successful military leader. Under him, the principality expanded to the north and northeast. The prince received the nickname "Big Nest". He had ten sons and managed to “attach” them to different destinies (small nests), where the number of Ruriks multiplied, from where whole dynasties subsequently went. So, from his eldest son Konstantin came the dynasty of the Suzdal princes, and from Yaroslav - the Moscow and Tver grand dukes.

Yes, and his own "nest" - Vladimir Vsevolod decorated the city, sparing no effort and money. The white-stone Dmitrovsky Cathedral built by him is decorated inside with frescoes by Byzantine artists, and on the outside with intricate stone carvings with figures of saints, lions, and floral ornaments. Ancient Russia did not know such beauty.

Galicia-Volyn and Chernihiv principalities

But the Chernigov-Seversky princes in Russia were not loved: neither Oleg Gorislavich, nor his sons and grandchildren - after all, they constantly brought the Polovtsians to Russia, with whom they were either friends or quarreled. In 1185, the grandson of Gorislavich, Igor Seversky, along with other princes on the Kayala River, was defeated by the Polovtsians. The story of the campaign of Igor and other Russian princes against the Polovtsy, the battle during an eclipse of the sun, a cruel defeat, the weeping of Igor's wife Yaroslavna, the strife of the princes and the weakness of disunited Russia - the plot of the Lay. The history of its emergence from oblivion at the beginning of the 19th century is shrouded in mystery. The original manuscript, found by Count A. I. Musin-Pushkin, disappeared during the fire of 1812, leaving only the publication in the journal, and a copy made for Empress Catherine II. Some scholars are convinced that we are dealing with a talented forgery of later times ... Others believe that we have an Old Russian original. But all the same, every time you leave Russia, you involuntarily recall Igor's famous farewell words: “O Russian land! You are already behind the Shelomyan (you have already disappeared behind the hill - the author!) ”

Novgorod was "cut down" in the 9th century. on the border of forests inhabited by Finno-Ugric peoples, at the crossroads of trade routes. From here, Novgorodians penetrated to the northeast in search of furs, founding colonies with centers - graveyards. The power of Novgorod was determined by trade and crafts. Furs, honey, wax were eagerly bought in Western Europe, and from there they brought gold, wine, cloth, and weapons. A lot of wealth brought trade with the East. Novgorod boats reached the Crimea and Byzantium. The political weight of Novgorod, the second center of Russia, was also great. The close ties between Novgorod and Kyiv began to weaken in the 1130s, when strife began there. At this time, the power of the veche increased in Novgorod, which in 1136 expelled the prince, and from that time Novgorod turned into a republic. From now on, all the princes invited to Novgorod commanded only the army, and they were driven off the table at the slightest attempt to encroach on the power of the veche.

Veche was in many cities of Russia, but gradually faded. And only in Novgorod did it, consisting of free citizens, on the contrary, intensify. The veche resolved issues of peace and war, invited and expelled princes, tried criminals. At the veche, letters of lands were given, posadniks and archbishops were elected. The orators spoke from the dais, the veche level. The decision was taken only unanimously, although the disputes did not subside - disagreements were the essence of the political struggle at the veche.

Many monuments came from ancient Novgorod, but Sophia of Novgorod is especially famous - the main temple of Novgorod and two monasteries - Yuryev and Antoniev. According to legend, St. George's Monastery was founded by Yaroslav the Wise in 1030. In its center is the grandiose St. George's Cathedral, which was built by master Peter. The monastery was rich and influential. Novgorod princes and posadniks were buried in the tomb of St. George's Cathedral. But still, the Anthony Monastery was surrounded by special holiness. The legend of Anthony, the son of a wealthy Greek, who lived in the 12th century, is associated with him. in Rome. He became a hermit, settled on a stone, on the very shore of the sea. On September 5, 1106, a terrible storm began, and when it subsided, Antony, looking around, saw that, together with the stone, he found himself in an unknown northern country. It was Novgorod. God gave Anthony an understanding of Slavic speech, and church authorities helped the young man to found a monastery on the banks of the Volkhov with the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin (1119). Princes and kings made rich contributions to this miraculously arose monastery. This shrine has seen a lot in its lifetime. Ivan the Terrible in 1571 staged a monstrous rout of the monastery, slaughtered all the monks. The post-revolutionary years of the 20th century turned out to be no less terrible. But the monastery survived, and scientists, examining the stone on which Saint Anthony was supposedly transported to the banks of the Volkhov, established that it was the ballast stone of an ancient ship, standing on the deck of which the righteous Roman youth could completely get from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea to Novgorod.

On Mount Nereditsa, not far from Gorodishche - the site of the oldest settlement of the Slavs - stood the Church of the Savior-Nereditsa - the greatest monument of Russian culture. The single-domed, cubic-shaped church was built in one summer of 1198 and outwardly resembled many Novgorod churches of that era. But as soon as they entered it, people experienced an extraordinary feeling of delight and admiration, as if they were entering another beautiful world. The entire inner surface of the church from the floor to the dome was covered with magnificent frescoes. Scenes of the Last Judgment, images of saints, portraits of local princes - Novgorod masters made this work in just one year 1199 .., and for almost a millennium until the 20th century, the frescoes retained their brightness, liveliness and emotionality. However, during the war, in 1943, the church with all its frescoes perished, it was shot from cannons, and the divine frescoes disappeared forever. In terms of significance, among the most bitter irreplaceable losses of Russia in the 20th century, the death of the Savior-Nereditsa is on a par with Peterhof, Tsarskoye Selo, destroyed during the war, demolished Moscow churches and monasteries.

In the middle of the XII century. Novgorod suddenly had a serious competitor in the northeast - the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Under Andrei Bogolyubsky, a war even began: the people of Vladimir unsuccessfully besieged the city. Since then, the struggle with Vladimir, and then with Moscow, has become the main problem of Novgorod. And in the end he lost this fight.
In the XII century. Pskov was considered a suburb (border point) of Novgorod and followed its policy in everything. But after 1136, the Veche of Pskov decided to secede from Novgorod. Novgorodians, reluctantly, agreed to this: Novgorod needed an ally in the fight against the Germans - after all, Pskov was the first to meet a blow from the west and thereby covered Novgorod. But there has never been friendship between the cities - in all internal Russian conflicts, Pskov turned out to be on the side of the enemies of Novgorod.

Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia

In Russia, the appearance of the Mongol-Tatars, who sharply intensified under Genghis Khan, was learned in the early 1220s, when this new enemy broke into the Black Sea steppes and drove the Polovtsians out of them. They called for help from the Russian princes, who came out to meet the enemy. The arrival of conquerors from the unknown steppes, their life in yurts, strange customs, extraordinary cruelty - all this seemed to Christians the beginning of the end of the world. In the battle on the river Kalka On May 31, 1223, the Russians and Polovtsy were defeated. Russia did not yet know such an “evil battle”, a shameful flight and a cruel massacre - the Tatars, having executed the prisoners, moved to Kyiv and ruthlessly killed everyone who caught their eye. But then they turned back to the steppe. “Where they came from, we don’t know, and where they went, we don’t know,” the chronicler wrote.

The terrible lesson did not benefit Russia - the princes were still at enmity with each other. It's been 12 years. In 1236, the Mongol-Tatars of Khan Batu defeated the Volga Bulgaria, and in the spring of 1237 they defeated the Polovtsy. And then came the turn of Russia. On December 21, 1237, Batu's troops stormed Ryazan, then Kolomna, Moscow fell. On February 7, Vladimir was taken and burned, and then almost all the cities of the North-East were defeated. The princes failed to organize the defense of Russia, and each of them courageously died alone. In March 1238, in a battle on the river. Sit died and the last independent Grand Duke of Vladimir - Yuri. The enemies took his severed head with them. Then Batu moved, "slashing people like grass," to Novgorod. But not reaching a hundred miles, the Tatars suddenly turned south. It was a miracle that saved the republic - contemporaries believed that the "filthy" Batu was stopped by the vision of the cross in the sky.

In the spring of 1239, Batu rushed to southern Russia. When the detachments of the Tatars approached Kyiv, the beauty of the great city struck them, and they offered the Kyiv prince Michael to surrender without a fight. He sent a refusal, but he did not strengthen the city, but on the contrary, he himself fled from Kyiv. When the Tatars came again in the autumn of 1240, there were no princes with retinues. But still the townspeople desperately resisted the enemy. Archaeologists have found traces of the tragedy and the feat of the people of Kiev - the remains of a city dweller literally studded with Tatar arrows, as well as another person who, covering himself with a child, died with him.

Those who fled from Russia carried terrible news to Europe about the horrors of the invasion. It was said that during the siege of cities, the Tatars throw the roofs of houses with the fat of the people they killed, and then start up Greek fire (oil), which burns better from this. In 1241, the Tatars rushed to Poland and Hungary, which were ravaged to the ground. After that, the Tatars suddenly left Europe. Batu decided to establish his own state in the lower reaches of the Volga. This is how the Golden Horde appeared.

From this terrible era, the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land” has remained for us. It was written in the middle of the 13th century, immediately after the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia. It seems that the author wrote it with his own tears and blood - he suffered so much from the thought of the misfortune of his homeland, he felt so sorry for the Russian people, Russia, who fell into a terrible "raid" of unknown enemies. The past, pre-Mongolian time seems to him sweet and kind, and the country is remembered only as flourishing and happy. The reader's heart should shrink from sadness and love at the words: “Oh, the Russian land is bright and beautifully decorated! And you are surprised by many beauties: many lakes, rivers and wells (sources - the author), steep mountains, high hills, clean oak forests, marvelous fields, various animals, countless birds, great cities, marvelous villages, vineyards (gardens - author) monastic, church houses, and formidable princes, honest boyars, many nobles. Thou art full of the Russian land, O orthodox Christian faith!

After the death of Prince Yuri, his younger brother Yaroslav, who was in Kyiv these days, moved to the devastated Vladimir and began to adjust to "living under the khan." He went to bow to the khan in Mongolia and in 1246 was poisoned there. The sons of Yaroslav - Alexander (Nevsky) and Yaroslav Tverskoy had to continue the heavy and humiliating work of their father.

Alexander at the age of 15 became the Prince of Novgorod and from an early age did not let go of the sword from his hands. In 1240, as a young man, he defeated the Swedes in the battle on the Neva, for which he received the nickname Nevsky. The prince was handsome, tall, his voice, according to the chronicler, "thundered before the people like a trumpet." In difficult times, this great prince of the North ruled Russia: a depopulated country, general decline and despondency, the heavy oppression of a foreign conqueror. But smart Alexander, having dealt with the Tatars for years and living in the Horde, comprehended the art of servile worship, he knew how to crawl on his knees in the khan's yurt, knew what gifts to give to influential khans and murzas, comprehended the skill of court intrigue. And all this in order to survive and save their table, the people, Russia, so that, using the power given by the “tsar” (as the Khan was called in Russia), to subjugate other princes, to suppress the freedom of the people's council.

Alexander's whole life was connected with Novgorod. Honorably defending the lands of Novgorod from the Swedes and Germans, he obediently carried out the will of Vatu Khan, his brother, and punished Novgorodians dissatisfied with the Tatar oppression. With them, Alexander, the prince who adopted the Tatar style of ruling, had a difficult relationship: he often quarreled with the veche and, offended, left for Zalesye - for Pereslavl.

Under Alexander (since 1240), the Golden Horde completely dominated (yoke) over Russia. The Grand Duke was recognized as a slave, tributary of the Khan and received from the hands of the Khan a golden label for a great reign. At the same time, the khans could at any time take it away from the Grand Duke and give it to another. The Tatars deliberately pitted the princes in the struggle for the golden label, trying to prevent the strengthening of Russia. From all Russian subjects, the khan's collectors (and then the grand dukes) charged a tenth of all income - the so-called "Horde exit". This tax was a heavy burden for Russia. Disobedience to the will of the Khan led to Horde raids on Russian cities, which were subjected to terrible defeat. In 1246, Batu summoned Alexander for the first time to the Golden Horde, from there, at the behest of the Khan, the prince went to Mongolia, to Karakorum. In 1252, he knelt before Khan Mongke, who handed him a label - a gilded plate with a hole, which allowed him to hang it around his neck. This was a sign of power over Russia.

At the beginning of the XIII century. in the Eastern Baltic, the crusading movement of the German Teutonic Order and the Order of the Sword-bearers intensified. They attacked Russia from Pskov. In 1240 they even captured Pskov and threatened Novgorod. Alexander and his retinue liberated Pskov and on April 5, 1242, on the ice of Lake Pskov, in the so-called “Battle on the Ice”, he utterly defeated the knights. The attempts of the Crusaders and Rome standing behind them to find a common language with Alexander failed - as soft and compliant he was in relations with the Tatars, so severe and implacable he was towards the West and its influence.

Moscow Russia. The middle of the XIII - the middle of the XVI centuries.

After the death of Alexander Nevsky, strife broke out again in Russia. His heirs - brother Yaroslav and Alexander's own children - Dmitry and Andrei, never became worthy successors to Nevsky. They quarreled and, "running ... to the Horde", directed the Tatars to Russia. In 1293, Andrei brought "Dyudenev's army" to his brother Dmitry, which burned and plundered 14 Russian cities. The real masters of the country were the Baskaks, the tribute collectors who mercilessly robbed their subjects, the miserable heirs of Alexander.

The youngest son of Alexander, Daniel, tried to maneuver between the brothers-princes. Poverty was the reason. After all, he got the worst of the specific principalities - Moscow. Carefully and gradually, he expanded his principality, acted for sure. Thus began the rise of Moscow. Daniel died in 1303 and was buried in the Danilovsky Monastery founded by him, the first in Moscow.

The heir and eldest son of Daniel, Yuri, had to defend his inheritance in the fight against the princes of Tver, who had grown stronger by the end of the 13th century. Tver, which stood on the Volga, was a rich city at that time - for the first time in Russia after the arrival of Batu, a stone church was built in it. In Tver, a rare bell rang in those days. In 1304, Mikhail of Tverskoy managed to get a golden label for the reign of Vladimir from Khan Tokhta, although Yuri of Moscow tried to challenge this decision. Since then, Moscow and Tver have become sworn enemies, began a stubborn struggle. In the end, Yuri managed to get a label and discredit the prince of Tver in the eyes of the khan. Mikhail was summoned to the Horde, brutally beaten, and in the end, Yuri's henchmen cut out his heart. The prince courageously met a terrible death. Later he was declared a holy martyr. And Yuri, seeking the obedience of Tver, for a long time did not give the body of the martyr to his son Dmitry Terrible Eyes. In 1325, Dmitry and Yuri accidentally collided in the Horde, and in a quarrel Dmitry killed Yuri, for which he was executed there.

In a stubborn struggle with Tver, Yuri's brother, Ivan Kalita, managed to get a gold label. During the reign of the first princes, Moscow grew. Even after becoming grand dukes, the princes of Moscow did not move from Moscow. They preferred the convenience and security of their father's house on a fortified hill near the Moskva River to the glory and anxiety of metropolitan life in golden-domed Vladimir.

Having become the Grand Duke in 1332, Ivan managed, with the help of the Horde, not only to deal with Tver, but also to annex Suzdal and part of the Rostov Principality to Moscow. Ivan carefully paid tribute - "exit", and achieved in the Horde the right to collect tribute from the Russian lands on his own, without the Baskaks. Of course, part of the money "stuck" to the hands of the prince, who received the nickname "Kalita" - a belt pouch. Outside the walls of the wooden Moscow Kremlin, built of oak logs, Ivan founded several stone churches, including the Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals.

These cathedrals were built under Metropolitan Peter, who moved from Vladimir to Moscow. He went to this for a long time, constantly living there under the caring supervision of Kalita. So Moscow became the church center of Russia. Peter died in 1326 and became the first Moscow saint.

Ivan continued to fight with Tver. He managed to skillfully discredit in the eyes of the Khan of Tver, Prince Alexander and his son Fyodor. They were summoned to the Horde and brutally killed there - quartered. These atrocities cast a gloomy reflection on the initial rise of Moscow. For Tver, all this became a tragedy: the Tatars exterminated five generations of its princes! Then Ivan Kalita robbed Tver, evicted the boyars from the city, taking away the only bell from the Tverchi people - the symbol and pride of the city.

Ivan Kalita ruled Moscow for 12 years, his reign, his bright personality was remembered for a long time by his contemporaries and descendants. In the legendary history of Moscow, Kalita appears as the founder of a new dynasty, a kind of Moscow "forefather Adam", a wise sovereign, whose policy of "calming down" the ferocious Horde was so necessary for Russia, tormented by the enemy and strife.

Dying in 1340, Kalita handed over the throne to his son Semyon and was calm - Moscow was growing stronger. But in the mid-1350s. a terrible misfortune approached Russia. It was the plague, the Black Death. In the spring of 1353, two sons of Semyon died one after another, and then the Grand Duke himself, as well as his heir and brother Andrei. Of all the survivors, only brother Ivan survived, who went to the Horde, where he received a label from Khan Bedibek.

Under Ivan II the Red, "Christ-loving, and quiet, and merciful" (chronicle), the policy remained bloody as before. The prince brutally cracked down on people who were objectionable to him. Metropolitan Alexy had a great influence on Ivan. It was he who was entrusted by Ivan II, who died in 1359, to the nine-year-old son Dmitry, the future great commander.

The beginning of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery dates back to the time of Ivan II. It was founded by Sergius (in the world Bartholomew from the town of Radonezh) in a forest tract. Sergius introduced a new principle of communal life in monasticism - a poor brotherhood with common property. He was a true righteous man. Seeing that the monastery became rich, and the monks began to live in contentment, Sergius founded a new monastery in the forest. This, according to the chronicler, “the holy elder, wonderful, and kind, and quiet, meek, humble,” was revered as a saint in Russia even before his death in 1392.

Dmitry Ivanovich received the golden label at the age of 10 - this has never happened in the history of Russia. It can be seen that the gold accumulated by his stingy ancestors helped, and the intrigues of loyal people in the Horde. The time of Dmitry's reign turned out to be unusually difficult for Russia: wars, terrible fires, epidemics went on in a continuous series. The drought destroyed the seedlings in the fields of Russia, depopulated from the plague. But the descendants forgot Dmitry's failures: in the memory of the people, he remained, first of all, a great commander, who for the first time defeated not only the Mongol-Tatars, but also the fear of the previously invincible power of the Horde.

Metropolitan Alexy was the ruler under the young prince for a long time. A wise old man, he protected the young man from dangers, enjoyed the respect and support of the Moscow boyars. He was also respected in the Horde, where unrest had begun by that time, Moscow, taking advantage of this, stopped paying the exit, and then Dmitry generally refused to obey Emir Mamai, who had seized power in the Horde. In 1380, he decided to punish the rebel himself. Dmitry understood what a desperate thing he undertook - to challenge the Horde, which had been invincible for 150 years! According to legend, Sergius of Radonezh blessed him for his feat. A huge army for Russia - 100 thousand people - set off on a campaign. On August 26, 1380, the news spread that the Russian army had crossed the Oka and “there was great sadness in the city of Moscow, and bitter weeping and cries and sobs arose in all parts of the city” - everyone knew that the crossing of the army across the Oka cut off her way back and made the battle and the death of loved ones is inevitable. On September 8, a duel between the monk Peresvet and the Tatar hero on the Kulikovo field began a battle that ended in victory for the Russians. The losses were horrendous, but this time God was really for us!

The victory was not celebrated for long. Khan Tokhtamysh overthrew Mamai and in 1382 he himself moved to Russia, seized Moscow by cunning and burned it down. On Russia imposed "there was a great heavy tribute throughout the great principality." Dmitry humiliatedly recognized the power of the Horde.

The great victory and the great humiliation cost Donskoy dearly. He fell seriously ill and died in 1389. At the conclusion of peace with the Horde, his son and heir, 11-year-old Vasily, was taken away as a hostage by the Tatars. After 4 years, he managed to escape to Russia. He became the Grand Duke according to his father's will, which had never happened before, and this spoke of the power of the Moscow prince. True, Khan Tokhtamysh also approved the choice - the Khan was afraid of the terrible Tamerlane coming from Asia and therefore appeased his tributary. Vasily ruled Moscow cautiously and prudently for 36 long years. Under him, petty princes began to turn into grand ducal servants, and minting of coins began. Although Vasily I was not a warrior, he showed firmness in relations with Novgorod, annexed his northern possessions to Moscow. For the first time, the hand of Moscow reached out to Bulgaria on the Volga, and once its squads burned down Kazan.

In the 60s. 14th century in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), an outstanding ruler, became famous for his incredible cruelty, which even then seemed wild. Having defeated Turkey, he destroyed the army of Tokhtamysh, and then invaded the Ryazan lands. Horror gripped Russia, which remembered Batu's invasion. Having captured Yelets, Timur moved to Moscow, but on August 26 he stopped and turned south. In Moscow, it was believed that Russia was saved by the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, which, at the request of the people, averted the arrival of the “iron lame”.

Those who have seen Andrei Tarkovsky's great film "Andrey Rublev" remember the terrible scene of the capture of the city by Russian-Tatar troops, the destruction of churches and the torture of a priest who refused to show the robbers where the church treasures were hidden. This whole story has a genuine documentary basis. In 1410, the Nizhny Novgorod prince Daniil Borisovich, together with the Tatar prince Talych, secretly approached Vladimir and suddenly, at the hour of the afternoon rest, the guards burst into the city. The priest of the Dormition Cathedral, Patrikey, managed to lock himself in the church, hid the vessels and some of the clerks in a special room, and himself, while they were breaking the gates, knelt down and began to pray. The intruding Russian and Tatar villains seized the priest and began to inquire where the treasures were. They burned him with fire, drove chips under their nails, but he was silent. Then, tied to a horse, the enemies dragged the body of the priest along the ground, and then killed him. But the people and treasures of the church were saved.

In 1408, the new khan Edigei attacked Moscow, which had not paid a "way out" for more than 10 years. However, the cannons of the Kremlin and its high walls forced the Tatars to abandon the assault. Having received a ransom, Edigey with many prisoners migrated to the steppe.

Having fled to Russia from the Horde through Podolia in 1386, young Vasily met the Lithuanian prince Vitovt. The brave prince liked Vitovt, who promised him his daughter Sophia in marriage. The wedding took place in 1391. Soon Vytautas also became the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Moscow and Lithuania competed sharply in the matter of "gathering" Russia, but more recently Sophia turned out to be a good wife and a grateful daughter - she did everything so that her son-in-law and father-in-law did not become sworn enemies. Sofya Vitovtovna was a strong-willed, stubborn and determined woman. After the death of her husband from the plague in 1425, she fiercely defended the rights of her son Vasily II during the strife that again swept over Russia.

Basil II the Dark. Civil War

The reign of Vasily II Vasilyevich is the time of a 25-year civil war, the "dislike" of the descendants of Kalita. Dying, Vasily I bequeathed the throne to his young son Vasily, but this did not suit the uncle of Vasily II, Prince Yuri Dmitrievich - he himself dreamed of power. In a dispute between uncle and nephew, the Horde supported Vasily II, but in 1432 the peace was broken. The reason was a quarrel at the wedding feast of Vasily II, when Sofia Vitovtovna, accusing Yuri's son, Prince Vasily Kosoy, of misappropriating Dmitry Donskoy's golden belt, took this symbol of power from Kosoy and thereby terribly offended him. Victory in the ensuing strife went to Yuri II, but he ruled for only two months and died in the summer of 1434, having bequeathed Moscow to his son Vasily Kosoy. Under Yuri, for the first time, an image of George the Victorious appeared on a coin, striking a snake with a spear. From here came the name "penny", as well as the coat of arms of Moscow, which was then included in the coat of arms of Russia.

After the death of Yuri, Vasily P. again took over in the struggle for power. He captured the sons of Yuri Dmitry Shemyaka and Vasily Kosoy, who became the Grand Duke after his father, and then ordered Kosoy to be blinded. Shemyaka himself submitted to Vasily II, but only feignedly. In February 1446, he arrested Vasily and ordered him to "take out his eyes." So Vasily II became "Dark", and Shemyaka Grand Duke Dmitry II Yuryevich.

Shemyaka did not rule for long, and soon Vasily the Dark returned power. The struggle went on for a long time, only in 1450, in the battle near Galich, Shemyaka's army was defeated, and he fled to Novgorod. Chef Poganka, bribed by Moscow, poisoned Shemyaka - "gave him a potion in the smoke." As N. M. Karamzin writes, Vasily II, having received the news of Shemyaka's death, "expressed immodest joy."
No portraits of Shemyaka have been preserved; his worst enemies tried to denigrate the appearance of the prince. In the Moscow chronicles, Shemyaka looks like a monster, and Vasily is a bearer of good. Perhaps if Shemyaka had won, then everything would have been the other way around: both of them, cousins, were similar in habits.

The cathedrals built in the Kremlin were painted by Theophanes the Greek, who arrived from Byzantium, first to Novgorod, and then to Moscow. Under him, a type of Russian high iconostasis was formed, the main decoration of which was the "Deesis" - a number of the largest and most revered icons of Jesus, the Virgin Mary, John the Baptist and the archangels. The visual space of the Greek deesis series was unified and harmonious, and the painting (like the frescoes) of the Greek is full of feeling and inner movement.

In those days, the influence of Byzantium on the spiritual life of Russia was enormous. Russian culture was nourished by juices from the Greek soil. At the same time, Moscow resisted the attempts of Byzantium to determine the church life of Russia, the choice of its metropolitans. In 1441, a scandal broke out: Vasily II rejected the church union of the Catholic and Orthodox churches concluded in Florence. He arrested the Greek Metropolitan Isidore, who represented Russia at the cathedral. And yet, the fall of Constantinople in 1453 caused sadness and horror in Russia. Henceforth, it was doomed to ecclesiastical and cultural loneliness among Catholics and Muslims.

Theophanes the Greek was surrounded by talented students. The best of them was the monk Andrei Rublev, who worked with a teacher in Moscow, and then, together with his friend Daniil Cherny, in Vladimir, the Trinity-Sergius and Andronikov monasteries. Andrew wrote differently than Feofan. Andrei does not have the severity of images characteristic of Theophan: the main thing in his painting is compassion, love and forgiveness. Rublev's wall paintings and icons amazed contemporaries with their spirituality, who came to watch the artist work on the scaffolding. Andrei Rublev's most famous icon is the Trinity, which he made for the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The plot is from the Bible: the son of Jacob is to be born to the elderly Abraham and Sarah, and three angels came to inform them about this. They are patiently waiting for the return of the hosts from the field. It is believed that these are the incarnations of the triune God: on the left is God the Father, in the center is Jesus Christ ready for sacrifice in the name of people, on the right is the Holy Spirit. The figures are inscribed by the artist in a circle - a symbol of eternity. This great creation of the 15th century is imbued with peace, harmony, light and goodness.

After the death of Shemyaka, Vasily II dealt with all his allies. Dissatisfied with the fact that Novgorod supported Shemyaka, Vasily went on a campaign in 1456 and forced the Novgorodians to curtail their rights in favor of Moscow. In general, Vasily II was a “lucky loser” on the throne. On the battlefield, he suffered only defeats, he was humiliated and captured by enemies. Like his opponents, Basil was a perjurer and a fratricide. However, every time Vasily was saved by a miracle, and his rivals made even more gross mistakes than he himself made. As a result, Vasily managed to stay in power for more than 30 years and easily pass it on to his son Ivan III, whom he had previously made co-ruler.

From an early age, Prince Ivan experienced the horrors of civil strife - he was with his father on the very day when the people of Shemyaka dragged Vasily II out to blind him. Then Ivan managed to escape. He had no childhood - at the age of 10 he became co-ruler of his blind father. In total, he was in power for 55 years! According to the foreigner who saw him, he was a tall, handsome, thin man. He also had two nicknames: "Humpbacked" - it is clear that Ivan was stooping - and "Terrible". The last nickname was later forgotten - his grandson Ivan IV turned out to be even more formidable. Ivan III was power-hungry, cruel, cunning. He was also stern towards his family: he starved his brother Andrei to death in prison.

Ivan had an outstanding gift as a politician and diplomat. He could wait for years, slowly move towards his goal and achieve it without serious losses. He was a real "collector" of lands: Ivan annexed some lands quietly and peacefully, conquered others by force. In a word, by the end of his reign, the territory of Muscovy had grown six times!

The annexation of Novgorod in 1478 was an important victory for the emerging autocracy over the ancient republican democracy, which was in crisis. The Novgorod veche bell was removed and taken to Moscow, many boyars were arrested, their lands were confiscated, and thousands of Novgorodians were “brought out” (evicted) to other districts. In 1485, Ivan annexed another old rival of Moscow - Tver. The last prince of Tver, Mikhail, fled to Lithuania, where he remained forever.

Under Ivan, a new system of government developed, in which they began to use governors - Moscow service people who were replaced from Moscow. The Boyar Duma also appears - the council of the highest nobility. Under Ivan, the local system began to develop. Service people began to receive plots of land - estates, that is, temporary (for the duration of their service) holdings in which they were placed.

Arose under Ivan and the all-Russian code of laws - the Sudebnik of 1497. It regulated legal proceedings, the size of feedings. The Sudebnik established a single deadline for the departure of peasants from the landlords - a week before and a week after St. George's Day (November 26). From that moment on, we can talk about the beginning of the movement of Russia towards serfdom.

The power of Ivan III was great. He was already an "autocrat", that is, he did not receive power from the hands of the khanatsar. In treaties, he is called the "sovereign of all Russia", that is, the sovereign, the only master, and the double-headed Byzantine eagle becomes the coat of arms. At the court, a magnificent Byzantine ceremonial reigns, on the head of Ivan III is the “cap of Monomakh”, he sits on the throne, holding in his hands the symbols of power - the scepter and the “power” - a golden apple.

For three years, the widowed Ivan married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine Palaiologos - Zoe (Sophia). She was an educated woman, strong-willed and, according to sources, obese, which in those days was not considered a disadvantage. With the arrival of Sophia, the Moscow court acquired the features of Byzantine splendor, which was a clear merit of the princess and her entourage, although the Russians did not like the “Roman woman”. The Russia of Ivan is gradually becoming an empire, adopting the traditions of Byzantium, and Moscow is turning from a modest city into the “Third Rome”.

Ivan devoted a lot of effort to the construction of Moscow, more precisely, the Kremlin - after all, the city was entirely wooden, and fires did not spare him, however, like the Kremlin, whose stone walls did not save from fire. Meanwhile, the prince was worried about stone work - the Russian masters did not have the practice of building large buildings. The destruction in 1474 of the almost completed cathedral in the Kremlin made a particularly heavy impression on the Muscovites. And then, at the behest of Ivan, the engineer Aristotle Fioravanti was invited from Venice, who “for the sake of the cunning of his art” was hired for huge money - 10 rubles a month. It was he who built the white-stone Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin - the main temple of Russia. The chronicler was in admiration: the church is "wonderful in its majesty, and height, and lordship, and ringing, and space, such has not happened in Russia."

The skill of Fioravanti delighted Ivan, and he hired more craftsmen in Italy. Since 1485, Anton and Mark Fryazin, Pietro Antonio Solari and Aleviz began to build (instead of dilapidated from the time of Dmitry Donskoy) new walls of the Moscow Kremlin with 18 towers that have already come down to us. The Italians built the walls for a long time - more than 10 years, but now it is clear that they were building for centuries. Built of faceted white stone blocks, the Faceted Chamber for receiving foreign embassies was distinguished by its extraordinary beauty. It was built by Mark Fryazin and Solari. Aleviz erected next to the Assumption Cathedral the Archangel Cathedral - the tomb of Russian princes and tsars. Cathedral Square - the place of solemn state and church ceremonies - was completed by the bell tower of Ivan the Great and the Cathedral of the Annunciation built by Pskov masters - the house church of Ivan III.

But still, the main event of Ivan's reign was the overthrow of the Tatar yoke. In a stubborn struggle, Akhmatkhan managed for some time to revive the former power of the Great Horde, and in 1480 he decided to subjugate Russia again. The Horde and Ivan's troops converged on the Ugra River, a tributary of the Oka. In this position, positional battles and skirmishes began. The general battle never happened, Ivan was an experienced, cautious ruler, he hesitated for a long time - whether to enter into a mortal battle or submit to Akhmat. Having stood until November 11, Akhmat went to the steppes and was soon killed by enemies.

By the end of his life, Ivan III became intolerant of others, unpredictable, unjustifiably cruel, almost continuously executing his friends and enemies. His capricious will became law. When the envoy of the Crimean Khan asked why the prince killed his grandson Dmitry, whom he had initially appointed as heir, Ivan answered like a real autocrat: “Am I not free, the great prince, in my children and in my reign? To whom I want, I will give reign! According to the will of Ivan III, power after him passed to his son Vasily III.

Vasily III turned out to be the true heir of his father: his power was, in essence, unlimited and despotic. As the foreigner wrote, "he oppresses everyone equally with cruel slavery." However, unlike his father, Vasily was a lively, active person, traveled a lot, and was very fond of hunting in the forests near Moscow. He was a pious man, and pilgrimages were an important part of his life. Under him, derogatory forms of address to the nobles appear, who do not spare themselves either, submitting petitions to the sovereign: “Your servant, Ivashka, beats with his forehead ...”, which especially emphasized the system of autocratic power in which one person was the master, and slaves, slaves - other.

As a contemporary wrote, Ivan III was sitting still, but his state was growing. Under Basil, this growth continued. He completed his father's work and annexed Pskov. There, Vasily behaved like a true Asian conqueror, destroying the liberties of Pskov and deporting wealthy citizens to Muscovy. The only thing left for the Pskovites was to “weep in their old ways and according to their own will.”

After the annexation of Pskov, Vasily III received a message from the Elder of the Pskov Eliazar Monastery Philotheus, who argued that the former centers of the world (Rome and Constantinople) had been replaced by a third one - Moscow, which had accepted holiness from the dead capitals. And then the conclusion followed: "Two Romes fell, and the third stands, and the fourth does not happen." Filofey's thoughts became the basis of the ideological doctrine of imperial Russia. So the Russian rulers were inscribed in a single row of rulers of the world centers.

In 1525, Vasily III divorced his wife Solomonia, with whom he lived for 20 years. The reason for the divorce and forced tonsure of Solomonia was the absence of her children. After that, 47-year-old Vasily married 17-year-old Elena Glinskaya. Many considered this marriage illegal, "not in the old days." But he transformed the Grand Duke - to the horror of his subjects, Vasily "fell under the heel" of young Elena: he began to dress in fashionable Lithuanian clothes and shaved his beard. The newlyweds did not have children for a long time. Only on August 25, 1530, Elena gave birth to a son, who was named Ivan. “And there was,” wrote the chronicler, “great joy in the city of Moscow…” If they knew that Ivan the Terrible, the greatest tyrant of the Russian land, was born on that day! The Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye became a monument to this event. Placed on a picturesque bend of the Moyek river bank, it is beautiful, light and graceful. I can’t even believe that it was erected in honor of the birth of the greatest tyrant in Russian history - there is so much joy in it, aspiration upward to heaven. Before us is a majestic melody truly frozen in stone, beautiful and sublime.

Fate prepared for Vasily a difficult death - a small sore on his leg suddenly grew into a terrible rotten wound, general blood poisoning began, and Vasily died. As the chronicler reports, those who stood at the bedside of the dying prince saw "that when they put the Gospel on their chest, his spirit departed like a small smoke."

The young widow of Vasily III, Elena, became regent under the three-year-old Ivan IV. Under Elena, some of her husband's undertakings were completed: they introduced a unified system of measures and weights, as well as a single monetary system throughout the country. Immediately, Elena showed herself as an imperious and ambitious ruler, disgraced her husband's brothers Yuri and Andrei. They were killed in prison, and Andrei died of starvation in a deaf iron cap put on his head. But in 1538, death overtook Elena herself. The ruler died at the hands of poisoners, leaving the country in a difficult situation - continuous raids of the Tatars, squabbling boyars for power.

Reign of Ivan the Terrible

After the death of Elena, a desperate struggle of the boyar clans for power began. One won, then the other. The boyars pushed around the young Ivan IV in front of his eyes, and in his name they carried out reprisals against people they did not like. Young Ivan was not lucky - from an early age, left an orphan, he lived without a close and kind teacher, he saw only cruelty, lies, intrigues, duplicity. All this was absorbed by his receptive, passionate soul. From childhood, Ivan was accustomed to executions, murders, and the innocent blood shed before his eyes did not excite him. The boyars catered to the young sovereign, inflaming his vices and whims. He killed cats and dogs, rushed on horseback through the streets of Moscow, mercilessly crushing the people.

Having reached the age of majority - 16 years old, Ivan struck those around him with determination and will. In December 1546, he announced that he wanted to have a "royal rank", to be called a king. The wedding of Ivan to the kingdom took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. The Metropolitan placed the Cap of Monomakh on Ivan's head. According to legend, this hat in the XII century. Prince Vladimir Monomakh inherited from Byzantium. In fact, this is a gold, sable-trimmed, gem-decorated skullcap of Central Asian work of the 14th century. It became the main attribute of royal power.
After a terrible fire that occurred in Moscow in 1547, the townspeople rebelled against the boyars who abused their power. The young king was shocked by these events and decided to start reforms. A circle of reformers arose around the tsar - the Chosen Rada. The priest Sylvester and the nobleman Alexei Adashev became his soul. Both of them remained Ivan's chief advisers for 13 years. The activities of the circle led to reforms that strengthened the state and autocracy. Orders were created - the central authorities, in the localities the power passed from the former governors appointed from above to elected local elders. The Tsar's Code of Laws, a new set of laws, was also adopted. It was approved by the Zemsky Sobor - a frequently convened general meeting elected from various "ranks".

In the first years of his reign, Ivan's cruelty was softened by his advisers and his young wife Anastasia. She, the daughter of the okolnichi Roman Zakharyin-Yuriev, was chosen by Ivan as his wife in 1547. The Tsar loved Anastasia and was under her truly beneficial influence. That is why the death of his wife in 1560 was a terrible blow for Ivan, and after that his character deteriorated completely. He abruptly changed policy, refused the help of his advisers and placed them in disgrace.

The long struggle of the Kazan Khanate and Moscow on the Upper Volga ended in 1552 with the capture of Kazan. By this time, Ivan's army had been reformed: the core of it was made up of the equestrian noble militia and infantry - archers, armed with firearms - squeakers. The fortifications of Kazan were taken by storm, the city was destroyed, and the inhabitants were destroyed or enslaved. Later, Astrakhan, the capital of another Tatar khanate, was also taken. Soon the Volga region became a place of exile for Russian nobles.

In Moscow, not far from the Kremlin, in honor of the capture of Kazan by masters Barma and Postnik, St. Basil's Cathedral, or Pokrovsky Cathedral, was built (Kazan was taken on the eve of the Feast of the Intercession). The building of the cathedral, which still amazes the viewer with its extraordinary brightness, consists of nine churches connected to each other, a kind of "bouquet" of domes. The unusual appearance of this temple is an example of the bizarre fantasy of Ivan the Terrible. The people associated its name with the name of the holy fool - the soothsayer Basil the Blessed, who boldly told Tsar Ivan the truth to his face. According to the legend, by order of the king, Barma and Postnik were blinded so that they could never create such beauty again. However, it is known that the “church and city master” Postnik (Yakovlev) also successfully built stone fortifications of the recently conquered Kazan.

The first printed book in Russia (Gospel) was created in the printing house founded in 1553 by master Marusha Nefediev and his comrades. Among them were Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. For a long time, it was Fedorov who was mistakenly considered the first printer. However, the merits of Fedorov and Mstislavets are already enormous. In 1563 in Moscow, in a newly opened printing house, the building of which has survived to this day, in the presence of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, Fedorov and Mstislavets began to print the liturgical book "Apostle". In 1567 the craftsmen fled to Lithuania and continued printing books. In 1574, in Lvov, Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian ABC "for the sake of quick infant learning." It was a textbook that included the beginnings of reading, writing and counting.

The terrible time of the oprichnina has come in Russia. On December 3, 1564, Ivan unexpectedly left Moscow, and a month later he sent a letter from Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda to the capital, in which he declared his anger at his subjects. In response to the humiliated requests of his subjects to return and rule in the old way, Ivan announced that he was creating an oprichnina. So (from the word “oprich”, that is, “except”) this state arose in the state. The rest of the lands were called "zemshchina". The lands of the “zemshchina” were arbitrarily taken to the oprichnina, local nobles were exiled, and their property was taken away. The oprichnina led to a sharp increase in autocracy not through reforms, but through arbitrariness, a gross violation of traditions and norms accepted in society.
Massacres, brutal executions, robberies were carried out by the hands of guardsmen dressed in black clothes. They were part of a kind of military-monastic order, and the king was his "abbot". Intoxicated with wine and blood, the guardsmen terrified the country. Councils or courts could not be found for them - the guardsmen covered themselves with the name of the sovereign.

Those who saw Ivan after the beginning of the oprichnina were amazed at the changes in his appearance. As if a terrible internal corruption struck the soul and body of the king. The once blooming 35-year-old man looked like a wrinkled, bald old man with eyes burning with a gloomy fire. Since then, rampant feasts in the company of guardsmen alternated in Ivan's life with executions, debauchery - with deep repentance for the crimes committed.

The tsar treated independent, honest, open people with special distrust. Some of them he executed with his own hand. Ivan did not tolerate protests against his atrocities either. So, he dealt with Metropolitan Philip, who called on the king to stop extrajudicial executions. Philip was exiled to a monastery, and then Malyuta Skuratov strangled the metropolitan.
Malyuta especially stood out among the oprichniki killers, who were blindly devoted to the tsar. This first executioner of Ivan, a cruel and limited person, evoked the horror of his contemporaries. He was the king's confidante in debauchery and drunkenness, and then, when Ivan atoned for his sins in the church, Malyuta rang the bell like a sexton. The executioner was killed in the Livonian War
In 1570 Ivan staged a rout of Veliky Novgorod. Monasteries, churches, houses and shops were robbed, Novgorodians were tortured for five weeks, the living were thrown into the Volkhov, and those who came out were finished off with spears and axes. Ivan robbed the shrine of Novgorod - St. Sophia Cathedral and took out his wealth. Returning to Moscow, Ivan executed dozens of people with the most cruel executions. After that, he brought down the executions already on those who created the oprichnina. The blood dragon was eating its own tail. In 1572, Ivan abolished the oprichnina, and the very word "oprichnina" was forbidden to be pronounced under pain of death.

After Kazan, Ivan turned to the western borders and decided to conquer the lands of the already weakened Livonian Order in the Baltic states. The first victories in the Livonian War, which began in 1558, turned out to be easy - Russia reached the shores of the Baltic. The tsar solemnly drank Baltic water from a golden goblet in the Kremlin. But soon defeat began, the war became protracted. Poland and Sweden joined Ivan's enemies. In this situation, Ivan failed to show the talent of a commander and diplomat, he made erroneous decisions that led to the death of the troops. The king, with painful persistence, looked everywhere for traitors. The Livonian War ruined Russia.

The most serious opponent of Ivan was the Polish king Stefan Batory. In 1581 he laid siege to Pskov, but the Pskovians defended their city. By this time, the Russian army was bled dry by heavy losses, repressions of prominent commanders. Ivan could no longer resist the simultaneous onslaught of the Poles, Lithuanians, Swedes, and also the Crimean Tatars, who, even after a heavy defeat inflicted on them by the Russians in 1572 near the village of Molodi, constantly threatened the southern borders of Russia. The Livonian War ended in 1582 with a truce, but in essence with the defeat of Russia. She was cut off from the Baltic. Ivan, as a politician, suffered a severe defeat, which affected the position of the country and the psyche of its ruler.

The only success was the conquest of the Siberian Khanate. The merchants Stroganovs, who had mastered the Permian lands, hired the dashing Volga ataman Ermak Timofeev, who with his gang defeated Khan Kuchum and captured his capital, Kashlyk. Yermak's associate Ataman Ivan Koltso brought the Tsar a letter of conquest of Siberia.
Ivan, upset by the defeat in the Livonian War, joyfully received this news and encouraged the Cossacks and the Stroganovs.

“The body is exhausted, the spirit is sick,” Ivan the Terrible wrote in his will, “the scabs of the soul and body have multiplied, and there is no doctor who would heal me.” There was no sin that the king did not commit. The fate of his wives (and there were five of them after Anastasia) was terrible - they were killed or imprisoned in a monastery. In November 1581, in a fit of rage, the tsar killed his eldest son and heir Ivan, a murderer and tyrant to match his father, with a staff. Until the end of his life, the king did not give up his habits of torturing and killing people, debauchery, sorting out precious stones for hours and praying for a long time with tears. Embraced by some terrible disease, he rotted alive, emitting an incredible stench.

The day of his death (March 17, 1584) was predicted to the king by the magi. On the morning of that day, the cheerful king sent word to the magi that he would execute them for false prophecy, but they asked them to wait until evening, because the day had not yet ended. At three o'clock in the afternoon, Ivan suddenly died. Perhaps his closest associates Bogdan Velsky and Boris Godunov, who were alone with him that day, helped him go to hell.

After Ivan the Terrible, his son Fyodor came to the throne. Contemporaries considered him weak-minded, almost an idiot, seeing how he sits on the throne with a blissful smile on his lips. For 13 years of his reign, power was in the hands of his brother-in-law (brother of Irina's wife) Boris Godunov. Fedor, with him, was a puppet, obediently played the role of an autocrat. Once, at a ceremony in the Kremlin, Boris carefully adjusted the Cap of Monomakh on Fyodor's head, which allegedly sat crookedly. So, in front of the eyes of the amazed crowd, Boris boldly demonstrated his omnipotence.

Until 1589, the Russian Orthodox Church was subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople, although in fact it was independent of him. When Patriarch Jeremiah arrived in Moscow, Godunov persuaded him to agree to the election of the first Russian patriarch, which was Metropolitan Job. Boris, understanding the importance of the church in the life of Russia, never lost control over it.

In 1591, the stone master Fyodor Kon built walls of white limestone around Moscow (“White City”), and the cannon master Andrei Chokhov cast a giant cannon weighing 39312 kg (“Tsar Cannon”) - In 1590 it came in handy: Crimean Tatars, crossing the Oka, broke through to Moscow. On the evening of July 4, from the Sparrow Hills, Khan Kazy-Girey looked at the city, from the powerful walls of which cannons rumbled and bells rang in hundreds of churches. Shocked by what he saw, the khan ordered the army to retreat. That evening, for the last time in history, the formidable Tatar warriors saw the Russian capital.

Tsar Boris built a lot, involving many people in these works in order to provide them with food. Boris personally laid a new fortress in Smolensk, and the architect Fyodor Kon erected its stone walls. In the Moscow Kremlin, the bell tower built in 1600, called "Ivan the Great", sparkled with a dome.

Back in 1582, the last wife of Ivan the Terrible, Maria Nagaya, gave birth to a son, Dmitry. Under Fyodor, because of the intrigues of Godunov, Tsarevich Dmitry and his relatives were exiled to Uglich. May 15, 1591 The 8-year-old prince was found in the yard with his throat cut. An investigation by the boyar Vasily Shuisky established that Dmitry himself stumbled upon the knife he was playing with. But many did not believe this, believing that the true killer was Godunov, for whom the son of the Terrible was a rival on the way to power. With the death of Dmitry, the Rurik dynasty was cut short. Soon the childless Tsar Fedor also died. Boris Godunov came to the throne, he ruled until 1605, and then Russia collapsed into the abyss of Troubles.

For about eight hundred years, Russia was ruled by the Rurik dynasty, the descendants of the Varangian Rurik. Over these centuries, Russia has become a European state, adopted Christianity, and created an original culture. Different people sat on the Russian throne. Among them were outstanding rulers who thought about the welfare of the peoples, but there were also many nonentities. Because of them, by the XIII century, Russia broke up as a single state into many principalities, became a victim of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. It was only with great difficulty that Moscow, which had risen up by the 16th century, managed to create a state anew. It was a harsh kingdom with a despotic autocrat and a silent people. But it also fell at the beginning of the 17th century ...

The formation of the first state in Eastern Europe, which received the name Kievan Rus in the nineteenth century, had a strong influence on further course of the history of the region. Having existed for several centuries, having gone through a period of prosperity and decline, it disappeared, laying the foundation for the emergence in the future of several states that play an important role in modern times.

The appearance of the Eastern Slavs

The history of the formation of the Kievan state can be conditionally divided into three stages:

• the emergence of tribal unions;
• the emergence of the ruling elite;
• the beginnings of statehood, Kyiv.

The origin of the term Kievan Rus dates back to the nineteenth century. So Rus was named by historians, denoting a huge state in Eastern Europe, the successors of which were several modern countries.

There is no exact date of the creation of Russia. The formation of the Kyiv state was preceded by several centuries of the formation of Slavic tribal unions on its territory on the basis of the gradually disintegrating Slavic ethnos. By the beginning of the eighth century, separate tribes of the Slavs created seven tribal unions here. On the lands of the glades, one of these unions, located along the middle reaches of the Dnieper, the birth of the state of Kievan Rus took place.

The formation of military-tribal unions was accompanied by the collapse of primitive democracy within the tribes, when the ruling military elite arose, the princes and their warriors, appropriating most of the military booty. The formation of the ruling stratum contributed to the emergence of the beginnings of the state. In the places of the future key cities of ancient Russia, large settlements began to emerge. Among them was the ancient Russian Kyiv, which arose in the sixth century, the first ruler of which is considered to be the prince of the glades Kiy. This process especially intensified at the turn of the eighth and ninth centuries.

The formation of Kyiv statehood

The history of Kievan Rus as a state entity began in the 9th century, when tribal unions began to fight among themselves for leadership in the region. As a result of this, during the 9th and 10th centuries, a military-trade association of tribal unions was first formed, which gradually evolved into the Kievan state.

Reign of Rurik in Novgorod

The gradual transition of tribal relations within the tribes to feudal ones also required new methods of management. New social relations demanded other, more centralized forms of power that would be able to maintain a changing balance of interests. The most famous result of such a search was, according to The Tale of Bygone Years, the calling in 862 to the princely throne of Novgorod, at that time the most developed city of the future Russia, the Norman king Rurik, who was the founder of the future dynasty of Kievan princes.

Having entrenched himself on the Novgorod table, Rurik, with the help of Askold and Dir's combatants, seizes power in Kyiv, which was an important trading point on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks." After the death of Rurik, his governor Oleg, having killed Askold and Dir, declares himself Grand Duke of Kyiv, making Kyiv the center of the united northern and southern Slavic lands. He made many military campaigns, including two - to Byzantium, the result of which was the conclusion of trade and political agreements beneficial for Russia in 907 and 911. And also the result of the wars conducted by Oleg, nicknamed the Prophet, was an almost two-fold increase in the country's territory.

Reign of Igor, Olga and Svyatoslav

Rurik's son Igor, nicknamed the Old, since he received power late, took the throne after the death of Oleg in 912. His reign was less successful than that of his predecessor. An attempt, in alliance with Byzantium, to break the Khazar Khaganate ended in defeat, which turned into an unsuccessful military conflict with a former ally. The result of the next campaign in 944 against Byzantium was the signing of a new treaty, less beneficial for Russia, reintroduced trade duties.

Igor Stary was killed by the Drevlyans while collecting tribute from them in 945, leaving behind his young son Svyatoslav. As a result, his widow Princess Olga received real power in the principality.

Olga streamlined many laws of the Old Russian land, including a tax reform, the impetus for which was the uprising of the Drevlyans. The polyudye was canceled and clear amounts of tribute, “lessons”, were established. Tribute was to be delivered to special fortresses, called "graveyards", and accepted by the administrators appointed by the prince. Such a tribute and the procedure for its reception was called "cart". Having paid tribute, the payer received a clay seal with the sign of the prince, which guaranteed against re-payment of the tax.

The reforms of Princess Olga contributed to the strengthening of the power of the Kyiv princes, its centralization, and the reduction of the independence of the tribes.

In 962, Olga transferred power to her son Svyatoslav. The reign of Svyatoslav was not marked by noticeable reforms, the prince himself, being primarily a born warrior, preferred military campaigns to state activities. First, he subjugated the Vyatichi tribe, including it in the Russian land, and in 965 he conducted a successful campaign against the Khazar state.

The defeat of the Khazar Khaganate opened for Russia trade route to the east, and two subsequent Bulgarian campaigns provided the Old Russian state with dominance over the entire northern coast of the Black Sea. Russia advanced its borders to the south, establishing itself in Tmutarakan. Svyatoslav himself was going to establish his own state on the Danube, but was killed by the Pechenegs, returning from an unsuccessful campaign against Byzantium in 872.

Board of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich

The sudden death of Svyatoslav caused in Russia an internecine struggle for the Kyiv table between his sons. Yaropolk, who by seniority has the original right to the grand-ducal throne, first defended it in the fight against Oleg, who reigned in the Drevlyans, who died in 977. Vladimir, who ruled in Novgorod, fled beyond the borders of Russia, but later returned with the Varangian squad in 980 and, having killed Yaropolk, took the place of the Kyiv prince.

Reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, later called the Great or the Baptist, marked the formation of Russia as a state. Under him, the boundaries of the territory of the Old Russian state were finally determined, Cherven and Carpathian Rus were annexed. The increased threat of attacks by the Pechenegs forced him to create a border defensive line from fortresses, the garrisons of which consisted of selected soldiers. But the main event of the reign of Vladimir the Baptist is the adoption by Russia of Orthodox Christianity as the official state religion.

The reason for adopting a religion professing belief in a single god was purely practical. The feudal society, finally formed by the end of the tenth century, with its monarchical form of government, was no longer satisfied with a religion based on polytheism. Religious beliefs in the Middle Ages underlay the worldview of a person, were the state ideology of any country. Therefore, paganism, which reflected the primitive tribal, has become obsolete. There was a need to replace the old religion with a monotheistic, more suitable for monarchical feudal state.

Prince Vladimir the Great did not immediately decide which of the then dominant religious beliefs to take as the basis of the ideology of the state. According to the chronicles, Islam, Judaism, Catholicism could have established itself in Russia ... But the choice fell on Orthodoxy of the Byzantine model. Both the personal preferences of the prince and political expediency played a role here.

Christianity became the official religion in Kievan Rus in 988.

The heyday of Kievan Rus

The time before the reign of Prince Vladimir Monomakh is conventionally divided by historians into several stages.

• Svyatopolk and Yaroslav.
• Eleventh century. Triumvirate of the Yaroslavichs.
• Kievan Rus. 12th century. Vladimir Monomakh.

Each stage stands out due to important events for the development and formation of statehood.

Rivalry between Svyatopolk and Yaroslav

Vladimir the Baptist died in 1015, immediately a new internecine struggle for power between his sons began in the country. Svyatopolk the Accursed kills his brothers Boris and Gleb, later canonized as saints, and seizes the Kyiv table. Then he enters into a fight with Yaroslav, who ruled in Novgorod.

The struggle has been going on with varying success for several years and almost ends with the complete victory of Svyatopolk-Yaroslav, who, in again expelled from Kyiv, refuses to continue the fight and is going to run "over the sea." But at the insistence of the Novgorodians, for the money they collected, he again recruits a mercenary army and finally expels Svyatopolk, who later went missing "between the Czechs and the Poles", from Kyiv

After the elimination of Svyatopolk in 1019, Yaroslav's struggle for power was not over. First, after a year and a half, there was a battle with his nephew, Prince Bryachislav of Polotsk, who plundered Novgorod. Later, he entered into a fight with Prince Tmutarakan Mstislav. While Yaroslav in the north suppressed the uprising of the pagan tribes, Mstislav tried unsuccessfully to capture Kyiv, after which he stopped in Chernigov. The battle that took place later on the banks of the Dnieper with Yaroslav, who came to the rescue, ended for the latter in a crushing defeat and flight.

Despite the victory, Mstislav did not have the strength to continue the fight, so he initiated the signing of a peace treaty that divided Russia along the Dnieper between two capitals, Kyiv and Chernigov, in 1026. The agreement turned out to be strong, the “duumvirate” of the brothers successfully existed until 1036, when, after the death left no heirs Mstislav, his lands passed into the possession of the Kyiv prince. Thus, Yaroslav completed a new "collection of lands" of the former possessions of Vladimir the Great.

During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, Russia flourished at its maximum. The Pechenegs were defeated. Russia was recognized as an influential state in Europe, as evidenced by numerous dynastic marriages. A collection of laws "Russian Truth" was written, the first stone monuments of architecture were built, and the level of literacy rose sharply. The geography of trade, which was conducted with many countries from Central Asia to Western Europe, expanded.

After the death of Yaroslav in 1054, the power was shared by his three eldest sons, who ruled in Kyiv, Chernigov and Pereyaslav. At this time, there are a number of Russian-Polovtsian wars, unsuccessful for the Russian princes. The congress held in Lyubech in 1097, dividing the Ruriks into separate dynasties, stimulated further feudal fragmentation, at the same time ending strife to fight the Polovtsy.

Vladimir Monomakh and Mstislav Vladimirovich

In 1113, the Kyiv period of the reign of Vladimir Monomakh began. Being a subtle politician, with the help of compromises, he managed to stop the inevitable disintegration of the state into separate principalities for the duration of his reign. Having full control over the military forces of the country, he managed to achieve the obedience of the willful vassals, for some time to eliminate the danger of a Polovtsian invasion.

After the death of Monomakh in 1125, his son Mstislav continued his father's policy. The years of the reign of Mstislav the Great were the last when Russia was still united.

Disappearance of the State

The death of Mstislav in 1132 marked the end of the era of the ancient Russian state. Having broken up into a dozen and a half actually independent principalities, it finally ceased to exist as an integral state formation. At the same time, Kyiv still continued for some time to be a symbol of the prestige of princely power, gradually losing real influence. But even in this capacity, only a century remained for Ancient Russia to exist. The invasion of the Mongols in the middle of the thirteenth century led to the loss of independence of the ancient Russian lands for several centuries.

History of Russia until 862.

The history of the emergence of Russia before 862 is very interesting. The main reason for this story
starts. Or from the moment the Slavic tribes were separated from the total mass of all Indo-Europeans, and this is a long period that begins around 4800 BC.

(the time of the emergence of the Upper Volga archaeological culture, the tribes of which most likely became the core (basis) of the Slavic tribes. Or take the starting point for the appearance (according to legends) of the first Russian (or Slavic) cities - Slovensk and Rusa
(on the site of which the cities of Novgorod and Staraya Russa are now located), and this was in 2395 BC.
Firstly, I will start with the fact that there are many theories about the origin of the Slavs and Russians (Tyunyaev, Demin, Zhuk, Chudinov and others). According to one theory, the Hyperboreans (they are sometimes called the Arcto-Russians) are the ancestors of all the Caucasoid peoples of the world, and they lived already 38 thousand years ago. According to another theory, the ancient Rus are the ancestor of all the Indo-European peoples of the world and they already existed by the beginning of the 6th millennium BC. But I will take a more moderate theory, according to which the Slavs (you can call them the ancient Rus, because all other Slavic peoples later separated from them) were already an independent people in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. They lived on the territory of the future Kievan Rus already in those distant times and had their own cities (Slovensk and Rusa) and their own princes. According to legend, these princes even had connections with the Egyptian pharaohs (this is according to legend), often with their squads they helped the eastern monarch in the fight between themselves. But in any case, they returned home after the campaigns.
Already about two thousand years ago, Greek and Roman scientists knew that in the east of Europe, between the Carpathian Mountains and the Baltic Sea, numerous tribes of Wends live. These were the ancestors of modern Slavic peoples. By their name, the Baltic Sea was then called the Venedian Gulf of the Northern Ocean. According to archaeologists, the Wends were the original inhabitants of Europe, the descendants of the tribes that lived here in the Stone and Bronze Ages.
The ancient name of the Slavs - Wends - was preserved in the language of the Germanic peoples until the late Middle Ages, and in the Finnish language Russia is still called Veneya. The name "Slavs" (or rather, the Slavs) began to spread only one and a half thousand years ago - in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. At first, only Western Slavs were called that way. Their eastern counterparts were called Antes. Then the Slavs began to call all the tribes speaking Slavic languages.
By 700 BC, the ancient Slavs inhabited the vast territory of Eastern and Central Europe, including eastern Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Balarus, Ukraine, and the western regions of Russia (Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk). To the south of them lived the Scythians, probably there were still tribes who spoke the Scythian-Slavic language. Even to the south of the Slavs lived the Thracians of the Balkan Peninsula, and to the west of the Slavs lived the ancient Germanic tribes and the tribes of the Celts. To the north of the Slavs lived the Finno-Ugric Ural peoples. During this period, the Letto-Lithuanian tribes had much in common with the ancient Slavs (for sure, the language of the Baltic tribes still had much in common with the Slavs).
Around 300-400 AD, the Slavs were divided into two groups, western (Sklavins) and eastern (Antes). Just at that time, the great migration of peoples began, or rather, it could be called the invasion of a large multi-tribal association of Hun tribes into Europe, as a result of which large movements of ancient peoples began to occur in Europe. This particularly affected the Germanic tribes. Slavic tribes did not participate in these movements for the most part. They only took advantage of the weakening power of the Illyrian and Thracian tribes and began to methodically occupy their lands. The Sklavins began to penetrate into the territory previously inhabited by the Illyrians, and the southern Antes began to penetrate into the territory of modern Bulgaria. The main part of the Ants remained on their territory, which in the future became Kievan Rus. By about 650, these migrations were completed.
Now the southern neighbors of the Ants were steppe nomads - Bulgars, Hungarians, Khazars.
The tribes were still led by princes, as before, each Antes tribe
had its own tribal center (city), although there is no exact data on these cities. Most likely, some large settlements existed in Novgorod, Ladoga, Smolensk,
Polotsk, Kyiv. In ancient scriptures and legends, many names of Slavic princes are mentioned - Boreva (it seems that this name remained as a memory of the name of the Borean civilization), Gostomysl, Kiy, Shchek, Khoriv). It is believed that the princes Askold, Dir, Rurik, Sineus, Truvor were Varangians, which was undoubtedly possible. Especially in the northern part of Ancient Russia, there were traditions to hire foreigners from among the Varangians for military leadership (I would still hire foreigners, especially Germans, for the highest posts from Russia, because Great Catherine was German and Russia in her times was the greatest power). But you can say it differently. Slavic princes, trying to be like their Western counterparts, called themselves names similar to Varangian ones. There are sayings that Rurik had the name Yurik, Oleg had the name Olaf.
At the same time, the long coexistence (close to each other) of the Old Russian and Norman (Scandinavian) tribes also entailed a common culture (some important heads of clans and leaders bore both Russian and Scandinavian names).
Here is information about the ancient Rus (wounds, rugs) from foreign sources (medieval):
- The end of the VIII century. In the Life of Stefan of Surozh, the Russian prince Bravlin is mentioned. The prince's name probably comes from Bravalla, during which in 786 a great battle took place between the Danes and the Frisians. The Frisians were defeated, and many of them left their country, moving to the east.
- The end of the VIII century. The geographer Bavarian calls the Ruses next to the Khazars, as well as some Ross (Rots) somewhere between the Elbe and Sala rivers: Attorosy, Vilirosy, Hozirosy, Zabrosy.
- VIII-IX centuries. Popes Leo III (795-816), Benedict III (855-858) and other holders of the Roman table sent special messages to the "clerics of the horns". Obviously, the Rug communities (they were Arians) continued to keep apart from the rest of the Christians.
- 839 year. The Vertinsky annals inform about the arrival of representatives of the people of Ros, whose ruler bore the title of kagan (prince), with the ambassadors of the Byzantine emperor Theophilus, to Louis I the Pious.
- Until 842. The life of George of Amastrid tells about the attack of the Ross on Amastrida (Asia Minor).
- Between 836-847 years Al-Khwarizmi in his geographical work mentions the Russian Mountain, from which the river Dr. mustache (Dnepr?). The news is also found in a treatise of the second half of the 10th century (Khudul al-Alam), where it is specified that the mountain is located to the north of the “inner Bulgarians”.
- 844 year. Al-Yakubi reports an attack by the Rus on Seville in Spain.
- 844 year. Ibn Khordadbeh calls the Rus a kind or a kind of Slavs (two editions of his work are known).
- June 18, 860. Ros attack on Constantinople.
- 861 year. Konstantin-Kirill The philosopher, the future creator of the Slavic alphabet, discovered in the Crimea a gospel and a psalter written in Russian scripts, and, having met a person who spoke this language, he mastered the spoken language and deciphered the script.
- IX century. According to the Persian historian Fakhr al-Din Mubarakshah (XIII century), the Khazars had a letter that originated from Russian. The Khazars borrowed it from the nearby living "branch of the Rumians" (Byzantines), whom they call the Russ. There are 21 letters in the alphabet, which are written from left to right, without the letter aleph, as in Aramaic or Syriac-Nestorian writing. The Khazar Jews had this letter. Russes in this case are believed to be named Alans.
- 863 year. In the document confirming the previous award, Rusaramarha (brand of the Rusars) is mentioned on the territory of modern Austria.
- OK. 867 years. Patriarch Photius in the district message reports the baptism of the Ross (the area of ​​residence is unknown).
- OK. 867 years. The Byzantine emperor Basil, in a letter to Louis II, who assumed the title of emperor, uses the title of kagan, equal to the royal one, in relation to four peoples: Avars, Khazars, Bulgarians and Normans. The news is usually associated with the mention of the kagan among the Rus under the year 839 (see note 33), as well as in a number of Eastern and Russian sources proper.
- OK. 874 years. A protege of Rome, the Patriarch of Constantinople Ignatius sent a bishop to Russia.
- 879 year. The first mention of the Russian diocese of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, apparently located in the city of Rosiya in the Eastern Crimea. This diocese exists until the XII century.
- 879 year. Baptism of the Ross by Emperor Basil (message by John Skylitsa).
- Until 885. The chronicle of Dalimil of the beginning of the 14th century calls the Archbishop of Moravia Methodius a Rusyn.
- Until 894. The Czech chronicle of Pulkava at the end of the 14th century includes Polonia and Russia in the Moravia of the era of the Moravian prince Svyatopolk (871-894).
- A historian of the middle of the 15th century, later Pope Pius II, Aeneas Silvius speaks of the subjugation of Rome by Svyatopolk to Polonia, Hungaria (later Hungary, formerly the region of the Huns) and Russans - Russ.
- In the "Chronicle of the whole world" by Martin Velsky (XVI century) and the chronograph of the Western Russian edition (XVI century) it is said that Svyatopolk "held the Russian lands." Svyatopolk "with the Russian boyar" baptized the Czech prince Borzhivoy.
- The Czech chronicler Hagetius (d. 1552) recalls that Russia used to be part of the Moravian kingdom. A number of eastern authors retell the story about the Rus living on the island "in three days' journey" (about 100 km), whose ruler was called Khakan.
- The end of the IX - the beginning of the X century. Al-Balkhi (c. 850-930) speaks of three groups of Rus: Kuyab, Slavia, Arsania. The nearest to the Bulgar on the Volga is Kuyaba, the most distant is Slavia.
- OK. 904 years. The Raffelstetten trade charter (Austria) speaks of the Slavs coming "from Rugia". Researchers usually choose between Rugiland on the Danube, Rugia in the Baltics, and Kievan Rus.
- 912-913 years. The campaign of the Rus to the Caspian Sea from the Black Sea, noted by the Arab scientist Masudi (middle of the 10th century) and other oriental authors.
- 921-922 years. Ibn Fadlan described the Rus, whom he saw in Bulgar.
- OK. 935 years. The charter of the tournament in Magdeburg names Velemir, the prince (princeps) of Russia, as well as those who perform under the banner of the Duke of Thuringia, Otton Redebotto, Duke of Russia and Wenceslas, Prince of Rugia, among the participants. The document was published among other Magdeburg acts by Melchior Goldast (XVII century).
- 941 year. The attack of the Ross or Russ on Byzantium. The Greek authors Theophanes, the Successor of George Amartola and Simeon Magister (all in the middle of the 10th century) explain that the dews are “dromites” (i.e., migrants, migrating, fidgets) descending “from the family of the Franks”. In the Slavic translation of the Chronicle of George Amartol, the last phrase is translated as "from the Varangian family." Langobard Liudprand (c. 958) wrote a story in which he called the Rus "Northern people", whom the Greeks "in appearance call the Rus" (i.e., "Reds"), and the inhabitants of Northern Italy "by their location, the Normans." In Northern Italy, the “Normans” were called those living north of the Danube, in Southern Italy the Lombards themselves were identified with the northern Veneti.
- Until 944. The Jewish-Khazar correspondence of the 10th century mentions the “King of the Rus Halegva”, who first attacked the Khazars, and then, at their instigation, under Romanus Lekapinus (920-944) went to the Greeks, where he was defeated by Greek fire. Ashamed to return to his country, Khalegvu went to Persia (in another version - Thrace), where he died along with the army.
- 943-944 years. A number of eastern sources close to the events speak of a campaign of the Rus against Berdaa (Azerbaijan).
- 946 year. A document is dated this year, in which the Baltic Sea is called the “sea of ​​rugs”. A similar name is repeated in a document of 1150.
- Between 948-952. Konstantin Porphyrogenitus mentions Russia "near" and "far", and also gives a parallel designation of the names of the Dnieper rapids in Russian and in Slavonic.
- 954-960 years. The wounds-rugs act in alliance with Otto I, helping him in the subjugation of the rebellious Slavic tribes. As a result, all the tribes living by the sea "against Russia" were conquered. Similarly, Adam of Bremen and Helmold locate the island of the Rugs as lying "against the land of the Vilians".
- 959 year. An embassy to Otto I of “Queen of the Rugs Helena” (Olga), shortly before this, baptized by the Byzantine emperor Roman, with a request to send a bishop and priests. Libutius, a monk of the Mainz monastery, was appointed bishop of Russia. But Libutius died in 961. Instead of him, Adalbert was appointed, who made a trip to the Rugs in 961-962. The enterprise, however, ended in complete failure: the missionaries were expelled by the Rugs! The message about these events is described by the so-called Continuer of Reginon, behind which the researchers see Adalbert himself. In other chronicles, Russia is called instead of Rugiya.
- The middle of the X century. Masudi mentions the Russian River and the Russian Sea. In the view of Masudi, the Russian Sea - Pontus is connected to the Gulf of the Ocean (Baltic Sea), and the Rus are called islanders, who rotate a lot on ships.
- Second half of the 10th century. Compiled in Southern Italy, the Jewish collection Josippon (Joseph ben Gorion) places the Rus immediately on the shore of the Caspian Sea, and along the "Great Sea" - "Ocean" next to the Angles and Saxons. The confusion, apparently, was facilitated by the mention in the Caspian regions, in addition to the Rus, also of the Saksin people in a number of sources.
- 965 year. Ibn Yakub visited the German (Holy Roman) Empire on a diplomatic mission and met with Otto I. In the report on the trip (included in the work of the 11th century author al-Bekri), he gives a description of the Slavic lands and names the Rus, which border in the east with the possessions of the Polish Prince Mieszko, as well as from the west on ships attack the Prussians.
- 967 year. Pope John XIII, by a special bull authorizing the establishment of the Prague bishopric, forbade the involvement of priests from the Russian and Bulgarian people and worship in the Slavic language. The document is reproduced in the Chronicle of Cosmas of Prague (c. 1125) and also by Annalist Saxo (c. 1140).
- 968 year. Adalbert was approved by the Archbishop of Magdeburg. The letter reminds us that he used to go to the Rugs.
- 969 year. The Magdeburg annals call the inhabitants of the island of Rügen Russians.
- 968-969 years. Ibn Haukal and other Eastern authors talk about the defeat of the Volga Bulgaria and Khazaria by the Rus, after which the Rus army went to Byzantium and Andalusia (Spain). In the annals, these events are dated 6472-6473, which, according to the Constantinopolitan era, should indicate the years 964-965. But in the texts of the 10th century, another space era is often used, which differs by four years from the Constantinople era, and therefore the chronicle indicates the same dates as the Eastern sources. As for campaigns in Spain, we could talk about other Russians.
As can be seen from all these messages of the ancient Rus, Western historians often confused with the Normans (Varangians), because in those days the culture of the northern Rus and the Varangians was very similar (the ties between them were very close), and with the Letto-Lithuanian tribes this connection was even stronger, even the border between the Russians and the Prussians cannot be drawn.
So by 862, Ancient Russia was basically the same as after 862, only the difference was that during this period there was no strong single centralized state, and the principalities were tribal.
The state itself under the name "Kievan Rus" appeared after the conquest (subordination) of the Kyiv tribal state to another tribal state - Novgorod, and after the transfer of the capital from Novgorod the Great to Kyiv.

BEGINNING OF RUSSIA

This book is devoted to the political history of the Old Russian state, and therefore we do not touch on the complex issue of the origin of the Eastern Slavs, we do not give hypotheses about the area of ​​\u200b\u200btheir original habitat - about their "ancestral home", we do not consider the relationship of the Slavs with their neighbors, in a word, we do not touch on the prehistory of Russia. This is a special area of ​​knowledge - the lot of archaeologists, language historians, ethnographers.

Immediately before the emergence of the Old Russian state - in the 9th century - the East European Plain was inhabited mainly by Slavic, Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes. The lands of the Slavic tribe of the Polyans were located in the middle reaches of the Dnieper, in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bmodern Kyiv. To the east and northeast of the glades (from modern Novgorod-Seversky to Kursk) lived the northerners, to the west of Kyiv - the Drevlyans, and to the west of them - the Volhynians (Dulebs). Dregovichi lived in the south of modern Belarus, in the district of Polotsk and Smolensk - Krivichi, between the Dnieper and Sozh - Radimichi, in the upper reaches of the Oka - Vyatichi, in the area surrounding Lake Ilmen - Slovenia. The Finno-Ugric tribes included the Chud, who lived on the territory of modern Estonia and the regions adjacent to it; to the east, near Lake Beloye, the whole (ancestors of the Vepsians) lived, and further, to the southeast, between the Klyazma and the Volga, - Merya, in the lower reaches of the Oka - Murom, to the south of it - Mordovians. Baltic tribes - Yotvingians, Livs, Zhmuds - inhabited the territory of modern Latvia, Lithuania and northeastern regions of Belarus. The Black Sea steppes were the place of nomadic pastures of the Pechenegs, and then the Polovtsians. In the VIII-XI centuries. from the Seversky Donets to the Volga, and in the south, up to the Caucasus Range, the territory of the powerful Khazar Khaganate extended.

All this information is contained in the most valuable source on the ancient history of Russia - The Tale of Bygone Years. But it must be taken into account that the "Tale" was created at the beginning of the 12th century, and the annalistic collections preceding it (the Code of Nikon and the Initial Code) - in the 70s and 90s. 11th century Assumptions about more ancient chronicles cannot be reliably substantiated, and we have to admit that the chroniclers of the second half of the 11th-12th centuries. relied largely on oral traditions about events that took place one hundred and fifty to two hundred years before them. That is why in the presentation of the history of the 9th and 10th centuries. much is controversial and legendary, and the exact dates to which certain events are dated, apparently, were put down by the chronicler on the basis of some, perhaps not always accurate, calculations and calculations. This also applies to the first date mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years - 852.

852 - This year, the chronicler reports, the Russian land began to be "called" because it was in this year that the Byzantine emperor Michael began to reign, and under him "Rus came to Constantinople." In addition to the factual inaccuracy (Michael III ruled from 842 to 867), there is clearly a trace of some kind of legend in the message: they could not find out in Byzantium about the existence of Russia only after the attack of the Russians on its capital - the relations of the empire with the Eastern Slavs began long before that. Apparently, this campaign is the first event that the chronicler tried to correlate with the Christian chronology; only very vague reports have survived about earlier contacts of the Rus with Byzantium: at the end of the 8th-first quarter of the 9th century. the Rus attacked Surozh, a Byzantine colony in the Crimea; between 825 and 842 the Russian fleet devastated Amastrida - a city in the Byzantine province of Paphlagonia, in the north-west of the peninsula of Asia Minor; in 838-839 Russian ambassadors returning from Constantinople ended up passing through Ingelheim, the residence of Emperor Louis the Pious.

860 - In 860 (and not in 866, as the "Tale of Bygone Years" claimed), the Russian fleet approached the walls of Constantinople. Late historical tradition calls the Kyiv princes Askold and Dir the leaders of the campaign. Having learned about the attack of Russia, Emperor Michael returned to the capital from a campaign against the Arabs. Up to two hundred Russian boats approached Constantinople. But the capital was saved. According to one version, the prayer of the Greeks was heard by the Mother of God, revered as the patroness of the city; she sent down a storm that scattered the Russian ships. Some of them were thrown ashore or died, the rest returned home. It was this version that was reflected in the Russian chronicle. But in Byzantine sources, another version is also known: the Russian fleet left the vicinity of the capital without a fight. It can be assumed that the Byzantines managed to pay off the attackers.

862 - The chronicle claims that this year the tribes that lived in the north of the Russian plain - Chud, Slovene, Krivichi and the whole - called the Varangians (Swedes) from across the sea, led by Prince Rurik and his brothers Sineus and Truvor, inviting them to reign at them. “Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no order in it,” as if the Vikings were told by those sent to them. Rurik began to reign in Novgorod, Sineus in Beloozero, Truvor in Izborsk, that is, in the city centers of the tribes that invited them. In the above legend, much is debatable, much is naive, but it was used by Norman scientists to assert that the Russian state was created by the Varangian aliens. In reality, however, it could only be about inviting mercenary squads led by their leaders. The Russian state arose independently as a result of the internal development of the Slavic tribes.

879 - Rurik died, transferring, according to the PVL, the reign to his relative - Oleg - due to Igor's infancy. But this chronicle message is extremely doubtful: having accepted it, it is difficult to explain why Oleg's "regency" stretched out for more than three decades. It is characteristic that in the Novgorod First Chronicle, unlike the PVL, Oleg is not at all a prince, but Igor's governor. Therefore, it is most likely that the direct family ties of Rurik and Igor are a historiographical legend; we are talking about three completely independent princes who succeeded each other at the helm of power.

882 - Oleg moved from Novgorod to the south: he planted his governors in Smolensk and Lyubech (a city on the Dnieper, west of Chernigov), and then approached Kyiv, where, according to the chronicle, Askold and Dir reigned. Hiding the soldiers in the boats, Oleg introduced himself as a merchant, and when Askold and Dir came out of the city to him, he ordered them to be killed.

883 - Oleg went to the Drevlyans and forced them to pay tribute to Kyiv.

884 - Oleg imposed a tribute to the northerners, and in 886 - to the Radimichi.

907 - Oleg went on a campaign against Byzantium with 2000 ships. He approached the walls of Constantinople, received a significant ransom from the Byzantine emperors Leo VI and Alexander, as the chronicle claims, and returned to Kyiv.

912 - Oleg concluded an agreement with Byzantium, which stipulated the terms of trade, the status of Russians in Byzantium in the service, the ransom of prisoners, etc.

In the same year, Oleg dies. The chronicler offers two versions; according to one, Oleg died from a snake bite and was buried in Kyiv, according to another, a snake stung him when he was about to leave (or go hiking) “beyond the sea”; he was buried in Ladoga (now the city of Staraya Ladoga). Igor becomes Prince of Kyiv.

915 - For the first time in the vicinity of Russia, the Pechenegs appear - a nomadic people of Turkic origin.

941 - Igor's campaign against Byzantium. The Russians managed to devastate Bithynia, Paphlagonia and Nicomedia (Byzantine provinces in the north of the peninsula of Asia Minor), but, having been defeated in the battle with the Byzantine troops who came to the rescue, the Russians plunged into their boats and here at sea they suffered great damage from "Greek fire" - flamethrowers, with which Byzantine ships were equipped. Returning to Russia, Igor began to prepare for a new campaign.

944 - Igor's new campaign against Byzantium. Before reaching Constantinople, Igor received a rich ransom from the Byzantine ambassadors and returned to Kyiv.

945 - Byzantine co-emperors Roman, Constantine VII and Stephen sent ambassadors to Igor with a proposal to conclude a peace treaty. Igor sent his ambassadors to Constantinople, the agreement was concluded and sealed by the oaths of the emperors and Russian princes according to Christian and pagan rites.

In the same year, Igor was killed in the Drevlyane land. The chronicle tells that, having collected tribute from the Drevlyans, Igor sent most of the squad to Kyiv, and he himself decided to “look like more”, “wishing for more estates”. Hearing about this, the Drevlyans decided: “If a wolf gets into a sheep herd, then it carries the whole herd, if they don’t kill it, so does this one; If we don't kill him, he will destroy us all." They attacked Igor and killed him.

Igor's widow Olga cruelly avenged her husband's death. According to legend, she ordered the Drevlyan ambassadors who came with a proposal to marry their prince to be thrown into a pit and buried alive, other ambassadors were burned in a bathhouse, where they were invited to wash, and then, having come with a retinue to the Drevlyan land, Olga ordered to kill the Drevlyan soldiers in feast time for her husband. However, this story bears the features of a legend, since it has an analogy in the pagan funeral ritual: they buried in the boats, for the dead, according to the pagan rite, they heated the bath, trizna is an indispensable element of the funeral rite.

It was in The Tale of Bygone Years, in contrast to the Primary Chronicle that preceded it, that the story of Olga's fourth revenge was added; she burns the capital of the Drevlyans Iskorosten. Having collected pigeons and sparrows in the form of a tribute, Olga ordered lit tinder to be tied to the paws of the birds and released. Pigeons and sparrows flew to their nests, "and there was no courtyard where it did not burn, and it was impossible to extinguish, for all the courtyards caught fire," the chronicler claims.

946 - Olga makes a trip to Constantinople, and twice - on September 9 and October 18 - she was received with honor by Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus.

955 - Olga visits Constantinople a second time and converts to Christianity. In the annals, both journeys are merged into one, erroneously dated 957.

964 - The son and successor of Igor, Prince Svyatoslav, makes a trip to the land of the Vyatichi and frees them from tribute to the Khazars. A year later, Svyatoslav again goes to the Vyatichi and forces them to pay tribute to Kyiv.

965 - Chronicle sparingly mentions Svyatoslav's campaign against the Khazars, his victory over the Khazar ruler-Kagan. From other sources it is known that Svyatoslav, having defeated the Volga Bulgarians, went down the Volga to Itil, the capital of the kaganate, located in the Volga delta. Taking Itil, Svyatoslav moved to Semender (a city located in the Makhachkala region), passed through the Kuban to the coast of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, from there he went up the Don to Sarkel on boats, captured this fortress and founded the Belaya Vezha fortress in its place.

968 - At the request of the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus Phokas, supported by a generous payment of gold, Svyatoslav invades Danube Bulgaria and captures the capital of Bulgaria, Preslav.

Taking advantage of the absence of Svyatoslav, Kyiv, where the elderly Olga and her grandchildren were, is attacked by the Pechenegs. Only thanks to the ingenuity of the voivode Pretich, who came to the aid of the people of Kiev along the left bank of the Dnieper and posed as the voivode of the advanced regiment of Svyatoslav, was it possible to prevent the capture of Kyiv by the Pechenegs.

969 - Princess Olga dies.

970 - Svyatoslav imprisons his son Yaropolk in Kyiv. Another son - Oleg - he makes the Drevlyansk prince, the third - Vladimir (the son of Svyatoslav from the housekeeper Princess Olga - Malusha) - he sends to reign in Novgorod. Prince is accompanied by Malusha's brother Dobrynya, this historical person becomes the most famous character in Russian epics. In the same year, Svyatoslav attacked the Byzantine province of Thrace, reaching Arcadiopol.

971 - Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes attacks Svyatoslav, who was in Dorostol (on the Danube). After a three-month siege, the Greeks forced Svyatoslav to fight under the walls of the fortress. According to the chronicle, it was in this battle that Svyatoslav uttered his catch phrase; "We will not shame the Russian land, but we will lay down our bones, for the dead have no shame." The Greeks defeated Svyatoslav with difficulty and hurried to offer him peace.

972 - Svyatoslav, returning to Russia, was killed by the Pechenegs at the Dnieper rapids. The Pecheneg prince made a bowl from his skull.

977 - Yaropolk kills his brother Oleg.

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