Object and subject of lexicology

Units of the lexico-semantic system

Specificity of the lexico-semantic system

Main problems of lexicology

Sections of lexicology

Literature

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1. Object and subject of lexicology

Lexicology(gr. lexis'word', lexikos'vocabulary', logos‘teaching, science’) is a section of linguistics that studies vocabulary language (vocabulary) in his state of the art and historical development.

Sections of linguistics that study different tiers of the language system actually have two objects:

unit appropriate level, its nature and properties,

unit system, the relationship between these units.

Objects of lexicology- This

word as a lexical unit (LE),

vocabulary(vocabulary) as a collection of words, organized, structured in a certain way.

The word is an object of different linguistic disciplines. Each of them considers the word from a certain point of view, i.e. with a common object has its own thing:

studied in phonetics sound side the words,

in morphemic - structure the words,

word formation - ways of education words,

in morphology - grammatical forms and grammatical meanings the words,

in syntax - connection methods words and forms of words into phrases and sentences [SRYA, p. 165].

word like grammatical unit is a system of all its forms with their grammatical meanings; word like lexical a unit, or a dictionary unit, is a formally expressed system of all its lexical meanings [Russian Grammar, p. 453].

In lexicology, the word is considered

in the aspect of its subject-conceptual content

and as a unit of the vocabulary of a language.

Word wing , for example, is of interest here

but as title:

the organ of flight in birds, insects, and some mammals;

the carrier plane of an aircraft or other moving apparatus;

rotating blades of a windmill wheel;

tires over the wheel of a carriage, car, etc.;

side extension, outbuilding;

the extreme (right or left) part of the combat formation;

extreme (right or left) grouping of some organization.

b) how unit of the lexical system, which is in a certain relationship with other lexical units, for example, as part of Class names of body parts of a bird along with words tail, beak etc.

opposition grammatical forms of the word(word form) in the same meaning ( wing, wing, wing...) is an insignificant for lexicology. This is the subject of grammar.

On the contrary, the study of the similarity and difference between the semantic variants of the same word in the entire system of their forms ( wing, wing, wing...‘organ of flying’; wing, wing, wing...‘carrying plane’, etc.) is one of the most important tasks of lexicology [SRYA, p. 165].

However, when studying a word in lexicology, it is impossible to completely ignore grammar, since vocabulary and grammar are closely related.

1. Units of the lexico-semantic system

Word a sound or set of sounds that has meaning and employee name objects and phenomena of reality [SRYASH, p. 165].

It is fixed in the definition iconic nature words and his function.

The word, unlike the phoneme, is sign:

It also has a material side. sound or spelling(phonographic shell),

and the perfect side meaning.

Main function the words - nominative(lat. nominatio ‘naming, denomination’). Most words called objects, their attributes, quantity, actions, processes and are full-fledged, independent.

Words name not only specific objects, but also concepts about these objects that arise in the minds of the speakers.

With a word correlate all language units:

phonemes and morphemes form the structure of a word

phrases and suggestions are made up of words.

This gives reason to some scholars to say that the word is central unit of language.

Since the word is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, the term word polysemantic and indefinite: they denote

and words like vocabulary units(linguistic units);

and words like units of speech, text(words in specific meanings and specific grammatical forms).

For example, in a sentence Man is man's friend

three words in specific grammatical forms

and two words as dictionary units: Human and friend[Kodukhov, p. 184].

The word is called unambiguous words, and individual meanings ambiguous words.

To designate these different objects in lexicology, more precise terms are used.

The most general term is lexical item(LE)

Lexical unit is a unit of the lexical level of a language that has bilateral character, grammatical arrangement and performing nominative function.

Term lexical item is an generic in relation to terms lexeme and lexico-semantic variant:

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lexeme lexico-semantic

lexeme(gr. lé xis ‘word, expression’) is a unit of the lexical level of the language, which is a collection all forms and meanings of one word[≈ LES, p. 257; ERYA, p. 207].

Those. lexeme is bilateral unit:

lexeme = –––––––––––––––––––––––

plan of expression

less common narrower understanding of the term lexeme - only as expression plan units, which is a collection of all grammatical forms of a word. In this case, the lexical unit is a unity tokens and semes[ERYA, p. 207]:

sememe= content plan

LU = ––––––––––––––––––––––

lexeme= expression plan

Term lexeme usually used only in relation to words significant parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic variant(LSV) is one of the lexical meanings of a lexeme, expressed by a phonographic shell.

Otherwise: LSV– a lexeme in one of its meanings. Those. LSV is also bilateral unit. LSV of one lexeme

differ in their lexical meanings (LZ)

and coincide in form (sound and graphic expression).

For example, sleeve –

piece of clothing that covers the arm short sleeves);

offshoot of the main riverbed ( right arm of the Volga);

hose for supplying liquids, bulk or viscous substances, gases ( firehose).

All these values ​​are related semantic derivatives(native speakers are aware of the connection between these meanings), so word identity is not violated.

lexeme is a system of interconnected LSV:

lexeme = LSV 1 + LSV 2 + LSV 3

If the word definitely, it is represented one LSV:

stomp‘noise, sounds from kicks while walking’.

Term "lexical item" also used in relation to lexeme, and in relation to LSV if there is no need to differentiate them.

LE, lexeme and LSV are language units, because represent set of meanings and forms.

AT speeches these abstract units are implemented in concrete units, because selected every time one meaning and one the form:

Dress with shortsleeves .

Concrete implementation lexemes or LSV in speech (text) is called:

lex(a) (the term is not very common),

word form- a word in a certain grammatical form (the term came from grammar),

word usage is a relatively new term.

Lexicology- a section of the science of language that studies vocabulary (vocabulary of the language).
Lexicology differs significantly from phonetics and phonology. If phonetics and phonology study one-sided units that have only a plan of expression, then lexicology is two-sided units that have a plan of expression and a plan of content.
There are general, specific, historical, comparable and applied lexicology.
General lexicology establishes general patterns of structure, functioning and development of vocabulary.
Concrete lexicology studies the vocabulary of one language.
Historical lexicology deals with the history of vocabulary, the causes and patterns of its change.
Comparable lexicology examines the vocabulary of two or more languages ​​in order to identify structural and semantic similarities and differences between them or to derive common semantic patterns.
Applied lexicology studies the issue of the conclusion of dictionaries, translation, linguodidactics and culture of speech.

Such linguists; as M. T. Dolenko, I. Dotsyuk, A. G. Ivashchuk asserted that lexicology is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language. In the course of the modern Ukrainian language, the vocabulary system is considered only at the present stage of its development, i.e. in terms of synchronous characteristics:
a) lexical richness of the Ukrainian language;
b) word and concept and their relationship;
c) the main types of lexical meanings of words;
d) development and enrichment of the vocabulary;
e) the most important stylistic layers in the vocabulary of the language.

Zhovtobryuh M.A., Kulik B.M. say that our language consists of words. The word is one of the basic units of language. All other language units are somehow connected with the word.

The word is not just a form of materialized expression of the main thought, but a means of transforming impressions into a new subject of knowledge. "The word is for A. A. Potebnya, - the appointment to mediate between the new perception and the previous means of thought"

Speech sounds are always realized only in the basis; such elements of the language as the root, base, suffix, prefix, ending, can exist only in the presence of a word; phrases and sentences are made up of words, with the help of which a person draws up his thoughts and transmits them to other people. All the words used in a language make up its vocabulary, or its vocabulary. The section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language is called lexicology.

Kochergan, considering the issues of lexicology as a multifaceted science that studies the nature and essence of the word, its occurrence for change, the definition of the meaning of words and their use, the structure of the vocabulary, focuses on a wide range of lexicological problems, which led to the need to distinguish between lexicology in narrow and broad meanings .
Lexicology in the broad sense of the word includes the following sciences:
proper lexicology - the science of vocabulary;
semasiology is the science of the meaning of words. It is also called lexical semantics. The word semantics is very often used in the sense of "meaning". Some linguists call semasiology and semantics only the study of the meanings of words, but not other units of the language. However, recently semantics is understood as:
1) all content, information transmitted by the language or what its unit (morpheme, word);
2) a section of linguistics that studies this content, information.
3) onomasiology - a science that studies the processes of naming. It is also called the theory of nominations. Onomasiology is opposed to semasiology in direction, direction of research. If semasiology goes from designation (word) to meaning, then onomasiology conducts research from a thing or phenomenon to the thought of them and to their designation by linguistic means;
3) etymology - a science that studies the origin of words;
4) phraseology - the science of set phrases.
6) onomastics - the science of proper names, which consists of anthroponymy - the science of people's names and toponymy - the science of geographical names.
7) lexicography - the science of making dictionaries. Lexicology, as a separate section of linguistics, stood out from other sections, for example, grammar. Back in the first half of the twentieth century. some linguists, like, say, the American linguist Leonard Bloomfield and his school, believed that linguistics should not be concerned with semantics at all, which is really the core of lexicology.

A. D. Ponomareva interprets that linguistics is a complex science, since it studies the language from different points of view, at different levels, one of the sections of linguistics is lexicology, i.e. study of the vocabulary of the language. In lexicology, the word is studied not only by itself, but also in full connection with other words. Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language from the point of view of origin, from a historical point of view, in terms of use.

Conducted studies by Deauville that vocabulary is not a mechanical heap of words, but a system. The following facts point to its consistency:
- Separation of some units from other units of the same language, that is, the possibility of interpreting any word of the language, in other words of the same language;
- Possibility to describe the semantics of words using a limited number of elements - semantically the most important words, the so-called elementary words;
- Systematism and orderliness of the objective world, reflected in the vocabulary.

An important lexical unit that makes up the totality of all words is vocabulary.
At the beginning of the XIX century. in domestic linguistics, the first studies of vocabulary appeared, which was considered in the system. So A. A. Potebnya thoroughly processed the general theory of the word both in terms of form and in terms of content, urged scientists to study the semantic relations between words, the laws and rules of internal changes in groups of semantically related words.

Modern linguists continue to deal with this issue. So A. A. Buryachok states: "The systemic nature of vocabulary is manifested primarily in the systemic connections of the lexical meanings of words that form various semantic subsystems"

In the textbooks of the modern Ukrainian language, such a definition is given, vocabulary is a set of words used in speech, with which certain meanings are associated, fixed in public use. Vocabulary is one of the main components of the language, the least conservative element of the language system. In terms of comparison, it can be noted that the most conservative branch of the language is phonetics. The unit of vocabulary is the word. Outwardly, it is perceived as a sound, or a combination of sounds. However, not every sound, not every combination of sounds can be called a word. A word is a sound, or a complex of sounds, has a certain meaning and is used in speech as an independent whole.

A. T. Volokh and N. T. Chemirisov consider vocabulary somewhat differently. They define vocabulary as a set of words used in any language. In parallel with the term "vocabulary", the term "Vocabulary" is also used equivalently.

The modern Ukrainian language, like any other, has been formed over many epochs, gradually developing and improving in all its components. Vocabulary of the modern Ukrainian language is heterogeneous in its origin. A significant part of it, through the Old Russian language, inherited from the common Slavic language-base.

This article will focus on lexicology. What it studies, what it is, what sections it is divided into and what modes of action it has, we will consider here.

Introduction

Lexicology is a linguistic branch that studies vocabulary. We learned what lexicology studies, and now we will get acquainted with its general and particular parts. The latter is busy studying the lexical composition of a particular language. This science turned its attention to:

• the word and its meaning;
• word relationship system;
• historical facts, through which the vocabulary was formed in the modern sense;
• the existing difference of words according to the functional and stylistic character in various speech spheres.

Object and subject

The word serves as the object that lexicology studies. Another object of study is word formation and morphology. However, if in these branches of science the word is a means by which the grammatical structure and word-formation model, as well as language rules are studied, then in the science of lexicology the word is studied in order to understand the meaning of the word itself and the language vocabulary. It does not study individual linguistic units of oral speech, but, directly, the entire language system.

What does lexicology study in Russian? First of all, she is busy with the consideration of the Russian and Slavic languages, which had an active development in the course of historical events.

The subject of lexicology is

• The word, as part of the language, considered with the help of the theory of the word.
• The structure of the linguistic composition of words.
• Functionality of a lexical unit.
• Possible ways of replenishing the linguistic composition.
• Relationship with an extralinguistic type of activity, for example, with culture.

Main sections

Lexicology is a science that studies vocabulary, its basis. Science is quite extensive and has many sections, including:

• onomasiology - a section on the process of naming objects;
• semasiology - a section that studies the word and phrases, namely their meaning;
• phraseology - studies the vocabulary relationship between each other, and among themselves;
• onomastics - busy with the study of existing names;
• etymology - a section that drew attention to the historical origin of the word, also considers the abundance of vocabulary in general;
• lexicography - focused on the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries;
• stylistics is a section that studies the meaning of sayings and words of a connotative type.

general information

Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language, and the number of words in it cannot be counted. One, only seventeen-volume collection of the Dictionary of Modern R.Ya. includes more than 130,000 words, and the Oxford Dictionary contains over 300,000 words.

Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary of a language, which also includes obscure units of speech, such as agnonyms, which refer to words with an incomprehensible meaning.

Speech units that are used frequently are part of the language's active vocabulary. There are frequency dictionaries with which you can determine frequently used words. However, there is the concept of a passive dictionary, which includes language elements that carry information about something, but are used relatively rarely. Such words belong to a limitedly used vocabulary - a dialect, professional or slang word.

Replenishment of the vocabulary

We have learned what lexicology studies, and now we will turn our attention to the ways in which the vocabulary is replenished.

The phenomenon of borrowing vocabulary from the languages ​​of other peoples is one of the main such ways. Taken long ago, foreign words are now considered native Russian. However, very often this is not the case, an example of this is the unit of speech - bread, which came into the Russian language from German. Due to borrowing, the original meaning of the word may change.

Another way of enriching lexical components is the formation of a new set of words. Such components of speech are called neologisms.

The further development of the fate of new words can be varied: some lose their novelty and become fixed among other elements of the language, others can be considered new formations created by an individual author (occasionalisms). The expansion of the boundaries of vocabulary also occurs due to the development of a new range of meanings for words that have been known for a long time and well.

Words that have sunk into oblivion

Lexicology studies words, among which obsolete units of the language are also considered. Due to the influence of time on the word, by the way, it goes out of use. This can be observed, for example, with the disappearance of an object or phenomenon that was often used before. These words are called historicisms. The disappearance of such a word also leads to the loss of the realities that it carries in itself, however, sometimes the realities themselves do not disappear, but are renamed and called archaisms.

Vocabulary - as a mobile type system

Vocabulary is like a system capable of promotion. This allows us to determine that words have a variety of relationships with each other for various semantic reasons. Such words include synonyms - speech units that have a difference in form, but are close to each other in meaning.

There are words that are interconnected by the presence of a common cause in the opposite meaning - antonyms. They point to opposite "things". The opposite meaning of one speech unit is called enantiosemy. An example would be the phrases: "listen" in the sense of the phrase "listen carefully", and in the sense of "leave a deaf ear".

The connection of words can be expressed in the form. Almost every language carries words that have an external identity, can have different meanings. An example is the variety of meanings of the word - braid, which can be both an agricultural tool and a braid of hair. These types of words are called homonyms.

Homonyms, in turn, include different types of differences of the same character. If language units coincide in the “form” of sounding only if there are separate reasons, then such words are called homoforms. Words that coincide in spelling but differ in sound led to the creation of the term - homograph. If the pronunciation is the same, but the spelling is different, then this word is called a homophone.

Paronyms include similar words, but having a difference in identity according to the characterized parameters of form and meaning. They also perfectly show us the essence of the formal form of communication.

There is a concept of interlingual homonyms and paronyms. Such words have a formal similarity, but in different languages ​​they can have many meanings. They are called "false friends of translators".

Lexical units

Lexicology, as a branch of linguistics, studies the vocabulary components of any language, and knows that they have a huge variety and heterogeneity. There are categories that have been singled out due to the presence in them of special distinctive outlines. In the lexicology of the Russian language, the following set of subspecies is foreseen:

• according to the areas of application, they are divided into: a commonly used type of words and units of vocabulary, which are used in the event of a confluence of special circumstances in science, poetry, vernacular, dialect, etc .;
• by the value of the emotional load, which include units of speech, colored by emotional or neutral "color";
• in accordance with historical development, divided into archaisms and neologisms;
• according to the history of origin and development, divided into internationalism, borrowing, etc.;
• in accordance with the functionality - vocabulary units of active and passive type;

Given the continuous development of languages, what lexicology considers includes insurmountable boundaries of study, constantly expanding and changing.

Lexical problems

In this science there is a concept of some problems, the study of which it is busy. Among them are:

1. Structural issues that decide the form of perception of the word, the structural basis of its elements.
2. A semantic problem occupied with the study of the question of the meaning of a lexical unit.
3. Functional problems of the general system of language, investigating the role of words and speech units in the language itself.

Speaking about the first problem, and the aspect of development, we can summarize that this science is busy establishing specific criteria by which it is possible to determine the differences and the identity of a separate series of words. To avoid this, a lexical unit is compared with a phrase, while a structure for analysis is developed that allows one to establish the invariance of words.

The semantic problem expresses itself as a question of semasiology - a science that studies the relationship between words and specific objects. In lexicology, this is one of the extremely important objects of study. Its study is focused on the meaning of the word, its individual categories and types, which make it possible to create terms: monosymy (uniqueness) and polysymmy (polysemy). Lexicology tries to explore cause-and-effect relationships that lead to losses or the emergence of new meanings for words.

The functional problem tries to study a lexical unit, in the form of an object, which is associated with another similar element and creates a complete language system. In this understanding, the role of the interaction of grammar with vocabulary is considered extremely important. They can both support and limit each other.

findings

We determined that lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language, its structure, disappearing units of speech, such as historicisms, for example, built an idea of ​​the meaning of words. Considered their types and variations, identified the problems of this science. Thanks to this, we can summarize that its importance cannot be overestimated, since it is extremely important for the general system of the language and tracking trends in its development.

Topic 1: Lexicology as a science. Word. Polysemy and types of lexical meanings. Place of proper names in the lexical system. Ideographic division and systematization of vocabulary.

Vocabulary- a set of words as designations for objects, phenomena and concepts, forming the vocabulary of a given language. Vocabulary is the subject of the science of lexicology.

Lexicology(from lexis - "word, expression", logos - "teaching") - this is a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of the language, or vocabulary. Lexicology is interested in the word as a dictionary unit that has a certain lexical and subject meaning, and has a system of inflectional forms. Unlike phonetics and grammar, lexicology is interested in the subject content of the word - lexical meaning.

object study is word. Since vocabulary is not just a sum of words, but a certain system of mutually related and interconnected facts, lexicology appears as a science not about individual words, but about the lexical system of the language as a whole.

Lexicology

Semasiology (semantics): deals with the study of any linguistic signs relating to all levels of language (“what a word means”).	Counter onomasiological and semasiological description fixes LU in the system.	Onomasiology (designation theory) - studies the processes of nominating objects and concepts by lexical means and types of verbal units (“what word expresses this meaning”).
Aspects of lexicology: General: studies the vocabulary of different languages, reveals universals and general patterns. Private: explores the vocabulary of one language. Descriptive (synchronous): studies vocabulary that coexists at the same time. Historical (diachronic): studies vocabulary in the process of formation and development. Comparative: the vocabulary of different languages ​​is compared to identify similarities and differences. Practical: necessary for practical mastery of the language. Theoretical: provides scientific coverage of concepts.	Sections of lexicology: Semantics: the science of the content plan of language units. Phraseology: the science of stable combinations of words. Etymology: branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words. Lexicography: theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.

Word- the main unit of the language independently correlated by the lexico-grammatical class, which contains a set of lexical meanings traditionally assigned to it and serves to nominate objects of reality, form thoughts and transmit messages as part of sentences.

Word- a material unit, inextricably linked with thinking. Consists of sounds that are transmitted by letters in writing. Our sense organs perceive this shell of the word, its material real-life form, its phonetic and graphic structure. The word materializes the concept - one of the forms of reflection of the world, i.e. result of human consciousness in general.

Word features:

1. Sign independence words is manifested in the fact that the word is always a grammatically formed unit, i.e. always a part of speech.

2. The word has a sign wholesomeness, which distinguishes it from a phrase. If limpiadeientes (toothpick) is written separately, you get a phrase with a meaning.

3. Word identified as similar in all its forms, varieties and variations.

The term is worth mentioning. lexeme- a word as a unit of the vocabulary of a language in the aggregate of its specific grammatical forms and inflections expressing them, as well as possible semantic variants. A word that does not have a paradigm is not a lexeme.

The words trabajo / trabaja are two words, but one lexeme. Mujer / mujerccita = two words but one token. Niño mimado = one token of two tokens.

4. A word can have options a special kind: a common root part and the same semantic content, preserving the identity of the word (the ability to reproduce it in all forms and acts of speech without losing the content fixed in the minds of the speakers).

Territorial variability contributes to the emergence of phonetic variants (yeismo).

In Spanish, there are phonetic-spelling variants: words with the same meaning and different stress: aloe - aloe, beisbol - béisbol, etc.

Spelling options: ceta - zeda, biftek - bifstek.

Morphological variants: vuelto - vuelta, puerto - puerta.

Lexicology is mainly concerned with the study of significant parts of speech, since the auxiliary parts of speech are deprived of syntactic independence, having no paradigmatic forms. They only convey the relationship between the phenomena of reality, and in terms of language - the relationship between parts of speech.

Parameter name	Meaning
Article subject:	Lecture number 2.
Rubric (thematic category)	Lexicology

Connection of lexicology with other branches of linguistics.

subject of lexicology.

subject of lexicology. The word as a unit of lexicology.

Lecture number 1.

1. The subject of lexicology.

2. Connection of lexicology with other sections of linguistics.

3. The word as the basic unit of the Russian language.

The branch of the science of language that studies the lexical system is usually called lexicology(from the Greek lexikos - dictionary and logos - teaching). The study of the lexical system as a form of organization of the interaction of words is engaged in descriptive, or synchronous(from Greek syn - together and chronos - time), and historical, or diachronic(from Greek dia - through and chronos - time), lexicology. The subject of descriptive lexicology is vocabulary in its current state. Historical lexicology considers vocabulary in its origin and development. Both of these aspects of the study of the lexical system are closely related, since for a correct understanding of the vocabulary of a modern language, information on the history of its formation is necessary, and the current state of the vocabulary is one of the important sources for studying its history.

Tasks of lexicology. The subject of lexicology is the word, with which all other units of the language are somehow connected: phonemes, morphemes, phrases, sentences. For this reason, the word is studied not only in lexicology, but also in other sections of linguistics (in phonetics, word formation, morphology, syntax), but it is considered differently in these sections.

Phonetics explores the sound side of words and its meaning. Word formation studies the patterns of word creation. The object of morphology is grammatical meanings, grammatical forms and grammatical categories. In syntax, the word is considered from the point of view of its participation in the construction of phrases and sentences.

Lexicology studies the word as a linguistic element of the lexical system. Hence, its tasks include: a) clarification of the semantic structure of the word (polysemy - homonymy); b) revealing the relationship of various semantic series of words (synonymy and antonymy); c) determining the place of the word in the lexical system of the language in terms of functional and stylistic (stylistically neutral, bookish and colloquial vocabulary), spheres of use (general, dialect, special, colloquial and slang vocabulary), origin (original Russian, Old Slavonic and foreign language vocabulary), active and passive stock (archaisms, historicisms and neologisms).

Lexicology is closely related to other linguistic disciplines: semasiology, etymology, dialectology, stylistics and lexicography.

Semasiology(Greek semasia - meaning and logos - teaching) studies the meanings of words, as well as the change in these meanings. In the first case, semasiology is included in descriptive lexicology, and in the second case, in historical lexicology. Etymology (Greek etumo1ogia - truth, original meaning) deals with the study of the origin of words and their significant parts and, therefore, is a branch of historical lexicology. Dialectology (Greek dialectos - dialect and 1ogos - teaching) analyzes local dialects, incl. and their vocabulary. The data of dialectology are used by lexicology in elucidating the spheres of functioning of vocabulary. Stylistics (French Greek stylas - a writing stick from the ancient Greeks) studies ways to use language tools to accurately express thoughts and achieve the goals of communication in a certain area, under certain conditions. This section of linguistics is directly related to lexicology, since it studies all the means of expression available in the language, incl. and vocabulary. Lexicography (Greek lexilcon - dictionary and grapho - I write) is engaged in the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries that contain a description of vocabulary. Therefore, there is a connection between lexicology and lexicography.

What has been said about the connection of lexicology with other branches of the science of language will be illustrated with a concrete example. Yes, in a word soar semasiology will define the following meanings: a) to stay, to be: And here a swarm of birds and insects soars through the air (Derzh.); b) live, dwell somewhere : Fluffy animals hover in the wilderness of dense forests (Kar.); c) to be in a dreamy state, not noticing the surroundings: Soar in the clouds, in the empyrean, between heaven and earth. Etymology will find out that this word came into Russian from the Old Slavonic language, where it sounded vitati, and associated with words dwell, - abode, vital - hotel. The stylistics will indicate that the given word is obsolete in the first meaning, and stylistically colored (bookish) in the second; the characteristic of a given word is recorded in dictionaries: all meanings and stylistic marks are indicated in explanatory and phraseological dictionaries, the origin - in etymological dictionaries. Lexicology will consider all the features of a given word listed above: its meaning, stylistic functions, areas of use, origin. A comprehensive description of the word helps to determine the literary norms of its use.

Consequently, in lexicology, words are studied from the point of view of their semantic meaning, place in the general system of vocabulary, origin, use, scope in the process of communication and their stylistic coloring.

3. The word as the basic unit of the Russian language.

Like any other language, Russian as a means of communication is the language of words. From words that act separately or as components of phraseological units, they are formed using grammatical rules and sentence laws. Words in the language designate specific objects and abstract concepts, express human emotions, will, are called ʼʼgeneral, abstract categories of existential relationsʼʼ, etc. Thus, the word acts as the main unit of the language.

Despite the undoubted reality of the word as a separate linguistic phenomenon, despite the bright signs inherent in it, it is difficult to define. This is due primarily to the variety of words from the structural, grammatical and semantic points of view (cf .: table, goodwill, write, black; sofa bed, five hundred; at, since, only, probably; scat! oh!; say, out, it's getting light etc.).

It is possible to give a correct definition of a word only if all the main differential features of the word are organically reflected, sufficient to distinguish it from other linguistic units.

The word differs from phonemes two-dimensionality , since it always acts as an organic unity of sound and meaning. From phrases (including from stable phrases, i.e. phraseological units), words must be differentiated accentologically : they are either unstressed or have only one main stress.

From morphemes (significant parts of the word), the word is delimited primarily by its lexico-grammatical relatedness , i.e. belonging to a certain part of speech. From prepositional-case combinations, words are primarily distinguished by their impenetrability.

One of the basic properties of words existing in the language is their reproducibility , which consists in the fact that they are not created in the process of communication, but are retrieved from memory or any speech context in the form of a single structural-semantic whole. At the same time, this feature in itself cannot be considered sufficient for differentiating words from other linguistic units: 1) reproducibility is also characteristic of morphemes and phraseological units and, moreover, even for sentences, as long as they coincide in composition with a word or phraseological unit, 2) in the process of speech, words may appear that are not reproducible, but created morphemic combinations.

It is important to note that the word is characterized phonetic arrangement (and also, of course, graphic, if the given language has, in addition to the oral form, a written one). A word is always a certain sound, consisting of at least one phoneme.

There are very few single-phonemic words in Russian, except for the names of phonemes existing in it and six letters (a, u, o, u, uh, s), this includes: unions a, u, particles a, u pretext y, interjections a, u, o, u, uh, a also prepositions o, in, to, c (in certain cases, they can act as two-phonemic about, in, to, with). They can also act as one-phonemic particles b, particle well, union well, particle l, in its main form used as two-phonemic. All other words are one or another sound complexes.

The only case of the absence of phonetic formalization in the Russian language is observed in the designation of one of the forms of the copula, in other forms acting as materially expressed (cf .: Father is a teacher; Father was a teacher; Father will be a teacher). In this case, the separability of the materially unexpressed (it is called the zero) ligament as a significant unit of the language, the reality of its existence as a linguistic fact is realized against the background of materially expressed formations that are homogeneous in their function and use.

The phonetic formality characteristic of a word is expressed in the fact that any lexical unit (if it is not a completely unlearned foreign word or a neologism created without taking into account orthoepic norms) always acts as a sound structural unity that corresponds to the phonological norms of a given language systemʼʼ. A characteristic feature of the phonetic design of the Russian word is non-double-strike , since it is this property that makes it possible to clearly distinguish adjacent phenomena of vocabulary and phraseology. A word, in contrast to a phraseological phrase, always acts either as unstressed or as having one main accent. If we have a unit (even if it is not semantically and grammatically divided and single) that has two basic stresses, then this is obviously not a word, but a more complex formation: a phraseological phrase or a free combination of words.

No less important is another property of the word - its semantic valence . There is not a single word in the language that has no meaning. Every word is ϶ᴛᴏ not only a certain sound, but also one or another meaning. This is what the word differs from the phoneme - a sound that can distinguish the sound shell of words and morphemes, but does not have a meaning.

The property of the word, which is absent from the morpheme, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ is its distinguishing feature, - lexico-grammatical relatedness . Morphemes, existing as a further indivisible meaningful whole in a word, do not have lexical and grammatical relatedness. Οʜᴎ act as significant parts, devoid not only of the property of any morphological form, but also of any kind of attachment to a certain lexical and grammatical category. As parts of a word, morphemes are completely incapable of syntactic use and, being used in a sentence, they immediately turn into words, acquiring bright and undoubted morphological features of a noun. Service words are closest to morphemes; their meanings are very ʼʼformalʼʼ, they have no grammatical formality. At the same time, official words (including prepositions) appear before us as undoubted words.

Indirectly and reflected (but very effectively) in delimiting function words from morphemes (especially just prepositions), the property helps the researcher impenetrability words, which is one of the most striking features of a word, in contrast to prepositional combinations, free combinations of words and individual categories of phraseological units that are semantically equivalent to a word. After all, if a word as a morphemic whole is impenetrable, then meaningful units, between which free verbal ʼʼinsertsʼʼ are possible, are words, and only words, but by no means morphemes. And vice versa, meaningful units, between which free verbal insertions are impossible, are not separate words, representing either parts of a word, that is, morphemes, or parts of a phraseological phrase.

The property of impenetrability is absolutely characteristic of all words: it is impossible to insert words (and even more so combinations of words) inside words in Russian.

To clarify the essence of a word as a specific linguistic unit, no less important than solving the problem of the separateness of a word is also solving the question of its identity. It is important to establish not only what a word is in relation to other units of the language, but also where we have one and the same word, and where different words. Here, first of all, a clear line should be drawn between such concepts as: 1) words and word forms and 2) word forms and word variants.

Under the forms of the word, it is most expedient to understand such varieties of it that differ only in grammatical features and are related as dependent, secondary to the same, acting as the main, source. All other varieties of the word are better (and, I think, more accurately) characterized as different versions of the word.

Naturally, only such formations are varieties of a word, the basis of which necessarily consists of the same morphemes. It is impossible to attribute to varieties of the same word such formations as palatalized - palatalized, seminar - seminary, idiomatic - idiomatic, fox - fox, laughter - laughter, sunflower - sunflower, purification - cleaning, girlish - girlish, weaken - weaken, unbearable - unbearable, sorry - sorry etc. All such formations are, in relation to each other, single-root synonyms, i.e., although related, but different words.

In all cases, if the word has several forms, one of them acts as the main, original, and all the rest - as dependent on it. Such basic, initial forms are the forms of the nominative case in names, the infinitive in the verb, etc. Their ʼʼgeneralʼʼ character in relation to other correlative forms is manifested in the fact that they act, firstly, as nominative forms, which are the name of some phenomenon of reality, and secondly, as generating forms, on the basis of which, with rare exceptions, the production of new lexical units is carried out using the morphological method of word formation. In addition, the ʼʼgeneralʼʼ character of the main, original form of the word (and this is especially important for understanding the essence of the word and formulating its definition) also affects the fact that in the Russian language there is not a single word whose main, original form would be analytical, m, i.e. would consist of two. It is this circumstance that makes it possible to clearly define the accentological differences between a word and a phrase and phraseological unit, since in its original form the word never has two basic stresses.

Taking into account the ʼʼgeneralʼʼ nature of the original, main form in a number of other forms of the word makes it easy to solve, in particular, the problem of such formations in the Russian language as I will write, the best etc., clearly demonstrating (as well as words like sofa bed) the inconsistency of the criterion of wholeness for Russian words in all their structural and grammatical diversity. Indeed, in such cases, we pepper words that do not consist of structurally grammatically unformed morphemes, but of two separately formed words.

What has been said above about the word as a linguistic unit allows us to give a working definition of the word in the following formulation: word - ϶ᴛᴏ is a linguistic unit that has (if it is not unstressed) in its original form one main stress and has meaning, lexical and grammatical relatedness and impenetrability.

Lecture number 2. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Lecture No. 2." 2017, 2018.