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The emergence of Slavic writing in Russia

The progenitor of all Slavic languages: eastern (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian), western (Polish, Czech, Slovak), southern (Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian) is the Proto-Slavic language. About five thousand years ago, it stood out from the common Indo-European base language.

The progenitor of the language of the ancient Eastern Slavs was the common Eastern Slavic or Old Russian language, which about one and a half thousand years ago stood out from the Proto-Slavic language. This language is called Old Russian because the Eastern Slavs, having created an independent state - Kievan Rus, formed a single Old Russian nationality. From it, approximately in the XIV-XV centuries, three nationalities stood out: Russian (or Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Russian language belongs to the East Slavic group of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European family of languages.

In the history of the Russian language, two periods can be conditionally distinguished: prehistoric or pre-literate (before the 11th century) and historical (from the 11th century to the present day). The first monuments of East Slavic writing date back to the 11th century. The historical period in the development of the Russian language can be represented as follows:

Common East Slavic (Old Russian) language (from the 11th to the 14th centuries);

The language of the Great Russian (Russian) people (XV - XVI centuries);

Russian national language (XVII - early XIX century);

Modern Russian language.

The main sources in the study of the history of the Russian language are its ancient written monuments. The question of the time of the emergence of writing in Russia has not yet been finally resolved. It is traditionally believed that writing in Russia arose with the adoption of Christianity, that is, in the 10th century.

However, there are documents confirming that the Eastern Slavs knew the letter even before the baptism of Russia and that the Old Russian letter was alphabetic. In the legends of the Chernorizian Khrabr “On Writings” (end of IX - beginning of X century) it is reported that “before, I didn’t have books, but with features and cuts chtahu and reptile”.

The emergence of this primitive pictographic writing (“features and cuts”) is attributed by researchers to the first half of the 1st millennium AD. e. Its scope was limited: the simplest counting signs in the form of dashes and notches, generic and personal signs of property, signs for divination, calendar signs that served to indicate the timing of the start of various agricultural work, pagan holidays, etc. Such a letter was unsuitable for writing complex texts. After baptism, handwritten books appeared in Russia, written in the Old Slavonic language, brought here from Byzantium and Bulgaria. Then Old Russian books began to be created, written according to Old Slavonic models, and later Russian people began to use the alphabet taken from the southern Slavs in business correspondence.

Slavic writing had two alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. The name Glagolitic comes from the Slavic word verbal - to speak. The second alphabet was named Cyrillic after one of the two brothers - Slavic enlighteners who lived in the 9th century on the territory of present-day Bulgaria, the compilers of the first Slavic alphabet.

Cyril (his secular name is Konstantin) and Methodius were monks. To write church books, they (mainly Cyril) created an alphabetic system of thirty-eight letters based on the signs of the Greek alphabet. The letters were supposed to reflect the finest nuances of Slavic sounds. This system became known as the Glagolitic. It is assumed that the work on the creation of the Glagolitic alphabet was completed in 863. After their death, the brothers were canonized as saints and they are always depicted together on the icon. In Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, there is a monument to Cyril and Methodius, it is installed in front of the building of the National Library, which bears their name. In Moscow, there is also a monument to the great Slavic enlighteners, erected in 1992. The sculptural composition (the work of the sculptor V.M. Klykov) is located in the center of Moscow on Slavyanskaya Square (at the beginning of Ilyinsky Square, which leads to the Polytechnic Museum and the monument to the heroes of Plevna). The Day of Slavic Literature and Culture is celebrated in Russia on May 24.

The Glagolitic alphabet, which did not last long in Russia, did not remain unchanged. A distinction is made between an older Glagolitic alphabet with characteristic round elements (most of the monuments of the 10th-11th centuries that have come down to us were written by it) and a later one with an angular one. The Glagolitic alphabet, which during the XIII - XVI centuries (longer than all other Slavs) was used by the Croats, is distinguished by a particularly pronounced angularity.

The oldest surviving Glagolitic inscription with exact dating dates back to 893 and was made in the church of the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon in Preslav. The oldest handwritten monuments (including the Kiev Leaflets dating back to the 10th century) are written in the Glagolitic script. The Glagolitic monument of the 11th century is the Baščany plate (deed of gift of the Croatian king Zvonimir), which is located in the church of St. Lucy near the town of Baska on the island of Krk (lat. Curicta). The main writing material in those days was parchment. It was quite an expensive writing material, so they often resorted to using an old book to write a new text. For this purpose, the old text was washed away or scraped off, and a new one was written on it. Such a text is called a palimpsest. Among the known palimpsests there are Cyrillic manuscripts written in washed out Glagolitic, but there is not a single Glagolitic monument written in washed out Cyrillic.

In separate literature, there is an opinion that the Glagolitic script was founded by Constantine (Cyril) the Philosopher on the ancient Slavic runic script, which was allegedly used for sacred pagan and secular purposes before the adoption of Christianity in the ancient Slavic states. There is no evidence for this, as well as for the existence of "Slavic runes".

At the end of the 9th and beginning of the 10th centuries, the followers of the Slavic enlighteners created a new Slavic alphabet based on the Greek one. To convey the phonetic features of the Slavic language, it was supplemented with letters borrowed from the Glagolitic alphabet. The letters of the new alphabet required less effort when writing, had clearer outlines. This alphabet was widely spread among the Eastern and Southern Slavs and later received the name Cyrillic in honor of Cyril (Konstantin) - the creator of the first Slavic alphabet. In Ancient Russia, both alphabets were known, but the Cyrillic alphabet was mainly used, and the monuments of the Old Russian language were written in Cyrillic. Cyrillic letters denoted not only speech sounds, but also numbers. Only under Peter I, Arabic numerals were introduced to denote numbers.

The Cyrillic alphabet gradually changed: the number of letters decreased, their style was simplified. Yusy (large and small), xi, psi, fita, izhitsa, zelo, yat were eliminated from the alphabet. But they introduced the letters e, d, i into the alphabet. The Russian alphabet was gradually created (from the initial letters of the Old Slavic alphabet - az, beeches) or the alphabet (the names of two Greek letters - alpha, vita). At present, there are 33 letters in our alphabet (of which 10 are used to designate vowels, 21 - consonants and 2 characters - ъ and ь).

In Cyrillic writing, capital letters were used only at the beginning of a paragraph. A large capital letter was intricately painted, so the first line of a paragraph was called red (that is, a beautiful line). Old Russian handwritten books are works of art, they are so beautifully, masterfully designed: bright multi-colored initial letters (capital letters at the beginning of a paragraph), brown columns of text on pinkish-yellow parchment. Emeralds and rubies were ground into the smallest powder, and paints were prepared from them, which are still not washed off and do not fade. The initial letter was not only decorated, its very outline conveyed a certain meaning. In the initial letters you can see the bend of the wing, the tread of the beast, the plexus of roots, the windings of the river, the contours of the sun and the heart. Each letter is individual, unique.

Another element of decoration of handwritten books were illustrations. The State Historical Museum in Moscow has a collection of miniatures - illustrations from handwritten books of the 15th-17th centuries. So, in Karion Istomin's "Primer" of 1693 (the first illustrated Russian textbook), each letter of the alphabet was accompanied by drawings.

Most of the written monuments of the pre-Mongolian period perished during numerous fires and foreign invasions. Only a small part has survived - only about 150 books. The oldest of them are the Ostromir Gospel, written by deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1057, and two Izborniks by Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich of 1073 and 1076. The high level of professional skill with which these books were executed testifies to the well-established production of handwritten books already in the first half of the 11th century, as well as to the skills of “book construction” that had been established by that time.

The correspondence of books was carried out mainly in monasteries. However, in the XII century. the craft of "book descriptors" began to develop in large cities. Many princes kept copyists of books, and some of them copied books themselves. Of the 39 scribes of the 11th century known to us by name. only 15 belonged to the clergy, the rest did not indicate their affiliation to the church. Nevertheless, the main centers of literacy continued to be monasteries and cathedral churches, in which there were special workshops with permanent teams of scribes. Here not only books were copied, but also chronicles were kept, original literary works were created, foreign books were translated. One of the leading centers of book learning was the Kiev Caves Monastery, which developed a special literary trend that had a great influence on the literature and culture of Ancient Russia. According to chronicles, already in the XI century. in Russia, at monasteries and cathedral churches, there were libraries that had up to several hundred books. russian cyrillic language writing

Birch bark letters are a clear evidence of the wide spread of literacy in cities and suburbs. In 1951, during archaeological excavations in Novgorod, a birch bark with well-preserved letters was removed from the ground. Since then, hundreds of birch bark letters have been found, indicating that in Novgorod, Pskov, Vitebsk, Smolensk, and other cities of Russia, people loved and knew how to write to each other. Among the letters are business, including legal, documents, exchange of information, invitations to visit, and even love correspondence.

There remains one more curious evidence of the development of literacy in Russia - graffiti inscriptions. They were scratched on the walls of churches by lovers to pour out their souls. Among these inscriptions are reflections on life, complaints, and prayers. So, Vladimir Monomakh, while still a young man, during a church service, lost in a crowd of the same young princes, scrawled on the wall of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv: “Oh, it’s hard for me” - and signed his Christian name Vasily.

Chronicles are one of the most important monuments and writings. Only the most literate, knowledgeable, wise people, who were able not only to present different cases year after year, but also to give them an appropriate explanation, to leave posterity a clear vision of the era, took up the compilation of chronicles, that is, the presentation of events over the years. Chronicle was a matter of state, princely. Therefore, the order to compile a chronicle was given not only to the most literate and intelligent person, but also to someone who would be able to carry out ideas close to one or another princely house. The first chronicle was compiled at the end of the 10th century. It was intended to reflect the history of Russia before the reign of Vladimir with his impressive victories, with the introduction of Christianity. The second chronicle was created under Yaroslav the Wise at the time when he united Russia, laid the church of St. Sophia. This chronicle absorbed the previous chronicle and other materials. The compiler of the next annalistic code acted not only as the author of the newly written parts of the annals, but also as the compiler and editor of the previous entries. His ability to direct the idea of ​​the chronicle in the right direction was highly valued by the Kievan princes.

The code, which went down in history under the name "The Tale of Bygone Years", was created in the first decade of the 12th century. at the court of Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. Most historians consider the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor to be the author of this set. In the first lines, the chronicler posed the question: “Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first to reign in Kyiv, and where did the Russian land come from?” Thus, already in these first words of the chronicle, it is said about the large-scale goals that the author has set for himself. Using the previous sets, documentary materials, including, for example, the treaties of Russia with Byzantium, the chronicler unfolds a wide panorama of historical events that cover both the internal history of Russia - the formation of an all-Russian statehood with a center in Kyiv, and the international relations of Russia with the outside world.

A whole gallery of historical figures takes place on the pages of The Tale of Bygone Years - princes, boyars, posadniks, thousands, warriors, merchants, church leaders. It tells about military campaigns and the organization of monasteries, the laying of new churches and the opening of schools, about religious disputes and reforms. Constantly concerns Nestor and the life of the people as a whole, their moods, expressions of discontent. On the pages of the annals, we read about uprisings, the murders of princes and boyars, and cruel public fights. The author describes all this thoughtfully and calmly, trying to be objective, as much as a deeply religious person can be objective, guided in his assessments by the concepts of Christian virtue and sin. Murder, betrayal, deceit, perjury Nestor condemns, extols honesty, courage, fidelity, nobility, and other wonderful human qualities. The entire chronicle was imbued with a sense of the unity of Russia, a patriotic mood. All the main events in it were evaluated not only from the point of view of religious concepts, but also from the standpoint of these all-Russian state ideals.

With the political collapse of Russia and the rise of individual Russian centers, the annals began to fragment. In addition to Kyiv and Novgorod, their own chronicles appeared in Smolensk, Pskov, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Ryazan, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl. Each of them reflected the peculiarities of the history of their region, their own princes came to the fore. So, the Vladimir-Suzdal chronicles showed the history of the reigns of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest; Galician chronicle of the beginning of the XIII century. became, in essence, a biography of the prince-warrior Daniel of Galicia; the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich were narrated mainly by the Chernihiv chronicle. And yet, in this local chronicle, all-Russian cultural sources were clearly visible. Some local chronicles continued the tradition of Russian chronicle writing in the 11th century. So, at the turn of the XII - XIII centuries. in Kyiv, a new annalistic code was created, which reflected the events that took place in Chernigov, Galich, Vladimir-Suzdal Rus, Ryazan and other Russian cities. It can be seen that the author of the collection had at his disposal the annals of various Russian principalities and used them. The preservation of the all-Russian chronicle tradition was shown by the Vladimir-Suzdal chronicle of the beginning of the 13th century, covering the history of the country from the legendary Kiya to Vsevolod the Big Nest.

The preservation of the all-Russian chronicle tradition was shown by the Vladimir-Suzdal chronicle of the beginning of the 13th century, covering the history of the country from the legendary Kyi to Vsevolod the Big Nest.

One of the materials that was used for writing in Ancient Russia is commonly called tsera in modern literature. Cera is a small wooden plank, convex at the edges and filled with wax. Most often, the ceres had a rectangular shape. The wax used to fill the plate was black, as the most affordable, wax of a different color was less commonly used. In order for the wax to be securely fixed on the tree, the inner surface of the prepared form was covered with notches. The most popular plate size was 9-12 cm, such plates could be carried with you. Along the edges of each inscribed tsera, a hole was made for a leather belt, which was then used to connect the plates to each other. On the tablets, texts were scratched out on wax, and if necessary, they were erased and new ones were written.

A more expensive material for Russian written monuments was parchment, which was used until the 14th century. Our ancestors called this type of writing in a peculiar way: “veal”, “skin”, “fur”. Parchment - calfskin, dressed in a special way. The origin of the material goes back to the 2nd century BC, in the city of Pergamum (Asia). Parchment books were very expensive, they were valued and treated with great honor. The process of making parchment and the raw material itself - calfskins - are to blame. To write just one small book had to use from 100 to 180 skins. And this is a huge herd. In addition, the very process of transforming an ordinary skin into parchment was extremely complex, lengthy and troublesome. As writing material, parchment could be used on both sides. It was both strong and light at the same time, which greatly improved the quality of the texts. An equally popular feature of parchment was reuse by scraping off the top layer.

Due to the high cost of parchment and the impracticality of cera for everyday needs, our ancestors used birch bark, otherwise birch bark. Cheaper and more accessible birch bark has become a real find and an opportunity to study writing in low social strata. Often once used birch bark was simply thrown away and written on a new piece. It was not difficult to make a birch bark book. First, the birch bark was boiled in water and the coarse layers were removed. After complete drying and cutting from all sides, the birch bark was given a rectangular shape. Prepared pages were written and folded in order. Then an unwritten cover was added to the finished material. All prepared tablets were punched on one side with an awl, and a leather cord was passed through the resulting hole to fasten everything together. Due to the peculiarities of the birch bark, books from it are better preserved in the ground than parchment ones. The first birch-bark letters on the territory of our country were found in Novgorod, during archaeological excavations in 1051. Excavations have shown that merchants, warriors, artisans and other classes often used birch bark for personal correspondence. They perfectly show the life of the people of that time, describing it in the smallest detail and shedding light on, sometimes unknown, pages in history.

Writing tools in Russia were made of bone, iron, wood and were called writing. As excavations in Novgorod showed, writing had a wider application than simple text carving. This is evidenced by the shape of the writing: the pointed end was used to draw letters, drawings and signs, and the spatula on top was used to correct the text on birch bark or to scrape off the wax in the ceres. A hole was made in the spatula and worn on the belt.

Only rich people could afford ink. They wrote books and manuscripts, legends and important acts of national importance. Only the king wrote with a swan or peacock pen, and most ordinary books were written with a quill pen. The technique of preparing the pen required skills and correct actions. A feather from the left wing of a bird is suitable for writing, because it has a convenient angle for writing with the right hand. Without fail, the feather was degreased with hot sand. The tip was sharpened obliquely. The basis for most ink was gum (the resin of some types of acacia, or cherry). Depending on what substances were dissolved in the gum, the ink acquired one color or another. Before use, the ink was diluted with water and placed in special vessels - inkwells. The inkwell kept the ink from spilling onto the table.

Books in Russia were valued, collected in families for several generations, mentioned in almost every spiritual letter (testament) among the values ​​and family icons. But the ever-increasing need for books marked the beginning of a new stage of education in Russia - book printing. The first printed books in the Russian state appeared only in the middle of the 16th century, during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, who in 1553 set up a printing press in Moscow. To house the printing house, the tsar ordered the construction of special mansions not far from the Kremlin on Nikolskaya Street in the vicinity of the Nikolsky Monastery. This printing house was built at the expense of Tsar Ivan the Terrible himself. In 1563, it was headed by the deacon of the church of Nikolai Gostunsky in the Moscow Kremlin - Ivan Fedorov.

Ivan Fedorov was an educated man, well versed in books, knew the foundry business, was a carpenter, a painter, a carver, and a bookbinder. He graduated from the University of Krakow, knew the ancient Greek language in which he wrote and printed, knew Latin. The people said about him: such a craftsman that you can’t find it in foreign lands. Ivan Fedorov and his student Pyotr Mstislavets worked for 10 years on the establishment of a printing house, and only on April 19, 1563, they began to produce the first book. Ivan Fedorov himself built printing presses, he himself cast forms for letters, he typed, he corrected. A lot of work went into the production of various headpieces, drawings of large and small sizes. The drawings depicted cedar cones and outlandish fruits: pineapples, grape leaves. Ivan Fedorov and his student printed the first book for a whole year. It was called "Apostol" ("Acts and Epistles of the Apostles") and looked impressive and beautiful, resembling a handwritten book: by letters, by drawings and by screensavers. It consisted of 267 sheets. This first printed book appeared on March 1, 1564. This year is considered the beginning of Russian book printing. Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets went down in history as the first Russian printers, and their first dated creation became a model for subsequent editions. Only 61 copies of this book have survived to this day. After the release of The Apostle, Ivan Fedorov and his henchmen began to prepare a new book for publication - The Clockworker. If the "Apostle" was produced for a year, then it took only 2 months for the "Hourmaker". Simultaneously with the publication of the Apostle, work was underway on the compilation and publication of the ABC, the first Slavic textbook. The ABC was published in 1574. She introduced me to the Russian alphabet, taught me how to compose syllables and words.

The descendants highly appreciated the merits of Ivan Fedorov in the enlightenment of Russia. One of the oldest and best printing houses in Russia (now the Ivan Fedorov Publishing and Printing Holding) in St. Petersburg was named after the pioneer printer; received the Moscow State University of Printing Arts (former Polygraphic Institute) - the country's largest university that trains specialists in the field of printing and publishing.

The writing of Ancient Russia is a unique system with its own unusual features and important components. But the most important thing is that our ancestors strove for knowledge, developing new ways for learning and enlightenment.

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Formation of the Old Russian language and writing. Three groups of Slavic languages ​​according to the degree of their proximity: Eastern, Western and Southern. Creation by Cyril (Konstantin the Philosopher) and Methodius of the Slavic alphabet. The reform of Peter I and the theory of the "three spiers" of Lomonosov.

thesis, added 02/23/2014


The value of writing in the history of the development of civilization. The emergence of Slavic writing, the creation of the alphabet "Cyril and Methodius". The difference between the concepts of "alphabet" and "alphabet". Distribution of the Cyrillic alphabet in the Slavic countries. The path to the modern Russian alphabet.

presentation, added 05/17/2012


Brief information from the history of Russian writing. The concept of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. Figurative and expressive means of language. Vocabulary of the Russian language. Phraseology of the modern Russian language. Speech etiquette. Types of word formation.

cheat sheet, added 03/20/2007


The importance of the invention of writing for the development of culture in general and for office work in particular. The main stages in the development of writing. Ideographic, verbal-syllabic, syllabic and alphabetic types of writing. The origin of Slavic writing.

term paper, added 03/15/2014


The value of writing in the history of the development of civilization. The origin of writing, the stages of the evolution of writing. Slavic book language. ABC of Constantine and Cyrillic writing. Slavic writing and alphabetic prayer. Origin and numerical system of the Glagolitic alphabet.

abstract, added 10/21/2010


Slavs as a special ethnic group. Meaning of ethnolinguistic terms. Peculiarities of the Old Slavonic language in the Cyrillic written monuments. Information about the activities of Cyril and Methodius. Modern Cyrillic alphabets of the Slavic languages.

abstract, added 11/09/2010


The history of the emergence and distribution of writing. Acquaintance with the alphabet of Constantine. The origin of the Cyrillic alphabet from Greek uncial writing. Invention by the brothers Cyril and Methodius of the Glagolitic alphabet and alphabetic prayer. Stages in the evolution of writing and language.

term paper, added 10/14/2010


The history of the appearance and features of the use of the letter "Ё" in the Russian language, an assessment of its linguistic meaning. Problems of using this letter and the rules of the Russian language associated with it. The main disputes about the need for the letter "Ё" at the present stage.

control work, added 11/09/2014


Linguistic characteristics of the Russian language, stages of its development and current state, grammatical features. The difference between changes in language and changes in writing. Rationale for the need for writing reform. Monuments of Russian writing.

Long before the Christianization, the Rasichs (“Indo-Europeans” of modern science) had many types of writing, about which Catherine II, who, as the ruler of the empire, was attached to secret information about the past, stated bluntly that the Slavs had their own writings for many thousands of years before the birth of Christ.

Notice, not a letter, but writing, i.e. different types of writing. A similar point of view was expressed by M. Lomonosov, V. Tatishchev, E. Klassen. But such views were and are not held by all, as they say, “language schools”. Basically, historical science, by hook or by crook, imposes on society the idea that before Christianization, the Slavic Russians did not have their own writing. Nowadays, only “features and cuts” are recognized, and even then under the pressure of numerous finds of samples of this Slovenian folk writing. All
the rest is rejected, outright declaring "a fake, a fake, nationalist nonsense." Let's not get involved in a fruitless discussion about the mission of the "solunsky brothers", because. The well-known historian N.I. Kostomarov gave an assessment of their activities. For us, it is more important that the ROC initially knew that the Slavs had their own
writing (in the church-historical dictionary for 1889 clearly
it is said on this occasion: “The Rosses, a Varangian tribe, lived in southern Russia; with Byzantium they either did trade or fought. From
St. Cyril borrowed them.), but she especially preferred
do not advertise your knowledge. This is politics, which at all times was considered an unclean activity. She's the one to blame
the fact that the largest ethnic group in Europe is already
what century is denied identity: whoever and whatever, but
only not the Slavs (especially the eastern ones). Is it not here, as they say, that the dog is buried? Similar psychological (magical)
our ancestors called the reception "averting eyes", i.e. switching attention to something that does not correspond to reality. “They (the Greeks) said that they established a written language for us so that we would accept it and lose our own. But remember that Ilar (Kirill), who wanted to teach our children and had to hide in our homes so that we would not know that he was teaching our writings, and how our gods should be laid ”(Vleskniga / Patriarsi).
There is a catalog of part of the runic manuscripts from the library of Anna Yaroslavna, which, after long vicissitudes, ended up in the possession of the well-known collector of the 19th century, archaeologist A.I. Sulakadzev. This catalog mentions two editions of the “Book of Veles”: Yagily Gan smerd from Ladoga (“Patriarsy”) and Olekh Visherts from Cherdyn (“Krinitsa”) - “about the resettlement of old-timers and the first faith”. There were also “Kolyadnik of the 5th century of the Danubian Yalovets about worshiping the Troy mountains, about fortune-telling in the caves”, “Volkhovnik” a manuscript of the 6th century, “The Wayfarer” of the 4th century, “Perun and Veles broadcasting in Kiev temples to the priests of Moveslav, Drevoslav and others” ( 5.6 centuries), etc.
An excerpt from the Sloven Veda, published by S. Verkovich in 1874: “... our grandfathers of that time were the most scientists on earth, and all the others came to ask the teachers how and what to do ... They (Greeks) from us and the plow taught, and learned crafts, and reading, and writing ... When our ancestors lived on
Land of the Earth (Daaria - Arctida?), Zhiva Yuda came and taught to write golden tablets to the Garden-King ... There were many books of that faith ... There were such books in every village in Daspod (Bulgaria - ours), until the Gentiles came ... and they began to burn those old books. But now no one is pulling it out, but hiding it in hiding places.”
A number of other well-known sources also testify to the existence of writing among the Slavs. For example, the Bulgarian monk Khrabr (10th century) in his treatise “On writing” reports: “before, I didn’t have books, but with devils and cuts, chtyahu and gadaahu ..”, literally: before the Slovenes did not have books, but features and they wrote with cuts and explained their entire existence.
The Arabs also talked about the presence of original writing in Russia (ibn Fadlan, al Masudi, ibn Yaqub el Nedim). The German chronicler, Bishop Titmar of Merseburg, saw in one of the Slavic churches in the city of Retra, on the island of Rugin (Rügen), several idols, on which their names were inscribed with signs. The writer Ivanchenko in the book "The Ways of the Great Russian" cites the ancient alphabet of the Russians of the 2nd millennium BC. and on a stone inscription from the Azov region (see above), taken by him from the book of F. Volansky. This alphabet is undoubtedly one of the variants of the alphabetic-runic writing of our ancestors, who settled in the vast expanses of ancient Eurasia.
Comparing the inscriptions of the letters of the alphabet and on the stone inscription, we find an undeniable similarity between them.
“Potshemosia chiriia opeze gradizhi house of tajdia colony friend and potion Nehei Yaatvgya is born in Neheilelia in Neheia living light.” What now sounds like: “we will try to build a house with sincere care, as well as a farmstead for young spouses. Let children be born and cherished, and let life be bright.
The book of the Kazakh scientist K. Akishev “Kurgan Issyk” says: “A special place among the finds (after the burial of a noble Saka) is occupied by a silver bowl with an inscription - the oldest written monument (VI-V centuries BC) on the territory of Kazakhstan ... Specialists in the ancient languages ​​of the East believe that the Issyk inscription was made in an alphabet not yet known to world science. Such a conclusion suggests that this alphabet was invented by the Saks of Semirechie or related tribes on the basis of some kind of writing, most likely Aramaic. But what certified linguists could not do, writes G. Maidantsev, was done by the Russian inventor I. Kuznetsov. In 1981, he read this epitaph with the help of a "leash": "and was still
Arsatan Ancestor, who vigilantly defended everything.
The well-known linguist and epigraphist V.A. Chudinov, on the issue of the existence of pre-Cyrillic writing among the Slavs, writes that “he read a lot of ancient inscriptions. Of course, this is a small fraction of the wealth that was published by archaeologists (but for some reason is not claimed by historians as evidence
bases are ours.). However, even these examples make it possible to see that writing not only existed, but permeated all layers of Russian society…”. An important conclusion is made by the scientist that the age of Slavic writing, judging by the samples found, exceeds hundreds of thousands of years. And that this is so is demonstrated by a find at the Berehat-Ram site (Israel) in 1981. In the layers of petrified lava (233-800 thousand years ago), an anthropomorphic tuff figurine was discovered, on which, with a strong increase, Chudinov found inscriptions read in Russian. Linguist N.G. Samsonov, analyzing the facts of mass finds of birch bark letters in Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Vitebsk, notes that “such spread of literacy also witnesses a long path of development before becoming a habit, a need ... One might think that pre-Christian writing was quite perfect ".
And before proceeding to a direct analysis of the types of writing, let's give one more quote from L.N. Ryzhkov's book "On the antiquities of the Russian language": look for its true appearance... This implies a shift to the written and written era for the Russian language in the depths of millennia, since now written monuments that were not previously considered monuments of Russian and proto-Slavic writing are involved in consideration.
Therefore, Russian (and Slavic in general) lexical modernity may well turn out to be the glorious past of Old Latin, Prairan, Proto-Sanchrist, etc. Before their degradation changes ... Apparently, the Old Slavic vocabulary is the source of the most ancient primary language of Indo-European studies. The source of the continuity of cultures is the Slavic syllabary, from which all European alphabets originated in the process of its collapse.
According to the Vedas, the basis of the written literacy of the Slavic-Aryan peoples was made up of four forms of writing, from which all other types of alphabets and alphabets subsequently originated.

1. X, Aryan Karuna ("union of runes")- a priestly letter, a collection of secret runic images. Etymology: runes - “flowing (p) knowledge (uns). There are 144 main runes. In addition, runes of time, space, directions, expanding, canceling images, penetrating images, etc. are used. The Book of Light uses 256 runes, but there are many more.
Simplified forms of Karuna:
a) Sanskrit (samckrit) - an independent secretive priestly
language. The form of the Sanskrit language, which was transmitted in dance on
temple mount special dancers, and was called Devanagari (now it's just a Sanskrit script);
b) futhark; c) Slavic runes, runes of the Boyanov hymn; d) Siberian (Khakassian) runnitsa, etc.
Writing examples:
K - rune KA: union, union (if it is at the beginning of a word;
one of many (if found at the end of a word).
R - rune Ras: sacred white leopard; heavenly
hall (several constellations), etc.
2. Yes, Aryan Thrags ("approved shining path")
- hieroglyphic (ideogram) inscription of transmitted
images. We read in all four directions.
Writing examples:
- Traga "RA" - light, radiance.
- Traga: stop in time to comprehend the action.
3. Rassen figurative-mirror writing (molnitsa)
This script is now called the Etruscan (Tyrrhenian) script, which formed the basis of the ancient Phoenician alphabet, on the basis of which the later simplified Greek script and Latin were created.
The Russian scientist P.P. Oreshkin in his book on the decipherment of ancient languages ​​\u200b\u200b“The Babylonian Phenomenon” also notes this very peculiar feature of the Rasen writing (mirroring), in front of which modern linguistics turned out to be powerless with its capitulatory slogan: “the Etruscan is not readable”.
Oreshkin calls this set of ingenious, in his opinion, tricks the "tricky system" of the ancient races and gives his recommendations on how to overcome them. But Rasen writing, as we see from its name, is an organic synthesis of the figurative content of letters and words, as well as ways to identify this figurative content.
This feature is to some extent characteristic of all forms of Rasich writing (Slavic "double row"), because. is the most important manifestation of the Vedic view, according to
to which everything divides, recombines, cannot exist without its own reflection.
“The main protagonist of the other world of the Etruscans, writes Oreshkin, is “Meneoka - Akoenem”, a many-sided creature, a werewolf, like his very name, which can be read from left to right “changeable” (changing before our eyes?) and from right to left “cursed”. This creature stands at the border of two worlds, guarding the entrance to the Looking Glass.
4. Holy Russian Letter
The most common letter among the Slavic peoples
antiquity ("Pra-Cyrillic alphabet" or "runes of the Sort" according to V. Chudinov).
It was used both by priests and at the conclusion of important inter-clan and interstate agreements. One of the forms of the Holy Russian Letter was the semi-runic letter known to us, with which the Book of Veles was written. "Vlesovitsa" (a conditional name) is typologically older than Cyrillic, writes V. Chudinov, representing a sign system intermediate between syllabic writing and the alphabet. In the text of the Book of Veles, such a phonetic feature as “clatter”, i.e. replacing Ch with Ts. This is very common in Novgorod birch bark letters and still distinguishes the Novgorod dialect.
An example of writing (table 16 of the “Veles Book” in the drawing by Yu. Mirolyubov): The letter “Slovenia” was also the form of the initial letter, in which, as in Sanskrit, the verbal structures “tha”, “bha”, etc. were also used. But "Slovenia" was too cumbersome writing system for everyday communication, so subsequently a simplified form of "Slovenia" appeared - a voluminous, all-encompassing Old Slovenian Letter, consisting of 49 signs of images (basic), where the record conveyed not only the grapheme of the word being composed, but also its figurative meaning.

Writing examples:
A-az (God who lives on earth is the Creator).
B - Gods (diverse Divine meaning).
V-vedi (I know wisdom on earth and in heaven).
"Appeared in the ninth century. "Cyrillic" was specially created
(based on the initial letter - mine.) using the Macedonian dialect of the ancient Bulgarian language for the needs of the Christian church as a literary language (Old Church Slavonic). Subsequently
under the influence of lively speech, he gradually absorbed local linguistic features ... These later regional varieties are usually called the Church Slavonic language of Bulgarian, Serbian, Russian, etc. editorial or revision. (G.Khaburgaev. Old Church Slavonic language). That. we see what, according to the Slavists, Old Church Slavonic and Church Slavonic were, and where, when and in what circles they were in use. The Old Russian language (a secular simplified version of the initial letter) survived until the Petrine language reform.
5. Glagolitic - trade letters, and later they became
be used to record legends and Christian books.
6. Slovenian folk writing (features and cuts)- for the transmission of short messages at the household level.
7. Voivodship (military) letter- secret ciphers.
8. Princely letter Every ruler has his own.
9. Knot letter, etc.
They wrote in those days on tablets made of wood, clay, metal, as well as on parchment, fabric, birch bark, papyrus. They scratched with metal and bone pointed rods (wrote) on stones, plaster, wooden buildings. In 2000, a book consisting of wooden pages was found in Novgorod - an analogue of the "Vlesovaya book". She was given the name "Novgorod Psalter", because. it included the famous texts of the three psalms of King David. This book was created at the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries and is the most ancient book of the Slavic world recognized by official science.
“The appearance of a new source of information about the events of a thousand years ago always looks like a miracle. After all, it is hard to believe that for several centuries of studying the written heritage of our ancestors, something significant could have escaped the attention of scientists, something significant was noticed, appreciated, for example, monuments of Russian runic. And would you like to notice? After all, the presence of the same runic contradicts the position of inert official science, proving that the Slavs before baptism were a young tribe, and not a people with an ancient culture (“Return of the Russian runic.” V. Torop.).
Another first-class find of domestic historians was the pre-Cyrillic text, which received the conditional name "lengthy edition of Boyanov's anthem." The text, consisting of the 61st line, has suffered quite a lot from time to time. The protograph underlying it was restored, and it received its own name - the Ladoga document.

In 1812, Derzhavin published two runic excerpts from the collection of the St. Petersburg collector Sulakadzev. Until our time, the mystery of the published passages remained unsolved. And only now it turns out that the lines torn out of the abyss of oblivion by Derzhavin are not fakes, as would-be scientists have assured us for so many years, but unique monuments before Cyrillic writing.

The Ladoga document allows us to draw an important conclusion. The Russian runic had a fairly wide circulation and was used not only in the circle of priests to record such sacred texts as
"Patriarsi" (Vlesov's book). Ladoga and Novgorod, of course, were not some unique literacy centers in Russia. Signs of Russian runic found on antiquities
IX-X centuries from Belaya Vezha, Old Ryazan, Grodno. The text from the Derzhavin archive is a surviving evidence of a written tradition that once existed everywhere. The end of the document is full of names. The forms of these names are unique and are found only in the text of the "Patriarsi": Blre - Bolorev, Dor, Otuarih - Otoreh, Eruek - Erek, Nobubsur - Nabsursar, etc. In our passage, as in the "Patriarsi", the Rus are identified with "Kimry", that is, the Cimmerians. The names of Russia are also close: Borusen - Bar.
The reasons for the appeal of the "koba" (priest) to ancient historical legends are noteworthy. In the north, Christian squads appeared, bringing death to the pagan world. But, besides the armed confrontation, there was also an ideological one. The Christian priests of that time denied the historical value of the Slavic past. For them, these were ages of barbarism and idolatry.

“Kob” called some kind of Christian writing a pseudo-literacy and in response to it gave a cursory overview of Russian history, starting from the era of the Cimmerian Rus’s stay in the power of the Babylonian king Nabopolassar (7th century BC). Here is an excerpt from this historical account:
Wildebeest kobe retinue: Fuck ide vorok ldg proud. Mlm, the grub of the orta, the slave and the garus era. Kb speech prupupe gnu mmu kbi str mzhu term chaa lie grmtu.
Kimru rusa and before the kimr clan vrgu rum and you stilhu; Blrv dor howl be mkom bu vrvu - a gruku by birth; Otuarih to Izhodrik to false Eruek warrior; And kltmu aldorog mru dei burned my god archi grdnik.
Vchna brous on kostechu stav strade bar to doriu nobubsur.
Translation:
To Mr. holy kob: Christians go to Ladoga-city. We pray, we make sacrifices, so that the farmers will not be enslaved and
did not destroy the city. I send Perun's speeches to my master, cob-old man
I send to my husband, waiting for the cherished term, against false letters.
The Rus were Kimry and lived before the Kimry Were enemies of Rome and you, Stilicho; Bolorev; Dir-warrior was our torment, he was a barbarian, and by birth - a Greek; Otuarih, then Izhodrik, then the deceitful Rurik the warrior;
damned Aldorog - sowed death, burned our god, killed go-
rozhan. Russia is eternal, standing on bones, suffering from the times of Dir and Nabopolassar.
This passage is associated with the text "Patriarchy" not only
names. If in one source Dor (annalistic Dir) is named
a barbarian of Greek origin, then in another - a half-Greek,
semi-barbarian. Chronicles, however, incorrectly attribute Dir, like many
other actors of early Russian history, to the Varangians.
The commonality of the information of both runic monuments speaks of
many things. The antiquity of the historical tradition underlying them before the beginning of the 19th century (the date of the Sulakadzee copy) becomes ridiculous. At the time of Sulakadzev, practically all the information contained in the Patriarchy was unknown to science. Christian chroniclers wrote about the pagan Slavs about the same as today: “... I live in a brutal way, I live like a beast, and I kill each other, eating everything unclean, and I have had a marriage ...”.
Kob opposed such reasoning. The authors of "Patriarchy" also stood up for the honor of the Slavic people. On one of its plates we read: “Askold is a dark warrior and only enlightened from the Greeks that there are no Ruses, but there are only barbarians. This can only be laughed at, since the Cimmerians were our ancestors, and they shook Rome and drove the Greeks away like frightened piglets. The Ladoga document ends with a description of suffering Russia. The same thing is said in the Patriarchy: "Russia is a hundred times broken from north to south." But in the "Patriarchy" we find a continuation of the thought that broke off in the document in mid-sentence: "Three times fallen Russia will rise."
How relevant this ancient prophecy is today! Derzhavin set an example of successfully resisting the destruction of our memory. Until his last days, the great son of the Russian people fought to save the Russian runic and eventually won. Miraculously surviving pages reveal to us the Slavic culture, no less ancient and no less rich than the civilization of any other people.

Enottt Administrator

The history of the creation of the Slavic writing system. The main differences between the two Slavic alphabets - Cyrillic and Glagolitic.

Introduction

Since childhood, we get used to the letters of our Russian alphabet and rarely think about when and how our writing arose. The beginning of writing is a special milestone in the history of every nation, in the history of its culture. In the depths of millennia and centuries, the names of the creators of the writing of a particular people or language family are usually lost. But Slavic writing has an absolutely amazing origin. Thanks to a number of historical testimonies, we know about the beginning of Slavic writing and about its creators - Saints Cyril and Methodius. Language and writing are perhaps the most important cultural factors. If the people are deprived of the right or opportunity to speak their native language, then this will be the most severe blow to their native culture. If a person is deprived of books in his native language, then he will lose the most important treasures of his culture. An adult, being, for example, abroad, probably will not forget

your native language. But his children and grandchildren will have great difficulties in mastering the language of their parents and their people. The Russian emigration of the XX century, based on their hard experience, to the question "What place do the native language and native literature occupy in the national culture?" gives a very unambiguous answer: "Paramount!". Therefore, the study of the history of Slavic writing, even in the 21st century, has not lost its relevance.

The purpose of the work is to study the history of the creation of the Slavic writing system.

Work tasks:

1. Identify the causes of the emergence of Slavic writing.

2. To characterize the influence on the development of Slavic writing of the activities of Cyril and Methodius.

3. Determine the main differences between the two Slavic alphabets - Cyrillic and Glagolitic.

4. Follow the main milestones in the further development of Slavic writing.

5. Get acquainted with the main monuments of the Old Slavonic language.

Causes and conditions for the emergence of Slavic writing

Writing arises at the last stage of the existence of the primitive communal system, when the process of its decomposition begins, the reasons and needs for the emergence of writing are associated with the internal processes of historical development: the decomposition of the primitive communal system, the folding of classes, the development of productive forces and the formation of statehood.

The process of decomposition of the primitive communal system and class formation, which began among the Eastern Slavs from the 4th century, ended with the formation of the Old Russian state in the 9th century. Favorable conditions for the development of writing were also determined by the formation of the Old Russian people, which united all the East Slavic tribes and was characterized by the presence of a single ethnic territory, a common language and culture.

Initially, for the expression of simple images and concepts, the Slavs used picture writing - pictography. With the help of a combination of drawings, objects and actions were depicted. A significant disadvantage of this method of transmitting information is its inaccuracy. Sometimes the same icons could be interpreted in completely different ways. With the emergence of class society and the state, this kind of writing becomes insufficient. There is a need for an unambiguous fixation of laws and treaties, decrees and wills. There is a need for real writing.

The social structure of the ancient Slavs before their separation can be characterized as a primitive communal system, in the later period - already decomposing, including elements of slavery and feudal organization. Only after separation do these elements become dominant and early Slavic (or including a Slavic ethnic component) state formations arise. In them, the need for writing is at first satisfied by using the writing of either non-Slavic participants in state formations, or neighboring peoples with a long and recognized written tradition, for example, Greek and Latin. In the conditions of multinational early feudal state formations, the use of writing in one of the languages ​​of this formation or the authoritative language of neighbors, apparently, did not cause difficulties. In the Chancellery of the Khans of the First Bulgarian State in the 7th-9th centuries. Greek language and writing were used. Such occurrences were not rare.

The use of foreign scripts to compose texts about the Slavs gave rise to the problem of non-Slavic transmission of Slavic proper (personal and geographical) names.

In one of the sources of information about the origin of Slavic writing - the work of the Chernoriz Khrabr "On Letters" - it is reported that the ancient Slavs, while they were pagans, "did not have letters, but (read) and guessed with the help of features and cuts", i.e. used mnemonic writing. “When they were baptized, they tried to write down Slavonic speech in Roman and Greek letters, without order (without tripling)”, i.e. with the advent of Christianity among the Slavs, the need for writing became more acute.

The consistent application of the Latin alphabet to the recording of Slavic texts required the development of clear special means of conveying the features of the Slavic sound system. For the Czech language this was done in 1406 in a special treatise attributed to Jan Hus, for Polish it was started around 1440 in the works of Jakub Parkosovitz. Ancient monuments of the use of Greek writing to record Slavic texts have not come down to us.

In the middle of the 9th century, a special Slavic script was created.

Activities of Cyril and Methodius

The creation of Slavic writing with good reason is attributed to the brothers Constantine the Philosopher (in monasticism - Cyril) and Methodius. Information about the beginning of Slavic writing can be gleaned from various sources: the Slavic lives of Cyril and Methodius, several laudatory words and church services in their honor, the writings of the Chernorizet Khrabr “On Letters”, etc.

In 863, an embassy from the Great Moravian prince Rostislav arrived in Constantinople. The ambassadors conveyed to Emperor Michael III a request to send missionaries to Moravia who could preach in a language understandable to the Moravians (Moravians) instead of the Latin language of the German clergy.

The Great Moravian State (830-906) was a large early feudal state of the Western Slavs. Apparently, already under the first prince Mojmir (ruled 830-846), representatives of the princely family adopted Christianity. Under the successor of Mojmir, Rostislav (846-870), the Great Moravian state waged an intensified struggle against German expansion, the instrument of which was the church. Rostislav tried to oppose the German church by creating an independent Slavic bishopric, and therefore turned to Byzantium, knowing that Slavs lived in Byzantium and in its neighborhood.

Rostislav's request to send missionaries was in line with the interests of Byzantium, which had long sought to extend its influence to the Western Slavs. It corresponded even more to the interests of the Byzantine church, whose relations with Rome in the middle of the ninth century became more and more hostile. Just in the year of the arrival of the Great Moravian embassy, ​​these relations became so aggravated that Pope Nicholas even publicly cursed Patriarch Photius.

Emperor Michael III and Patriarch Photius decided to send a mission to Great Moravia headed by Constantine the Philosopher and Methodius. This choice was not accidental. Constantine already had rich experience in missionary activity and showed himself in it as a brilliant dialectician and diplomat. This decision was also due to the fact that the brothers, coming from the semi-Slavic-half-Greek city of Thessalonica, knew the Slavic language very well.

Constantine (826-869) and his older brother Methodius (820-885) were born and spent their childhood in the bustling Macedonian port city of Thessalonica (now Thessaloniki, Greece).

In the early 1950s, Constantine proved to be a skillful orator, having won a brilliant victory in a discussion over the former patriarch Arius. It was from this time that Emperor Michael, and then Patriarch Photius, began to almost continuously send Constantine as an envoy of Byzantium to neighboring peoples to convince them of the superiority of Byzantine Christianity over other religions. So Konstantin as a missionary visited Bulgaria, Syria and the Khazar Khaganate.

The character, and, consequently, the life of Methodius were in many ways similar, but in many ways they were different from the character and life of his younger brother.

Both of them lived mostly spiritual lives, striving to embody their beliefs and ideas, not attaching any importance to wealth, career, or fame. The brothers never had wives or children, wandered all their lives without creating a home for themselves, and even died in a foreign land. It is no coincidence that not a single literary work of Constantine and Methodius has survived to this day, although both of them, especially Constantine, wrote and translated many scientific and literary works; finally, it is still not known what kind of alphabet Konstantin the Philosopher created - Cyrillic or Glagolitic.

In addition to similar traits, there were a lot of differences in the character of the brothers, however, despite this, they ideally complemented each other in joint work. The younger brother wrote, the elder translated his works. The younger one created the Slavic alphabet, Slavic writing and book business, the older one practically developed what was created by the younger one. The younger was a talented scientist, philosopher, brilliant dialectician and subtle philologist; the elder is a capable organizer and practical figure.

It is not surprising that at the council convened on the occasion of the Moravian embassy, ​​the emperor declared that no one would fulfill the request of Prince Rostislav better than Constantine the Philosopher. After that, according to the story of the Life, Constantine retired from the council and prayed for a long time. According to chronicle and documentary sources, then he developed the Slavic alphabet. “The Philosopher went and, according to the old custom, stood up for prayer with other helpers. And soon God revealed them to him, that he listens to the prayers of his servants, and then he folded the letters, and began to write the words of the Gospel: from the beginning the word and the word would be from God, and God would be the word (“In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and The Word was God") and so on" *. In addition to the Gospel, the brothers translated other liturgical books into Slavonic (according to the Life of Pannor, these were the Chosen Apostle, the Psalter, and certain passages from the Church Services). Thus, the first Slavic literary language was born, many words of which are still alive in the Slavic languages, including Bulgarian and Russian.

Constantine and Methodius went to Great Moravia. In the summer of 863, after a long and difficult journey, the brothers finally arrived in the hospitable capital of Moravia, Velehrad.

Prince Rostislav received envoys from friendly Byzantium. With his help, the brothers chose students for themselves and diligently taught them the Slavic alphabet and church services in the Slavic language, and in their free time they continued to translate the Greek books they had brought into the Slavic language. So, from the very arrival in Moravia, Constantine and Methodius did everything possible for the speedy spread of Slavic writing and culture in the country.

Gradually, the Moravians (Moravians) became more and more accustomed to hearing their native language in churches. Churches where the service was conducted in Latin were empty, and the German Catholic clergy were losing their influence and income in Moravia, and therefore attacked the brothers with malice, accusing them of heresy.

Having prepared disciples, Constantine and Methodius, however, faced a serious difficulty: since neither of them was a bishop, they did not have the right to ordain priests. And the German bishops refused this, since they were by no means interested in the development of divine services in the Slavic language. In addition, the activities of the brothers in the direction of the development of worship in the Slavic language, being historically progressive, came into conflict with the so-called trilingual theory created in the early Middle Ages, according to which only three languages ​​had the right to exist in worship and literature: Greek, Hebrew and Latin.

Constantine and Methodius had only one way out - to look for a solution to the difficulties that had arisen in Byzantium or in Rome. However, oddly enough, the brothers choose Rome, although at that moment the papal throne was occupied by Nicholas, who fiercely hated Patriarch Photius and all those associated with him. Despite this, Constantine and Methodius hoped for a favorable reception from the pope, and not unreasonably. The fact is that Constantine had the remains of Clement found by him, the third pope in order, if we assume that the very first was the apostle Peter. With such a valuable relic in their hands, the brothers could be sure that Nicholas would make big concessions, up to the permission of worship in the Slavic language.

In the middle of 866, after 3 years in Moravia, Constantine and Methodius, accompanied by their disciples, left Velegrad for Rome. On the way, the brothers met the Pannonian prince Kotsel. He well understood the significance of the work undertaken by Constantine and Methodius and treated the brothers as a friend and ally. Kotsel himself learned Slavic reading and writing from them and sent about fifty students with them for the same training and initiation into the clergy. Thus, the Slavic writing, apart from Moravia, became widespread in Pannonia, where the ancestors of modern Slovenes lived.

By the time the brothers arrived in Rome, Pope Nicholas was replaced by Adrian II. He graciously accepts Constantine and Methodius, permits divine services in the Slavic language, ordains the brothers as priests, and their students as presbyters and deacons.

The brothers remain in Rome for almost two years. Konstantin falls seriously ill. Feeling the approach of death, he takes the tonsure as a monk and takes on a new name - Cyril. Shortly before his death, he turns to Methodius: “Here, brother, we were a couple in one team and plowed one furrow, and I fall on the field, having finished my day. Love the mountain*, but do not dare to leave your teaching for the sake of the mountain, for how else can you achieve salvation?”* On February 14, 869, Constantine-Cyril died at the age of 42.

Methodius, on the advice of Kocel, seeks consecration to the rank of archbishop of Moravia and Pannonia. In 870 he returned to Pannonia, where he was persecuted by the German clergy and imprisoned for some time. In the middle of 884, Methodius moved to Moravia and was engaged in translating the Bible into Slavonic. He dies on April 6, 885.

The activities of the brothers were continued in the South Slavic countries by their disciples, who were expelled from Moravia in 886. In the West, Slavic worship and writing did not survive, but were approved in Bulgaria, from where they spread from the 9th century to Russia, Serbia and other countries.

The significance of the activities of Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius consisted in the creation of the Slavic alphabet, the development of the first Slavic literary and written language, and the formation of the foundations for creating texts in the Slavic literary and written language. Cyril and Methodius traditions were the most important foundation of the literary and written languages ​​of the southern Slavs, as well as the Slavs of the Great Moravian state. In addition, they had a profound influence on the formation of the literary and written language and texts in it in Ancient Russia, as well as its descendants - the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. One way or another, the Cyrillic and Methodian traditions were reflected in the Polish, Lusatian, Polabian languages. Thus, the activities of Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius had a common Slavic significance.

Two Slavic alphabets (Cyrillic and Glagolitic)

The oldest Slavic written monuments that have come down to us are made in two significantly different alphabets - Glagolitic and Cyrillic. The history of their origin is complex and not completely clear.

The name "Glagolitsa" is derived from the verb - "word", "speech". In terms of alphabetic composition, the Glagolitic alphabet almost completely coincided with the Cyrillic alphabet, but differed sharply from it in the shape of the letters. It has been established that by origin the letters of the Glagolitic alphabet are mostly associated with the Greek minuscule alphabet, some letters are composed on the basis of the Samaritan and Hebrew letters. There is an assumption that this alphabet was created by Constantine the Philosopher.

The Glagolitic alphabet was widely used in the 60s of the 9th century in Moravia, from where it penetrated into Bulgaria and Croatia, where it existed until the end of the 18th century. Occasionally it was also used in Ancient Russia.

The Glagolitic alphabet corresponded well to the phonemic composition of the Old Church Slavonic language. In addition to newly invented letters, it included correspondences to Greek letters, including those that, in principle, were not needed for the Slavic language. This fact suggests that the Slavic alphabet, according to its creators, should have fully corresponded to the Greek one.

Which of the two alphabets was invented first remains a mystery to this day, however, the assertion that the Glagolitic alphabet appeared before the Cyrillic alphabet is quite reasonable. For example, there are a number of palimpsests, i.e. manuscripts in which the previously existing text was eliminated, and a new one was applied in its place. In Slavic palimpsests, the Cyrillic text is often written in place of the eliminated Glagolitic text.

Looking at the Glagolitic, you can see that the forms of its letters are very intricate. Signs are often built from two parts located as if on top of each other. This phenomenon is also seen in the more decorative design of the Cyrillic alphabet. There are almost no simple round shapes. They are all connected by straight lines. Only single letters correspond to the modern form (w, y, m, h, e).

According to the shape of the letters, two types of Glagolitic can be distinguished. In the first of them, the so-called Bulgarian Glagolitic, the letters are rounded, and in the Croatian, also called Illyrian or Dalmatian Glagolitic, the shape of the letters is angular. Neither one nor the other type of Glagolitic has sharply defined boundaries of distribution. In later development, the Glagolitic adopted many characters from the Cyrillic alphabet. The Glagolitic alphabet of the Western Slavs (Czechs, Poles and others) did not last long and was replaced by the Latin script, and the rest of the Slavs later switched to the Cyrillic type. But the Glagolitic alphabet has not completely disappeared to this day. Thus, it is used or at least was used before the outbreak of the Second World War in the Croatian settlements of Italy. Newspapers were even printed in glagolitic script.

The name of another Slavic alphabet - Cyrillic - came from the name of the Slavic educator of the 9th century Constantine (Cyril) the Philosopher. There is an assumption that it is he who is its creator, but there is no exact data on the origin of the Cyrillic alphabet.

There are 43 letters in the Cyrillic alphabet. Of these, 24 were borrowed from the Byzantine statutory letter, the remaining 19 were invented anew, but in graphic design they were likened to the first ones. Not all borrowed letters retained the designation of the same sound as in the Greek language - some received new meanings in accordance with the peculiarities of Slavic phonetics.

In Russia, the Cyrillic alphabet was introduced in the 10th-11th centuries in connection with Christianization. Of the Slavic peoples, the Cyrillic alphabet was preserved the longest by the Bulgarians, but at present, their writing, like the writing of the Serbs, is the same as Russian, with the exception of some signs designed to indicate phonetic features.

And yet the question remains: which of the two alphabets was created by Konstantin (Cyril) the Philosopher? Unfortunately, it was not possible to answer it definitively. There are several hypotheses, with varying degrees of certainty. Some believe that Constantine created the Glagolitic alphabet, and the Cyrillic alphabet is only the result of its later improvement. Others believe that by the time Constantine created the Glagolitic alphabet, the Cyrillic alphabet already existed. Still others argue that Constantine created the Cyrillic alphabet by transforming the Glagolitic alphabet in the image of the Greek statute.

A.E. Suprun offers the following version of the reconstruction of the emergence of Slavic writing. In the pre-Cyrillo-Methodian period, the Slavs did not have a developed writing system. Cuts were used as a mnemotechnical means, and for the transmission of individual words, possibly, Latin and Greek writing without adaptation. Given the task of translating Christian books into Slavonic for Moravia, Konstantin created the Glagolitic alphabet. It was she, perhaps somewhat improved, that was used in Great Moravia, Pannonia (and from there to Dolmatia, among the Croats) and was brought by Clement of Ohrid to the Bulgarian state. The church in it was strongly connected with the Byzantine and Greek, and therefore it was here that an attempt was made to bring the Slavic letter closer to the Greek. The letters that were in the Greek unique letter were taken as the basis of the new Slavic alphabet - the Cyrillic alphabet. Glagolitic and Cyrillic coexisted for some time. Then the gradual replacement of Glagolitic books by Cyrillic ones began, in Bulgaria the Glagolitic writing was forgotten. However, in Bohemia and Dalmatia, where the church was oriented towards Rome, only it became widespread. Cyrillic, on the other hand, spread in Serbia, and also became practically the only Slavic letter in Russia.

From Cyrillic to Russian civil script

The oldest form of the Cyrillic alphabet is called the charter. A distinctive feature of the charter is sufficient clarity and straightforwardness of styles. Most of the letters are angular, wide heavy character. The exceptions are narrow rounded letters with almond-shaped bends (O, S, E, P, etc.), among other letters they seem to be compressed. This letter is characterized by thin lower elongations of some letters (Р, У, 3). These extensions can also be seen in other types of Cyrillic. They act as light decorative elements in the overall picture of the letter. Diacritics are not yet known. The letters of the charter are large and stand separately from each other. The old statute knows no spaces between words.

Starting from the 13th century, a second type of writing developed - semi-charter, which subsequently supplanted the charter. In connection with the increased need for books, it appears as a business letter from scribes who worked on order and for sale. The semi-charter combines the goals of convenience and speed of writing, is simpler than the charter, has much more abbreviations, is more often oblique - to the beginning or to the end of the line, is devoid of calligraphic rigor. This type of writing is lighter and rounder than the charter, the letters are smaller, there are a lot of superscripts, a whole system of punctuation marks has been developed. The letters are more mobile and sweeping than in the statutory letter, and with many lower and upper elongations. The technique of drawing with a wide-nib pen, which was strongly manifested when writing in the charter, is noticed much less.

In Russia, a semi-ustav appears at the end of the 14th century on the basis of a Russian charter; like him, it is a straight handwriting (vertical letters). Keeping the latest spelling of the charter and its handwriting, it gives them an extremely simple and less clear look, as measured craft pressures are replaced by a freer movement of the pen. The semi-ustav was used in the 14th-18th centuries along with other types of writing, mainly cursive and script.

It was much easier to write in semi-charter. The feudal fragmentation of the country caused in remote areas the development of their own language and their semi-ustav style. The main place in the manuscripts is occupied by the genres of military stories and chronicles, which best reflect the events experienced by the Russian people in that era. For example, the Laurentian Chronicle (1377) was written in semi-ustav.

In the 15th century, under the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III, when the unification of the Russian lands was completed, Moscow turns not only into the political, but also the cultural center of the country. First, the regional culture of Moscow begins to acquire the character of an all-Russian one. Along with the increasing needs of everyday life, a new, simplified, more comfortable writing style was needed. They became cursive.

Cursive roughly corresponds to the concept of Latin cursive. Among the ancient Greeks, cursive writing was widely used at an early stage in the development of writing, and it was also partially available among the southwestern Slavs. In Russia, cursive as an independent type of writing arose in the 15th century. The cursive letters, partly interconnected, differ from the letters of other types of writing in their light outline. But since the letters were equipped with a variety of all kinds of badges, hooks and additions, it was rather difficult to read what was written.

Although the cursive writing of the 15th century, in general, still reflects the nature of the half-charter and there are few strokes connecting the letters, but in comparison with the semi-charter this letter is more fluent.

Cursive letters were largely made with elongations. At the beginning, signs were composed mainly of straight lines, as is typical for statutes and semi-statutes. In the second half of the 16th century, and especially at the beginning of the 17th century, semicircular strokes become the main lines of writing, and some elements of Greek cursive are noticeable in the overall picture of the letter. In the second half of the 17th century, when many different variants of writing spread, cursive writing also shows features characteristic of this time - less ligature and more roundness. The cursive writing of that time is gradually freed from the elements of the Greek cursive and moves away from the forms of the semi-ustav. In the later period, straight and curved lines acquire balance, and the letters become more symmetrical and rounded. At the time when the semi-ustav is being transformed into a civil script, cursive writing also follows the corresponding path of development, as a result of which it can be further called civil cursive writing.

At the beginning of the 18th century, in connection with the strengthening of the Russian national state, in conditions when the church was subordinated to secular power, science and education were of particular importance. And the development of these areas is simply unthinkable without the development of book printing.

Since books of mainly ecclesiastical content were published in the 17th century, the publication of secular books had to be started almost all over again. A big event was the publication in 1708 of "Geometry", which in manuscript form had long been known in Russia.

The creation of new books in their content required a new approach to their publication. Concern for the readability of the book and the simplicity of its design is characteristic of all publishing activities in the first quarter of the 18th century.

One of the most important events was the reform in 1708 of the Cyrillic printed semi-charter and the introduction of new editions of civil type. Of the 650 titles of books published under Peter I, about 400 were printed in the newly introduced civil type.

The process of the emergence of a new typeface can be natural or artificial. This process is natural when a new typeface is created in one or another historical period on the basis of the emerging new writing graphics. Russia was prepared for the creation of a new font already at the end of the 17th century, but Peter I took the initiative in this matter. From the surviving letters of Peter it is known that the drawings of new Russian letters in January 1707 were made by the “draughtsman and draftsman” Kulenbach. From these letters it is also clear that Kulenbach was a technical performer of Peter's tasks, and the emperor himself developed preliminary sketches of the letters of the alphabet.

A total of 32 lowercase and four uppercase originals were made. The originals of the rest of the capital letters had to be made according to the sketches of the lowercase letters. The font in three sizes was commissioned from Amsterdam. Copies of the drawings were also given to the masters of the Moscow Printing House. However, the prints received did not satisfy Peter. Technically, they were at their best, but the design of some letters did not correspond to the ideas of the king. Having made some changes to the lettering, Peter again ordered the converted letters. In the new versions, the font has become much calmer. Due to changes in the civil type letters, as a result, they formed predominantly rectangular shapes.

On January 18, 1710, Peter I visited the Printing House and approved the prints of the alphabet. Then he carried out the last proofreading: he crossed out some signs of the printed semi-charter and the first variants of the signs of the new font, and then with his own hand on the inside of the binding cover he wrote: “Sims of the letter to print historical and manufactory books.” However, the original forms of the letters of the civil font of 1708 were used together with those approved by Peter until the 40s of the 18th century. On the first sheet of the reference alphabet is the date of the end of the reform: "Given the year of the Lord 1710, Genvara on the 29th day."

The new alphabet had several names. At first, Peter called her Amsterdam. This clearly referred to the fonts that were made in Amsterdam. Sometimes the alphabet was called Belarusian. This name, most likely, is explained by the fact that additional drawings of letters were received in 1708 from Belarus. Even when compiling the educational alphabet in 1708, the inventors of the civil type themselves decided to call it handwritten, since its fundamental basis was civil writing. As a result, the ABCs of the Petrine and post-Petrine eras were published under the title "Image of Ancient and New Slavonic Printed and Handwritten Writings."

The composition of the Russian alphabet and its graphics continued to change later. The alphabet was settled by the middle of the 18th century and remained in this form until the reforms of 1917-1918, while the outline of the letters completely coincided with the current one. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the script of other peoples who used the Cyrillic alphabet (Serbian, Bulgarian, Romanian) was reorganized on the model of the Russian civil font and using the same letter styles (with the necessary changes).

Monuments of the Old Slavonic language

The most important Glagolitic monuments of the Old Church Slavonic language are the Kiev Leaflets, or the Kyiv Missal (10th century), the Zograf, Aryan and Assemanian gospels, the Collection of Klots, the Sinai Psalter, and the Sinai breviary (11th century).

The Assemanian gospel (codex) belongs to the 11th century. It contains 158 sheets. The Assemanian gospel is an aprakos, i.e. a collection of gospel readings according to the Christian calendar. The monument is named after the orientalist Assemani. It was him in the 18th century. took the manuscript out of Jerusalem. Now it is kept in the Vatican (hence - sometimes the "Vatican Gospel").

In the margins of the manuscript in the 12th-13th centuries and later, entries were made in Cyrillic. Particularly interesting in terms of folklore are the records of the 12th-13th centuries about the "evil days" of each month.

The Mariinsky gospel (codex) was created in the 11th century, presumably in Macedonia. It includes 173 leaves, 8 of which are lost. The manuscript received its name from the monastery of St. Virgin Mary on Athos, where she was kept. In 1842 the monument was found by V. Grigorovich. Now it is stored in the State Library. Lenin, Moscow.

The Mariinsky Gospel is a monument of the Old Slavonic language of the Serbian edition. It has some Serbian phonetic features contributed by a Serbian scribe.

The Zograf gospel (codex) dates back to the 11th century. It contains 304 sheets, some of which are missing. The monument got its name from the Zograf monastery on Athos, where it was kept for a long time. In 1860, the manuscript was donated to Alexander II, who gave it to the Public Library (now the M. Saltykov-Shchedrin Library in St. Petersburg), where it is still kept. The manuscript contains later inserts and additions made in Cyrillic.

The Sinai Psalter was created in the 11th century. The manuscript is the oldest text of the Psalter. Now it is kept in the monastery of St. Catherine on the Sinai Peninsula, Mount Sinai (hence the name). Based on the content and features of the language, this monument is considered to be associated with the Cyril and Methodius era.

The Sinai breviary or Euchologion - a collection of prayers and services for all occasions - was discovered and is kept in the monastery of St. Catherine at Sinai. For the most part, the Sinai breviary is a translation from the Greek language, a translation of articles relating to the performance of various rituals of religious significance. Some sections have been translated from German and Latin. Based on this, we can conclude that the original translations were created in the Moravian-Pannonian period of Old Slavonic writing.

The collection of Klotz belongs to the 11th century. It includes 14 sheets containing excerpts from a collection of teachings, commendable words. 12 sheets were found by V. Kopitar in Trient in the library of Count Klotz, published in 1836. Later F. Mikloshev "than were found in the museum in Innsbruck and published in 1860 2 more sheets.

Kiev leaflets are the oldest of the Glagolitic monuments that have come down to us, written in the 10th century. 7 leaves of the text have been preserved. The name is associated with the Kiev Theological Academy, in whose collection it was opened in 1874 by I. Sreznevsky. The manuscript contains an excerpt from the Catholic Mass (mass from here « « Kyiv Missal»), which indicates the Moravian origin of the text. It is according to him that typical styles of Glagolitic letters are usually given.

Savvin's book was created in the 11th century. In fact, the manuscript is a collection of gospel readings. The monument was named after the scribe priest Savva (2 postscripts: “priest Savva wrote”). Now Savin's book is stored in the Moscow Main Archive.

Eninsky apostle belongs to the 11th century. The manuscript contains 39 leaves and is a collection of apostolic readings. The monument was found in 1960 during the restoration of the church of St. Paraskeva, the village of Enina near Kazanlak (Bulgaria). The manuscript is the oldest surviving Slavonic copy of the Apostle. It reflects the features of the ancient Bulgarian language.

The Suprasl manuscript was created in the 11th century. It includes 260 sheets divided into 3 parts. The manuscript contains the March Menaion (a book of church readings for all days of March – lives, legends, conversations of John Chrysostom, etc.). The monument was found in a monastery in Suprasl, near Bialystok. The first part is located in Ljubljana, the second &ndash in Warsaw, the third (16 sheets) &ndash belonged to Academician I.Bychkov, is now stored in the library. M. Saltykov-Shchedrin in St. Petersburg.

The Ostromir Gospel is the oldest East Slavic dated monument. It was written in 1056-1057 by deacon Gregory (with assistants) for the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir, a relative of the Kiev prince Vladimir (this is indicated by the afterword). The manuscript includes 294 sheets of parchment text. The Ostromir Gospel is the first monument of the Old Slavonic language of the Russian edition. It was written by two scribes. The monument is luxuriously decorated and very well preserved. Now it is in the library. M. Saltykov-Shchedrin in St. Petersburg.

Conclusion

Thus, the history of Slavic writing is extremely rich and original. Of course, this left its mark on the further development of all Slavic languages. And although during its existence, Slavic graphics had a chance to go through a lot of changes and influences, not all of which were positive, nevertheless, it managed to maintain its originality and originality to this day.

* "The Life of Constantine," chapter 14

Filippova Yulia Nikolaevna
Position: teacher of Russian language and literature
Educational institution: MBOU "Khuzangaevskaya secondary school"
Locality: The village of Sikterme-Khuzangayevo
Material name: Research
Subject:"The emergence of Slavic writing"
Publication date: 10.03.2017
Chapter: complete education

"The emergence of Slavic writing".

Plan.

1) The relevance of the topic. The purpose and objectives of the research work.

2) From the history of the emergence of Slavic writing.

3) The emergence of ancient literature "treasury of people's memory":

A) The Tale of Bygone Years.

4) The meaning of the Old Slavonic alphabet.

4) Conclusion.

The emergence of Slavic writing.

The purpose of the research work: explore the emergence of the Slavic

writing and its significance in human culture.

Tasks:

1. Find out and answer the questions of the appearance of the first written language in Russia.

2. To study the first works and features of literature of the X-XIII centuries.

3. Consider the meanings of old letters that were widely used in Russian

literature.

Relevance and main content of the problem.

Now it is even strange to think that there was a time when people could not read and

write. All knowledge was transmitted orally. But then writing appeared - great

invention of mankind. It allowed people to retain knowledge that would otherwise

would certainly be forgotten.

The language of mankind reflects the whole world, all of our

a life. And by reading written or printed texts, we can be transported to

different times, and in the distant past.

The possibilities of writing are not limited by time or distance. But

People have not always mastered the art of writing. This art has been developing for a long time, on

over many millennia. Today, scientists believe that the features

thinking, worldview of a people are closely related to its language.

Of course, first of all, with the literary language, the language of written speech.

This was due to the spread of Christianity. Slavic

writing, and with it the literary language, was created to translate

biblical texts intended for worship. First Moravia and

Bulgaria, and after them - Poles, Czechs, Russians become Christians. But for

divine services, books were needed to explain the truths of faith. "Preach

only verbally is the same as writing in the sand,” our ancestors believed.

At the origins of the enlightenment of the Slavs were the holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Cyril and

Methodius. Equal-to-the-Apostles means equal to the apostles. That's what the saints are called

especially those who labored in the cause of spreading the faith.

For my work, I chose the topic "The emergence of Slavic writing"

because I think this issue is very important and interesting. For many centuries

a person uses writing to communicate with each other, but hardly anyone except

experts seriously thought about how important writing is for

each individual person on the one hand and for the entire human civilization

with another.

I think that the importance of writing can hardly be overestimated. Without writing

what we have now would never have arisen, and it would simply be impossible to talk about development

speak. It seems to me that writing is very important for human society,

because it is she who helps to partly connect people of different races

and nationalities, people who are at a great distance from each other.

It was after the advent of writing that the first codes of laws were created,

which connected the separate and disparate parts of the states among themselves.

2) From the history of the emergence of Slavic writing.

Until now, the Cyrillic alphabet in its various variants is used in Russia, Bulgaria,

Czech Republic, Yugoslavia. But there is no way to restore, remember, honor the names

people on whom the fate of Slavic writing depended no less. from morning to

late at night the scribe sat, slowly deducing intricate letters and patterns.

Is it possible to imagine life without electricity now? Of course it's difficult.

But it is known that earlier people wrote, read by torches and candles. BUT

imagine life without writing. But then there will be no libraries, books,

posters, letters, train tickets. No wonder the Russian writer, historiographer N.M.

Karamzin said: “The history of the mind represents two main eras: the invention of letters

and printing houses, and all others were a consequence. Reading and writing open to man

new world - especially in our time, with the current successes of the mind.

The road to writing was long and difficult. It all started as they think

some scientists, with bears. It was a very long time ago. At that time people lived in

caves, as there were no houses yet. And bears lived in some caves.

One day people forced them out of some cave, looked around and

they saw some mysterious signs on the walls of their new dwellings. These were

scratches that the bears made when they sharpened their claws against the wall. People realized that

on a flat surface, you can scratch the image. Thus arose the road to

writing. But the road was long. From an excerpt from an American poem

poet G. Logfellow "The Song of Hiawatha", about the legendary leader of the Indians.

He took paints out of the bag,

He took out paints of all colors

And on a smooth birch bark

Made a lot of secret signs

Marvelous and figures and signs;

They all portrayed

Our thoughts, our speeches.

The white circle was the sign of life

Sky, stars, moon and sun,

Waters, forests, and mountain heights,

And everything that inhabits

Earth with man.

He painted for the earth

Paint a straight line

For heaven - an arc above it,

For sunrise - a point to the left,

For sunset - point to the right,

And for half a day - at the top.

All space under the arc

White day meant

The stars in the center are the time of night

And wavy stripes

Clouds, rain and bad weather.

It can be concluded that Hiawatha invented writing. But the letter at that time was

picturesque.

Then the pictorial writing was replaced by "sacred signs" - hieroglyphs, and

when, two thousand years ago, the Phoenicians invented letters-icons only for

consonants - cuneiform. The first alphabet appeared on the basis of the Phoenician letter,

which gave rise to both Latin and Slavic writing.

3) The emergence of ancient literature "treasury of people's memory."

The events of the initial history of our Motherland are stored in the treasury

people's memory - "The Tale of Bygone Years", which was written by the chronicler Nestor.

"TALE OF TIME YEARS ABOUT THE BEGINNING OF SLAVIC WRITING

From our main witness to the original history of Russia - "Tales of temporary

years" - we learn that once the Slavic princes Rostislav, Svyatopolk and Kotsel

sent ambassadors to the Byzantine king Michael with the following words:

"Our land has been baptized, but we have no teacher to instruct and instruct us, and

explained the holy books. For we know neither Greek nor Latin; alone

teach us this way, and others otherwise, because of this we do not know either the outline of the letters or their

values. And send us teachers who could tell us about book

words and their meaning.

Then Tsar Michael summoned two learned brothers - Constantine and Methodius

and "the king persuaded them, and sent them to the Slavic land to Rostislav, Svyatopolk and

Kotselu. When these brothers arrived, they began to compose the Slavic alphabet and

translated the Apostle and the Gospel.

This happened in 863. From here the Slavic originates.

writing.

However, there were people who began to blaspheme Slavic books and

said that "no nation should have its own alphabet, except for the Jews,

Greeks and Latins, as in the inscription of Pilate, who wrote on the cross of the Lord

only in these languages.

To protect the Slavic writings, the brothers Constantine and Methodius

went to Rome. The Bishop of Rome condemned those who grumble against Slavic books,

saying thus: "Let the word of Scripture be fulfilled: 'Let all nations praise God!'

is, let every nation pray to God in its own language." Thus he affirmed

Worship in Slavonic. Since the XII century in the history of Russian chronicle writing

a new period begins. If before the centers of chronicle writing were Kyiv and

Novgorod, now, after the fragmentation of the Russian land into many different-sized

principalities, chronicles are created in Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Vladimir,

Rostov, Galich, Ryazan and other cities, acquiring a more local character.

The most important cases and

accomplishments of national importance. So, for example, 988 is the year of the baptism of Russia and the year

opening in Kyiv of the palace school "Teachings of the Book". Along with Latin,

Greek and Arabic schools, the Slavic one enters the historical arena.

The birth of a new school is associated with the creation of the Slavic alphabet by Konstantin

(Cyril) and his brother Methodius in 863. But the first school was opened in

the capital of the Moral Principality, Veligrad. They taught there in Old Church Slavonic

language. About 200 scribes were brought up. The alphabet was called "Cyrillic". AT

democratic schools were given a 32-letter Cyrillic alphabet, and in

monastic 45-letter Cyrillic alphabet.

Using the proverb: “Truth speaks through the mouth of a baby,” we don’t even think about

that we use, in essence, not a single “purely” Russian word. So

let's talk about the initial letters of the old Russian letter. For an old Russian person

the sky, the whole world was a book, an unfolded scroll, which not everyone managed to

read. The very outline of the letters found in itself a blueprint of the world, where one could see

the bend of the wing, the plexus of roots, the sun. Each letter is individual, unique,

How unique is each leaf on the tree of life. Just two centuries after

the spread of writing in Russia, the first major work was created

ancient Russian literature, the greatest monument, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".

I see Russia!

Solemnly severe

Listening to the dark line...

And there is,

First there was the word

It was "The Word of the Shelf"...

At the end of the XII century, the most famous of the poetic works was created

ancient Russian literature - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The main plot of this

works became a description of an unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsy Novgorod-

Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich (1185). The main idea of ​​the Lay was

the need for the unity of the Russian princes in the face of external danger.

4) The meaning of the Old Slavonic alphabet.

Let's talk about the old letter names that were widely used in

Russian literature for artistic purposes. The first letter of the alphabet is "az" ("a") in

our days continues its life in stable expressions, phraseological units. O

a person who knows nothing, understands nothing in any business, can

say: “He doesn’t know the basics by sight.”

"Buki" ("b") - the name of the second letter of the Russian alphabet is included in the proverb: "Az yes

beeches are all sciences”, is used in the expression “do not poke your beeches ahead of the basics”,

saying that everyone should know their place.

“Vedi” (“v”) is the third letter of the old Russian alphabet. Az, beeches, lead - often

are played up by writers to indicate the basis of knowledge, what is needed

start any kind of education. “We az, beeches, lead, that's what we need to learn from” - so

wrote A.N. Tolstoy in his novel "Peter 1".

“Verb” (“g”) is a form of the word “verb” (to speak).

The expression "not to pass the verb" means to be hanged. In the last century

small confectionery products in the form of various figures and

letters. There is also a saying among the people: “Beeches, insects, bring cockroaches, verb

stump (poker)".

“I” used to be called “and decimal”, but there was also “octal” - this is our

"and". When we want to finally find out, clarify all the details, bring everything

to the logical end, we say: dot the "and". For example, I.S.

Turgenev in the work "Outer Waters" you can find the following phrase: "Marya

Nikolaevna carefully asked about everything, entered into everything; her every word

hit the target, put a dot right on the "i".

"Think" ("M") - to think. The word “think” gave life to the playful, not

phraseologism used today "write think". look

the outline of this letter is an indirect, broken line, and you will understand why

this expression. So, unfortunately, very drunk people go. In comedy N.V.

Gogol's "Marriage" we can meet such lines: "Look at your feet

holding on. He writes such a thought every day.

"Firth" ("f") - the origin of the word has not been established. In appearance, the inscription

the letters are reminiscent of a man akimbo. There are expressions: stand

firth, walk firth-important, show off. A.S. Pushkin writes:

“At the wall there is a young fir

Worth a picture of a magazine.

"Yat" comes from "yad" in the meaning of "food, food", denoted a special vowel

a sound very narrow (e), close in sound to (i), or a sound intermediate between (e) and (i),

which by the 18th century was already pronounced in the literary language as (e). Letter

preserved in the 18-19th and even the beginning of the 20th century in the Russian alphabet only by tradition and

was abolished only after the revolution, but the word did not completely disappear from the language, it

remained in the composition of the colloquial expression "to do on yat", that is, to do

very good.

"Yus big" and "yus small" - the origin of the word "yus" is unclear. These letters are in

the old days were used to denote the vowels "o" and "e" with a nasal overtone. Were

abolished by the reform of Peter 1 in 1708-1711, but the word for these

letters, "yus", was used in Russian in the 19th century, is known to this day in

Russian folk dialects, with the meanings: clerk, clerk, lawyer, hook.

"Fita" - the word comes from the name of the same letter, borrowed from

Greek alphabet, but having a different meaning there - “theta”. Under influence

somewhat negative perception of the letter, the word denoting it has acquired

figurative meaning with the same negative connotation: frivolous,

frivolous person.

"Izhitsa" is the name of the last letter of the old Russian alphabet, which came from

Greek alphabet, was abolished by the reform of Peter 1, but became part of

phraseological unit: "to reach Izhitsa" in the sense of completing, finishing something.

In 1708, Peter 1 ordered instead of Church Slavonic to introduce into schools

civil alphabet. But the most expensive letter of the Russian alphabet was considered "b" (er).

When this letter was removed, it turned out to save paint, time, and money.

But this letter is also the most silent, it was also called a parasite, as it devoured

a lot of time and paper, which cost more than 400 thousand rubles annually in Russia!

The silence of this letter is pure gold.

Conclusion.

The importance of writing in our life is very great. Thanks to the aggregate

factors - geographical, social and economic and the emergence of writing

the first civilizations appeared. Moreover, in these conditions, a person could no longer

dispense with writing. It seems to me that writing can exist

only in the conditions of civilization, while civilization also cannot

exist without writing.

The importance of the invention of writing cannot be overestimated. Because on the possibilities

to this they reach future generations through centuries and millennia. As a result,

Humanity is accumulating experience, growing knowledge.

I think that even the writings that have now disappeared from the face of the Earth have

of great importance to mankind, as it is a legacy. Partly because

once influenced the development of culture, and also because they served as the basis for

subsequent writings. Through writing, we are able to

"look" into ancient times and learn about the life of people in the very first

states, about what were their laws and understanding of life. While without

writing most of the achievements of human thought and almost all

the life experience of previous generations would have disappeared without a trace.

I.A. Bunin in this poem bequeathed to his descendants to protect our Russian

speech. And I also urge you, our young generation, to respect,

respect and understanding of Russian culture, our traditions.

Sing about Russia

what to strive for in the temple

Over forest mountains, field carpets…

Sing about Russia

to meet spring

What to expect the bride

to comfort mother...

To sing about Russia - what to forget longing,

What love is to love

what to be immortal!