One of the main phonetic units of the language is sound - the minimum speech unit (see § 4). Therefore, it is easy to assume that it is the sound that performs a semantic function: [ardor] - [dust`] (dust - dust), [sorry`t`] - [shal`s`t`] (pity - prank), [tank] - [side] - [bull] (buck - side - bull). This is partly a correct assumption: in the examples given, the differences in the quality of opposed sounds that are in strong positions turn out to be significant, leading to a change in the meaning of words. At the same time, there are sounds that are incapable of changing the word or its form by themselves. For example, the word Spring can be pronounced with a sound [and e], closer to [e] or to [and], the word snake- with hard [h] or soft [h`], but in any case, the words will remain the same: their meaning will not change.
It is easy to see that any word in the mouth of different people, for example, a man, a woman or a child, will be pronounced differently. Moreover, even the same person at different times, depending on the circumstances, the emotional state and the characteristics of his speech, will pronounce the same word differently in terms of sound. This means that in the same word a person pronounces sounds differently each time, and therefore, these will be different sounds. Nevertheless, despite the many options that do not affect the change in the meaning of the word, a person perceives the same word spoken by different people under different circumstances, precisely as the same word with the same set of sounds.
So, some sounds in certain cases are able to distinguish between words and morphemes, while others are not, because they are identified by speakers and are perceived as one and the same specific sound. Therefore, we can talk about the existence of a special phonetic unit that unites different variants of sounds in our minds. Such a unit is called phoneme . Its characteristic feature is that it phoneme distinguishes individual words or morphemes(since, as mentioned above, the pronunciation of variants of sounds in the same word does not lead to its change), i.e. different sounds speaking in the same position represent different phonemes if they change the meanings of words: [house], [pulp], [kom], [scrap], [nom], [rum], [som], [ volume].
At the same time, different sounds are combined into one phoneme, speaking in different positions, but within the same morpheme. Thus, a phoneme can not only distinguish, but also identify morphemes.
A person who speaks Russian can easily call words with the same root trip, ride, ride, departure, traveler. But if we compare the sound composition of the root, it turns out that in each case it is different:
on[y`] [é] [s] [t] ka
[y`] [and e] [h] [d] a
[th`][eʹ][h`][d`] it
you[y`][b][s][t]
volume[th`][eh][w`:] ik
Nevertheless, it is clear that this difference is associated with a change in pronunciation conditions (strong and weak positions of both vowels and consonants change), i.e. with positional alternation of sounds. Therefore, we can say that the sound shell of a given root, taken regardless of the specific words in which it occurs, includes not only a single sound [y`], but also rows of positionally alternating sounds:
[e] // [and e] // [b]
[s] // [s] // [s`]
[t] // [d] // [d`]
[s] [t] + [h`] // [w`:]
Since all these alternating sounds do not affect the change in the lexical meaning of the root, it means that each of them is a representative of one particular phoneme.
Thus, it is possible to supplement the definition of a phoneme. ^ A phoneme is a special phonetic unit, which is a series of positionally alternating sounds, which serves to distinguish and identify words and morphemes.
Each phoneme is an abstract concept of phonetics. In speech, it does not exist at all. It is impossible to hear or pronounce the phoneme, because it is a whole series of sounds that appear in turn in any morpheme in monostructural words. Consequently, the phoneme exists in our minds as a generalization of a number of sounds that have a certain acoustic and articulatory similarity. In speech, the phoneme is realized in the form of specific sounds. The sound is the representative of the phoneme in the word, it is what we hear and pronounce. Each of the positionally alternating sounds is called phoneme variant , or her allophone (from Greek. allos- another, phō nē - sound). Thus, the concepts of phoneme and sound are closely, inextricably linked, but not identical.
The complete definition of a phoneme will be as follows. A phoneme is a minimal abstract phonetic unit, represented by a whole range of positionally alternating sounds, which serves to distinguish and identify words and morphemes.
The question remains: if sounds are variants of phonemes, then what phoneme does each of the series of positionally alternating sounds represent? It is easy to see that the main purpose of phonemes - to distinguish between the sound shells of different morphemes - is best realized when the sounds representing them are in a strong position: no one will call words with the same root braid and goat, catfish and myself, because consonants [s] and [h] or vowels [o] and [a], which distinguish these pairs, are in a strong position, and therefore it would be correct to say that the words braid and goat differ in consonant phonemes and respectively, and the words catfish and myself- vowel phonemes and. But in a weak position, such differences are erased, which leads to indistinguishability of the meaning of words: We do not have[braid] . (Kos or goats?) I[smaʹ] caught[smaʹ] . (I caught a catfish myself or I caught a catfish myself?) In order to understand the meaning of what was said (and, by the way, to write it down correctly), it is necessary to determine with which word the given word corresponds, i.e. find for a sound in a weak position, the corresponding strong position: We do not have[kos] - [ksaʹ] (sound [s] is a variant of the phoneme). We do not have[kos] - [kzaʹ] (the sound [s] in this case is a variant of the phoneme). [smaʹ] - [self] (sounds [] // [a] - options), [smaʹ] - [som] (sounds [] // [o] - options).
To find out which phoneme variant is the sound of a weak position, you need to change the word so (or choose a single-structured word) so that the weak position in this morpheme is replaced by a strong one. So, the sounds [b] // [and e] // [a] in single-root words [h`s howl`] (hourly), [ch`i e sy] (clock), [hour] (hour)– phoneme variants: [h`as]; sounds [b] // [] - in single-prefix words [ptsd`it`] (plant), [p bottom] (tray)– phoneme options: [potp`is`] (signature).
In some cases, it is not possible to find a strong position for the sound. For example, in the words [kempty] (cabbage), [kus'n'ak] (cabbage) it is impossible to determine which phoneme the sounds [] // [ъ] are a variant of. It could be either way. In the word [v`i e z`d`e] (everywhere) the consonant [з`] is in a weak position both in sonority of deafness and in hardness-softness. So, [з`] can be a variant of phonemes, . There is no strong position for the consonant in this word, therefore, it is impossible to determine a specific phoneme. In such cases, we are dealing with the so-called hyperphoneme (for cabbage, cabbage, for everywhere).
A hyperphoneme is a phonetic unit represented by a series of positionally alternating sounds for which there is no strong position. A hyperphoneme is also called a weak phoneme, because it denotes only the supposed variants of strong positions. We also meet with a hyperphoneme in the case when the existence of two equal strong positions is possible: (bow down)- [clan'ts: b] (bow) and [pclone] (bow). [] // [a] // [o] - options.
It should be noted that in school practice it is not yet customary to use the term "phoneme". In fact, in the concept of "sound" its understanding is introduced precisely as a phoneme, i.e. a unit that performs a meaningful function. Meanwhile, the teacher must be clearly aware of the difference between the two concepts - "phoneme" and "sound". Indeed, the basis of Russian orthography is precisely the phonemic, and not the sound principle: letters denote phonemes, not speech sounds, i.e. the whole series of positionally alternating sounds is usually transmitted using the same letter ([b] // [and e] // [a] - [vyt`nut`], [t`i e n`i] , [t` an`t] - you are tI
kick, tI
neither, tI
No). The same - phonemic - principle applies when writing not only single-root words, but also single-prefixed, single-suffixed, single-inflectional: on
in pairs– because on
empty, HeyLiv
th– because pugliv
th, on the alleye
– because on the wallse
etc. Sometimes the phonemic principle is violated (say, based on the phonemic principle, there should only be a prefix from-([dig`] (dig holes everywhere)[fromvomit`] (tear)- strong positions for [h]), but there is also a prefix is-: is
spoil,is
dry). In such cases, you have to use special spelling rules.
Questions and tasks
What is a phoneme?
What is the difference between a phoneme and a sound? How is the phoneme realized in speech?
What is the function of the phoneme?
What are the sounds that represent the same phoneme called?
How to determine the phoneme, which is realized in a weak position?
What is the name of a phoneme that never appears in a certain morpheme in a strong position? Give your own examples of words with such a unit.
What is the practical significance of understanding the phoneme?
Determine what phonemes the words differ in: shaft - ball - small - hall, volume - current - tone - throne - touch, steel - steel - stand, blade of grass - speck of dust, tank - side - beech - bull, mother - crush, flight - will pour, theme - crown, jackdaw - pebbles, seven - eat, circle - hook, slot - target, cut - cover, fastening - creaking, ale - spruce.
In one of the manuals on the Russian language, the following task is given: “Remove one phoneme from each word to get a new word: relish, paint, slope, regiment, heat, trouble, screen". Complete this task and find the error.
Below are the phonemes of the Russian language. Determine the allophones that these phonemes realize: , . Illustrate your answer with examples.
Make a phonetic transcription of the proverb. Name all the vowel phonemes.
Determine the phonemic composition of words: piglet, bone, forget-me-not, sadness, youth, old woman, enjoy, ruthless.
§thirteen. The composition of the phonemes of the modern Russian language
Since a phoneme is determined by its strong variant, it is quite easy to count the number of vowel and consonant phonemes in the Russian language: there are as many of them as there are sounds in strong positions. However, not all linguists show unity in their views on the system of phonemes. Thus, representatives of various philological schools qualify the vowel [s] in different ways. Some scientists consider it an independent phoneme, because. this sound occurs in a strong position ( son, pumpkin, fathers). Others call [s] a variant of the phoneme, because, firstly, this sound occurs in a strong position only after hard consonants (for other vowels, a strong position is possible both after hard and soft consonants), and secondly, the sound [s] is practically never found at the beginning of a word (unlike [and]).
There is no unity in the selection of some consonant phonemes: not all linguists consider phonemes to be independent, (because the sounds [g`], [k`], [x`] usually appear in a strong position only before front vowels: cunning, hero, (in) hand– and are never at the absolute end of a word). Some scientists do not agree with the existence of phonemes, considering their longitude as the result of the assimilation of two sounds: [s] [h`] or [sh] [h`].
Given the specifics of the faculty that trains primary school teachers, we propose to join the opinion of linguists, who determine the number of phonemes depending on the number of possible strong positions.
In accordance with this approach, 6 vowel phonemes are distinguished in modern Russian: ,
(see § 10) - and 37 consonants : , , , , ,
(see § 11).
Questions and tasks
What is the essence of the disputes about the composition of the phonemes of the Russian language?
What position of the vowel phoneme is called strong?
What position of a consonant phoneme is called strong?
Name the weak positions of phonemes in terms of deafness-voicedness and hardness-softness.
Using your own examples, prove the existence of 6 vowels and 37 consonant phonemes in Russian.
Name the phonemic composition of the underlined words:
Floated on the sky clouds. the fifth landed on the road,
Clouds - four things: from her tosky blue bosom
from the first to the third - people,fled an elephant behind an elephant.
fourth was a camel. And, I don’t know, whether the sixth frightened,
To them, embraced by curiosity, the clouds took everything - and melted ...
(V. Mayakovsky)
§fourteen. Phonemic transcription
The sound composition of a word is transmitted using phonetic transcription, which takes into account the entire variety of sounding speech (see § 3). Phonetic transcription is of great importance for fixing the acoustic and articulatory features of sounds.
^ Phonemic transcription conveys the phonemic composition of a word without taking into account positional variants. Word young in phonetic transcription it is written as [mldoy`], in phonemic transcription - (we can prove that the sounds [b] and [] are variants of the phoneme - mó lod, moló same). In phonemic transcription, compared to phonetic transcription, fewer additional characters are used. In general, it is quite close to spelling, since Russian spelling is based on the phonemic principle.
To get a phonemic transcription, you need to follow these steps:
Make a phonetic transcription of the word.
Determine the position of each sound in it.
If the sound is in a strong position, transfer the corresponding sign to phonemic transcription. If in a weak
For example, [rsp`iskʹ] (receipt). The sounds [p], [n`], [k] (before vowels) and [and] (in a stressed syllable) are in a strong position. For other sounds, you need to look for strong positions. The sound [] is in the prefix, which means that you need to find a word where this prefix would match the stressed syllable - [rozvl`n`i] (roses walni), [sp`is`] (grew up letter). Therefore, [] is a variant. The prefix sound [s] is in a weak position in terms of voicing-deafness (before a noisy consonant), but in a strong position in terms of hardness-softness (not before [d`], [t`], [n`]). A strong position for him will be a position before a vowel, sonorant or [in], [in`] - [razy`t`is`] (times go), [rzl`it`] (once pour), [razvl`n`i] (roses walni). So [s] is a variant. The root sound [s] is also in a weak position only in terms of sonority-deafness. One-root word [p`isat`] (pis at) suggests that [s] is a variant. The sound [ъ] is in the ending, therefore, you need to find a word where the ending sound would be in a strong position. If for significant morphemes, looking for a single-structural word with a corresponding strong position, we had to take into account the lexical meaning (or the shade of the lexical meaning), then for an ending that has only a grammatical meaning, we need to find a word with the same grammatical meaning. Receipt- a feminine noun, standing in the form of the nominative case, singular. Therefore, words with the same grammatical meaning - starsa , wallsa , chargeI etc. - they will tell you that [b] is an option. So, the phonemic notation of the word receipt – .
Other examples:
[ptshyt`] - - hem
under
writingunder
go idti
[kulkol`ch`ik] - - bell
bell bellchik a
(no strong position)
[хвstaty`y] - - tailed
tail
zland I
yoursI
[b`r`gvoy`] - - coastal
shore atbrezh elephantov th
Plan:
Phoneme as the basic concept of functional phonetics.
Phonological schools: Moscow Phonological School (MPS) and St. Petersburg Phonological School.
Phoneme as the basic concept of functional phonetics.
Functional phonetics, or phonology, deals with the study of human speech sounds from a functional point of view. The functional aspect of phonetics was substantiated in the 70s of the XIX century. Ivan Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay. Baudouin de Courtenay introduced the basic concept of phonology - the concept phonemes, which he contrasted with sound.
To understand what a phoneme is, let us first recall what sound is. Sound is the smallest segment unit that has no value.
How many sounds are in the language? The variety of sounds is very great. What is the reason for this?
This is due to:
speech situation in which the speaker finds himself. For example, spontaneous speech or pre-prepared speech (competition of readers).
articulation features characteristic of every person. Even the same person can pronounce the same word in different ways - slower or faster, quieter or louder, hoarse or loud. Even more can be the difference between the sounds uttered by different people - women and men, adults and children. However, as a rule, we do not notice the differences between the sounds of speech, but hear (if we pay attention to it) only the difference between voices.
the position that the sound occupies. For example, in Russian, a stressed vowel is pronounced longer than an unstressed one; consonants p, t, k, which are at the absolute end of the word, are pronounced with a very strong aspiration, which is not present if these consonants are before a vowel: cf. soup and a gun, mouth and sense, cry and a drop.
Let's take a closer look at this thesis.
Pay attention to the words printed below. What sounds do you make at the pass? Listen to yourself.
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freeze | |
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to[…]do |
in[…]dana |
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to[…]gird | |
|
pull | |
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to[…]plant | |
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to[…]chew | |
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to[…]fry | |
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by[…]teaches |
In all cases, we pronounce different sounds, somewhere we catch the differences better, somewhere worse.
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on[ d]freeze |
in[ ʌ ]Yes |
|
on[ d']make |
in[ b]dana |
|
on[ t]girdle |
in[ ó ]dy |
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on[ t']to pull | |
|
on[ c]plant | |
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on[ d͡ h]itch | |
|
on[ d͡ f]fry | |
|
on[ d°]teaches |
What causes different sounds?
The appearance of a particular sound in this case is due to phonetic position where the sound hits: whether the sound is at the end of a word or in the middle, before or after any sound, under stress or without stress, etc.
The position changes, the sound changes. This is similar to the state of water in nature: the temperature is below 0 ° C - we have ice in front of us; the temperature has risen - the position has changed - the ice has turned into a liquid; the temperature became higher than 100 ° C - the position changed again - steam appeared.
Positional changes know no exceptions: a sound has hit a certain position and must necessarily be replaced by another sound.
The replacement of one sound by another under the influence of phonetic position is called phonetic positional alternation .
At the same time, alternation captures all cases, without exception, where there are conditions for its manifestation.
Do we always perceive sounds subject to positional changes as different?
In different ways: somewhere we hear differences, somewhere not. In some cases, we are even surprised if we are told that there is a different sound here.
Why don't we always notice the difference between positionally alternating sounds?
This is due to the fact that the difference between the positionally alternating sounds is insignificant for us, this difference appears only in a certain position.
Let's conduct a small experiment with the word v[ó]dy: we will keep the positional conditions (the position of the consonant before the stressed vowel [ó]), but we will change something.
[m odes]
[G odes]
[to odes]
[R odes]
Look, we've saved the positional conditions for the first consonant.
But does the speaker and the listener notice that the consonants in these words are different? Of course he notices. Notices, despite the fact that the positional conditions remained unchanged.
Why? Because the difference between these sounds is independent, it exists independently of position, and therefore is significant for us.
And the last question. Why do we perceive “different” positionally alternating sounds, which are insignificant for us, as something unified?
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Positionally alternating sounds, sound changes are insignificant: no matter how the prefix or root is pronounced, we always perceive the prefix as "sub-", and the root - -water- |
The position is the same sound changes are significant: we perceive all words as separate words that have an individual lexical meaning |
|
|
on[ d]freeze |
in[ ʌ ]Yes | |
|
on[ d']make |
in[ b]dana |
[m odes] |
|
on[ t]girdle |
in[ ó ]dy |
[G odes] |
|
on[ t']to pull |
[to odes] |
|
|
on[ c]plant |
[R odes] |
|
|
on[ d͡ h]itch | ||
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on[ d͡ f]fry | ||
|
on[ d°]teaches | ||
“Different” positionally alternating sounds that are insignificant for us, we perceive as something unified, because these sounds in our minds are representatives of the same thing, of a certain community. This commonality is the phoneme.
Phoneme- this is the minimum abstract unit of the language, linearly indivisible, represented in speech by positionally alternating sounds.
Modifications of a phoneme depending on its position in a word are called it allophones(from Greek allos "another", phone "sound") or phoneme variants.
Relationship between phoneme and sound (allophone) - it is the relationship between the general (phoneme) and the particular (allophone). All actually pronounced sounds are allophones. Allophones are combined into a relatively small number of phonemes. Thus, phoneme- this is the general, existing in many private manifestations - allophones.
A phoneme is thus always represented by one of its allophones, and in this sense is not itself a particular sound. Each of the obligatory allophones is an “equal” representative of the phoneme, even if it is not the main one. This circumstance is often overlooked due to the fact that a phoneme is usually called the "name" of its main allophone. For example, we say "phoneme<a>", pronouncing at the same time one specific allophone, but implying all possible ones.
The phoneme itself can neither be spoken nor heard: it exists only in our minds. The phoneme exists only "embodied" in one or another sound, and which one depends on the position. In our examples, these are phonemes<д>and<о>.
The phoneme is the "perfect portrait of sound".
!!! The Meaning of Phoneme Theory(functional phonetics) lies in the fact that it explains why some sound differences are assessed as very significant and are noticed by the speaker, while others - objectively no less significant - attract attention only under special conditions and, as a rule, "pass over the ears."
Phonological schools: Moscow Phonological School (MPS) and St. Petersburg Phonological School.
In the approach to determining the phoneme and the phonemic composition of a language in Russian linguistics, two directions have developed - the St. Petersburg (Leningrad) Phonological School (SP (L) FS) and the Moscow Phonological School (MFS).
Example:
"The art forms are literature, music, sculpture and portraiture."
Division rules are not respected; the rule of proportionality is violated (all possible results of the division are not indicated) and the rule of continuity (the transition to the second-order species concept “portrait painting” is made instead of the nearest species concept “painting”).
a) States are divided into monarchical, republican and democratic.
b) Engines are carburetor, injection and electric.
c) Law is divided into public, private and criminal.
d) The climate is equatorial, subtropical and temperate.
e) There are presidential, parliamentary and mixed republics.
4.10. Build a classification from the following concepts.
Example:
“Table; furniture; cushioned furniture; armchair; closet; cabinet furniture; sofa".
furniture
upholstered furniture cabinet furniture
sofa armchair cabinet nightstand
a) Intentional crime; socially dangerous act; misdemeanor; disciplinary offence; negligent crime; administrative offense; a crime.
b) Catholicism, Mahayana, Islam, world religion, Hinayana, Christianity, religion, Protestantism, national religion, Sunnism, Orthodoxy, Shiism, Buddhism, Catholicism.
SIMPLE JUDGMENTS
5.1. Determine the type and analyze the structure of the following judgments. Express judgments with attitude in the form of attributive judgments.
Example:
"Alexey is older than Mikhail."
Judgment with attitude; subjects - "Aleksey" and "Mikhail"; the predicate is "older". Let's transform it into an attributive judgment: "Alexey is the one who is older than Mikhail."
"Tutorials in all disciplines exist on electronic media."
judgment of existence; subject - "training programs on electronic media in all disciplines."
"Some of the political decisions taken by the leadership of the USSR were wrong."
Attribute judgment; subject - "political decisions taken by the leadership of the USSR"; the predicate is "erroneous".
a) Russia is a nuclear power.
b) The philosophical worldview arose later than the mythological one.
c) There are a number of fundamental studies on this problem.
d) Russian is the state language in Russia.
e) There are factors that limit the accessibility of education.
f) Your own fool is more expensive than someone else's wise guy.
5.2. Bring these attributive judgments to the canonical form; find the quantifier, subject, connective and predicate.
Example:
"Invalids of the Great Patriotic War are entitled to benefits."
Canonical form: "All invalids of the Great Patriotic War are those who are entitled to benefits."
Subject: "invalids of the Great Patriotic War."
Predicate: "those who are entitled to benefits."
Link: "are".
Quantifier: "everything".
a) All that glitters is not gold.
b) The humpbacked grave will fix it.
c) There is no evil without good.
d) Often, applicants do not confirm the grades obtained in the entrance examinations.
e) You can’t break through the wall with your forehead.
f) As a rule, the economic crisis contributes to the recovery of the economy.
5.3. Define the varieties of categorical judgments by establishing their structure. Write down the formula and letter designation of each judgment.
Example:
"Generalissimo Suvorov - an outstanding commander."
Judgment structure: S is P. This categorical judgment is generally affirmative (a judgment of type A).
a) A fixed-route taxi does not go on a flight without a technical inspection.
b) You can’t spoil porridge with butter.
c) It happened that great musicians did not have perfect pitch.
d) They do not beat a lying person.
e) An illegal transaction is considered invalid.
f) A penny saves a ruble.
5.4. Determine the structure of judgments, depict the relationship between the terms of the judgment using the circles of L. Euler. Set the distribution of terms in judgments.
Example:
"No support for terrorism can be justified."
Judgment structure: No S is P.
|
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a) In all legal states there is an independent judiciary.
b) Few shops sell at wholesale prices.
c) There are mistakes that do not give life experience.
d) A football player must not play with his hands.
e) Some students do not complete pre-graduation practice on time.
f) There are also sports fans among scientists.
g) Sochi is the capital of the 2014 Winter Olympics.
5.5. Determine which judgment corresponds to each of the proposed schemes.
a) Some wines are semi-dry.
b) Sometimes women are drivers of trolleybuses.
Answer: A-a, B-b
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a) Most children's books are not panorama books.
b) There are quite a few women among the deputies elected from party lists.
c) None of the restaurants are self-service.
d) Often there are snowy winters in the Urals.
e) Some actors are not talented.
f) All thefts are theft.
g) B.N. Yeltsin is the first president of Russia.
TOPIC 6. COMPLEX JUDGMENTS
6.1. Indicate the constituent parts of complex judgments, determine what logical union they are connected with.
Example:
“As soon as the father hinted at the fee, the captain began to sniff with fury” (R. Stevenson).
Components: "As soon as the father hinted at the fee", "the captain began to sniff furiously"
Logical conjunction: implication (“when…, then…”)
a) You like to ride, love to carry sleds.
b) Do not renounce the bag and the prison.
c) Either I get credit or I don't get credit.
d) An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.
e) If you hurry, you will make people laugh.
f) Patience and work will grind everything.
g) Neither classical mechanics nor special relativity were suitable for describing all physical processes.
h) Tomorrow it will either snow or rain.
i) Only when the invoice is paid will the next order be accepted.
6.2. Highlight equivalent and implicative (conditional) judgments. Determine the basis and consequence of implicative judgments.
Example:
1. "Out of sight, out of mind."
The judgment is implicative: "If out of sight, then out of mind."
Reason: "Out of sight."
Consequence: "Out of mind."
2. "Smoking is harmful to health."
The judgment is equivalent: "Smoking is the same as harming health."
a) The day is long until evening if there is nothing to do.
c) To live with wolves - howl like a wolf.
d) To teach a fool that the dead can be cured.
e) What will be, will not be avoided.
f) Trouble has come - open the gate.
6.3. Distinguish connecting and separating judgments. In disjunctive judgments, determine the type of disjunction.
Example:
1. "Friendship is friendship, and service is service."
The judgment is connecting, the union is a conjunction.
2. "Mushrooms are either poisonous or non-poisonous."
The judgment is separative, the union is a strict disjunction.
a) Soon the fairy tale is told, but the deed is not done soon.
b) The vehicle may be equipped with an electric motor or an internal combustion engine.
c) "With a shield or on a shield."
d) Bread and water - heroic food.
e) Take care of the dress again, and honor from a young age.
f) Products may or may not contain genetically modified ingredients.
6.4. Analyze the structure of judgments, determine the types of logical unions, write judgments in symbolic form.
Example:
"Don't be born smart or handsome, but be born happy."
A complex proposition consists of three simple propositions connected by the logical union "and" (conjunction). The first two propositions are negative.
Symbolic form:
a) Either we conduct marketing research, or we immediately start production.
b) Economic recession and declining living standards are the causes of social conflicts.
c) If you know a lot, you will soon grow old.
d) And I would be glad to heaven, but sins are not allowed.
e) Career growth is possible only when diligence is combined with initiative.
f) What we have, we do not store, having lost, weep.
h) A man doesn’t drink for a year, and doesn’t drink for two, but as soon as the devil breaks through, he drinks everything.
i) Do not be afraid of the dog that barks, but be afraid of the one that is silent and wags its tail.
6.5. Come up with complex sentences that have the following formulas.
Example:
There must be three simple incoming judgments in a given judgment; the first two together form the basis of the implication, and the third is the consequence.
Judgment: "If it is warm and sunny, then we will go for a walk."
a) →
b)↔
c) →
d)→
e)↔
f)→
6.6. Produce the negation of a complex proposition.
Example:
"If it's warm and sunny, we'll go for a walk."
Formula:
Negation:
It will be warm and sunny, but we will not go for a walk.
a) In the evening I will go to the cinema or the theatre.
b) If I successfully complete the test, I will get a good grade and be happy.
c) If tomorrow it snows or there is a strong wind, I will spend the whole day in front of the TV.
d) If the tram breaks down and there is no fixed-route taxi, then I will be late for classes and will not record the beginning of the lecture.
6.7. Are the judgments in the following pairs related to negation?
Example:
“If it is warm and sunny, then we will go for a walk. It will be warm and sunny, but we will not go for a walk.”
The judgments in this pair are in relation to negation, since as a result of the transformation of the formula of the first judgment, the formula of the second judgment is obtained
Formula of the first judgment:
Formula of the second judgment:
Negation:
a) The judge was humane and fair. The judge was neither humane nor fair.
b) I will buy a bun or a pie in the buffet. I will not buy a bun or a pie in the buffet.
c) If the student is preparing for the exam and has a good memory, then getting a positive mark is guaranteed. If the student does not prepare for the exam and does not have a good memory, then there is no guarantee of a positive grade.
6.8. Determine the truth of logical formulas.
Example:
| a | b | c | ||
| And | And | And | And | And |
| And | And | L | And | L |
| And | L | And | L | And |
| And | L | L | L | And |
| L | And | And | L | And |
| L | And |
