In previous articles, we have already mentioned how to concretize your speech in English and make it more expressive. Having discussed the types of vocabulary, we have not considered such an aspect of the language as pronunciation.

Unfortunately, teachers in schools rarely pay attention to him. Of course, it is impossible to be able to explain to a group of students about the intricacies of prosody and practice intonation or phrasal stress without forgetting to explain the rule within the time planned in the study schedule.

However, we will not lose sight of this aspect - the skill of correctly pronouncing vowels and consonants, determining logical stress and stress in polysyllabic words. After all, it is the pronunciation that makes your speech in English expressive, understandable and natural-sounding.

So, stress in English is divided into three types:

• verbal;
• Phrasal;
• Boolean.

word stress

Word stress is the emphasis of a syllable in a word. If you are familiar with the transcription of the English language, then you probably paid attention to the sign [‘], which is in every, even monosyllabic, word. This sign is used to indicate word stress and is placed before each stressed syllable.

One of the functions of semantic stress is the ability to distinguish one part of speech from another. For example:

Import /ɪmˈpɔːt/ (ch.) - import, bring;

Import /ˈɪmpɔːt/ (n.) - import, import.

Phrase stress

Phrasal stress is interpreted in different ways, but whatever the definition, its essence is the same - it is the selection of significant words in a sentence. The group of significant words includes the following parts of speech:

• Nouns

Mary is at ‘school - Mary is at school.

• adjectives

The pen is 'black - The pen is black.

• Adverbs

He runs 'fast - He runs 'quickly.

• Semantic verbs

He'said that! — He ‘said it!

• Interrogative and demonstrative pronouns.

‘When will it happen? - When will it happen?

‘This is my book - ‘This is my book.

logical stress

Logical stress is the most subtle and, one might say, unpredictable. After all, the speaker can use such stress when he wants to emphasize a particular word (i.e., make it significant). Sometimes when using logical stress, the phrasal one disappears.

This type of stress is used to contrast one word with another:

‘I did it first! – ‘I did it first! ("I" is opposed to another pronoun, such as "You" or "He").

The above facts cannot be called rules, since they are not permanent, but natural. Therefore, when studying stress in English, one should remember the patterns of pronunciation of certain words.

Do you want to try pronunciation exercises and understand word stress? We will address these issues in the second part of this article. Keep for updates.

Segmentation (from Latin Segmentum - segment) is the division of the speech stream into segments (slices, elements, segments of various lengths), which are isolated from a linear sequence of statements.

There are two types of segmentation - at the level of significant units (based on the plan of content) and at the sound, phonetic level (based on the plan of expression).

At the level of significant units, a sentence is distinguished - a syntagma (phrase) - a word - a morpheme - a phoneme. Segmentation here covers the units of all tiers of the language, so it can be called segmentation of the intertier type.

At the phonetic level, such units are distinguished as a phrase - a speech tact (phonetic word) - a syllable - a sound. Segmentation is limited here to only one level (phonetic), so it can be called intratier segmentation.

As different segments of the speech chain, sound, syllable, measure, phrase belong to the segmental level. In relation to sign units, they are their realization, although there is no one-to-one correspondence between them. Suffice it to say that a phrase does not necessarily coincide with a sentence: it can also combine several sentences; the boundaries of a phonetic word (speech beat) most often do not coincide with the boundaries of a word as a lexical unit, etc.

There are both quantitative and qualitative differences between sound units.

Quantitative: a phrase can consist of several measures, a measure can consist of several syllables, a syllable can consist of several sounds. But the reverse is not true.

Qualitative: the unity of the phrase is created by intonation, the unity of the measure is created by stress, the unity of the syllable is created by a wave of sonority, the unity of sound is created by its relative acoustic and articulatory homogeneity.

The phonological aspect of phonetics involves the study of not only segmental, but also supersegmental units of the sound structure of the language. However, there is no consensus among scientists both about the quantitative composition of those and other units in general, and about their distribution over the two named groups.

Among the various solutions to the problem, we point out the following:

segmental units include only speech sounds, supersegmental units include only stress and intonation

segmental units include sounds, syllables, measures, phrases, supersegmental units include stress and intonation

segmental units include sounds, supersegmental units include syllables, measures, phrases, stress, intonation

Stress is the selection of one of the syllables of a non-single word. With the help of stress, syllables are combined into phonetic words. In Russian, the stressed syllable is distinguished by greater strength, duration and timbre.

stress- this is the allocation in the speech of one or another unit in a sequence of homogeneous units using prosodic means. Depending on which unit it corresponds to, stress is distinguished verbal(highlighting one of the syllables in the word), phrasal or syntagmatic (singling out one - usually the last - word in a phrase or syntagma), logical(semantic selection of one of the words in a phrase or syntagma).

Ways to highlight the stressed syllable in Russian - a clear arti-

culation and longer duration of sounds, strength (loudness) and timbre of the voice. Weak stress differs in strength from normal stress and designation

is expected by the sign ̀: through the window, two hours, his sister, he arrived, he became an engineer, etc.

Side (additional) stress- weak stress, which occurs in polysyllabic words along with the main stress and usually stands closer to the beginning of the word. Side stress highlights parts of complex

(oil and gas, gas pipeline, geological exploration) and complex abbreviated (building materials, gas industry, medical academy) words, as well as some prefixes: anti-corrosion, post-graduate, pro-American, post-industry

strial. In commonly used words, side stress is not

is divided: fisherman, St. John's wort, plumbing, old-fashioned. In words with three to four parts, three stresses are possible: the first two are

the last one is the main one: oil producing, aerial photography, dust up to impermeable, gas production oyba nќ.

logical stress- highlighting in speech with a stronger stress of any significant, semantically important word.

fixed accent- stress, which during the formation of grammatical forms of the word and during word formation remains in the same place: book, books, book, book, about the book, books, books, books, about books, call, call, call, call, call, call; book - book, little book, book; rich - rich man, wealth; provide - provision; intercessor - petition, to intercede. About 96% of Russian words

of the Russian language have a fixed stress either on the basis or on the ending.

Movable stress- stress that passes from one syllable to another, from one morpheme to another, both during formation and word formation: letter - letters, fight - fights - struggle, star - stars, ear - ear - ears - ear, water - water. There are very few words with mobile stress, but they are among the most common and are included in the main vocabulary of the Russian language.

Intonation

2. PHRASE AND LOGICAL STRESS.

An integral syntactic intonation-semantic rhythmic unit is called a syntagma or phrase. Syntagma can be one word or a group of words, for example: Autumn. All our poor garden is crumbling. From pause to pause, the words are pronounced together. This unity is dictated by the meaning, the content of the sentence. The group of words representing the syntagma has an accent on one of the words, mostly on the last one. From the end of August / the air begins to get colder (K. Ushinsky). Every day I becomes more and more golden leaves (K. Ushinsky). One of the words in the group stands out: phrasal stress falls on it: August, get colder, in the afternoon, more, leaves. In practice, this is achieved by slightly amplifying or raising the voice, slowing down the tempo of pronouncing the word, and pausing after it.

It is necessary to distinguish logical stress from phrasal stress. (True, sometimes these types of stress coincide: the same word carries both phrasal and logical stress.) Words that are important in thought in a sentence stand out, they are brought to the fore by the tone of voice and the force of exhalation, subordinating other words. This "promotion by the tone of voice and the power of exhalation of the word to the fore in a semantic sense is called logical stress" . In a simple sentence, as a rule, there is one logical stress, for example: From the end of August, the air starts to get colder.

But often there are sentences with two or more logical stresses. For example: Dales, hills, fields flashed.

Here homogeneous members: valleys, hills, fields - logically stand out, become shock.

Logical stress is very important in oral speech. Calling it a trump card for the expressiveness of oral speech, K. S. Stanislavsky said: “Stress is the index finger, marking the most important word in a phrase or in a measure! In the highlighted word, the soul, the inner essence, the main points of the subtext are hidden! . Stanislavsky attached great importance to logical stress in artistic (stage) speech: “Stress is loving or malicious, respectful or contemptuous, open or cunning, ambiguous, sarcastic emphasis on a stressed syllable or word. This is his presentation, as if on a tray.

If the logical stress is incorrect, then the meaning of the whole phrase may also be incorrect. Let's see how the content of the statement changes from a change in the place of the logical stress in the sentence. We put the stress in turn on each word of the sentence:

You will you be at the theater today? (and not anyone else?)

You today you will in the theatre? (Will you come or not?)

You today will you be in the theatre? (and not tomorrow, not the day after tomorrow?)

You will be in today theater? (and not at work, not at home?)

The correct setting of logical stress is determined by the meaning of the entire work or its part (piece). The last phrase of Krylov's fable "The Pig under the Oak" sounds like this: Whenever up I could raise your snout, I would like you it is seen was, I that these acorns I on the to me growing... Of all the underlined stresses, the combination on me is the strongest. Such a logical separation is due to the content of the fable: the pig harmed the tree, the fruits of which she ate.

In each sentence, you need to find the word on which the logical stress falls. The practice of reading and speech has developed a number of guidelines on how to place logical stresses. These rules are set out, for example, in the famous book by Vsevolod Aksenov "The Art of the Artistic Word". With few exceptions, these rules help in reading the prepared text. Here are some of them:

1. Logical stress, as a rule, is placed on nouns and sometimes on verbs in cases where the verb is the main logical word and usually comes at the end of a phrase or when the noun is replaced by a pronoun. For example: Gathered in the hall spectators. The table was covered

2. Logical stress cannot be placed on adjectives and pronouns. For example: It's cold today day. Thanks to you. You Sorry me.

3. When comparing, the setting of a logical stress does not obey this rule. For example: I don't like blue Colour, but zeleny. to me like it and not for you.

4. When combining two nouns, the stress always falls on the noun, taken in the genitive case and answering the questions whose? whom? what? For example: This is an order commander.(When rearranging words the same way: This commander order).

5. The repetition of words, when each subsequent one reinforces the meaning and meaning of the previous one, requires a logical stress on each word with increasing amplification. For example: But what is in me now boils, worries,infuriates.

6. Enumerations in all cases (as well as the account) require an independent stress on each word. For example me got up, washed up, got dressed and drank tea. Appeared in the clearing tank, behind him second, the third, fourth...

7. When combining author's (or narrative) words with direct speech (when the text contains the own words of one of the characters), the logical stress is preserved on the main word of one's own speech. For example: - yes well, in my opinion, - Fyodor gritted through his teeth. It is impossible to mechanically apply these or other rules for setting logical stresses. You should always take into account the content of the entire work, its leading idea, the whole context, as well as the tasks that the reader sets himself when reading the work in this audience. It is also not recommended to "abuse" logical stresses. Speech overloaded with stresses loses its meaning. Sometimes this overload is the result of the separation of words during pronunciation. “Separation is the first step towards emphasizing ... - the first step towards extending the stress to that which does not require stress; it is the beginning of that unbearable speech, where every word becomes “significant”, where there is no more important, because everything is important, where everything matters, and therefore nothing means anything anymore. Such speech is unbearable, it is worse than obscure, because you cannot hear obscure or you can not listen, but this speech forces itself to listen, and at the same time it is impossible to understand, because when the stress does not help the clear disclosure of thought, it distorts and destroys it. ) .

One must learn not only to place stresses, but also to remove them or weaken them, obscuring the rest of the phrase - this obscuration should not mean a hasty and unclear pronunciation of the entire phrase. “Fussiness makes speech difficult. It makes it easier: her calmness and endurance. Removing stress from other words already highlights the stressed word. For example: Passed a whole a week,I before mother collected them on the road.11 Chuk and Gek I did not waste time too. 11 Chuk made himself dagger I from a kitchen knife, I and Huck found himself a smooth stick, I hammered a nail into it, I and it turned out peak... 11 Finally all the cases were finished. (A. Gaidar.) Strong stress on the word finished weakens the stress on the words on the road, too, dagger, pike, and with some words: stick, nail - removes the stress following the rules. Context suggests emphasizing some words and shading others.

American English

Within a semantic group (syntagma), not all words are pronounced the same; significant words that have an independent lexical meaning are highlighted in it with phrasal stress ...

Intonation and its components

Among the components of intonation, stress occupies a special place. It, like intonation itself, belongs to the supersegmental elements of the language. When they talk about stress, they usually mean verbal stress (i.e. ...

Intonation and its components

Logical stress is the selection of the most significant word from the point of view of a given situation with the help of intonational means. Any word in a phrase can be highlighted with logical stress. Phrase Student carefully reads ...

Intonation and its components

To characterize the emotional expressiveness of the word, Shcherba introduced the term "emphatic stress". This stress "puts forward" and enhances the emotional side of the word or expresses the affective state of the speaker in connection with this or that word ...

Intonation as a stylistic means of expression

Melody and especially the second important component of intonation - loudness (intensity) are used to emphasize some parts of the statement, called phrasal stress ...

The main ways of expressing grammatical meanings in English

Stress is not the most typical way of expressing grammatical meaning, because in English the stresses are fixed and unmoving. There are several pairs of words that can be attributed to this method. Worth noticing...

Depending on the composition of which language unit this or that part stands out, there are verbal and phrasal stresses ...

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian

Depending on what phonetic means verbal stress is carried out, power, quantitative and musical stress are distinguished. V.N. Nemchenko in his textbook gives the following definitions of the types of stress: By power stress ...

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian

In some words in speech, along with the main stress, an additional stress may occur. Such an accent is called side. This stress is usually found in polysyllabic words. For example, aircraft construction, flax spinning ...

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian

In complex proper names and geographical names, the place of stress can be different. In some words it falls on the first component of the compound, in others on the second: Tempelhof, Scharlottenburg, Elberfeldt, Saarbrucken, Schonefeld, Heilbronn...

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings

To express grammatical meanings, only stress can be used, which can change: monotonic mobile stress; polytonic (musical) stress. Mobile stress is used, for example ....

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings in morphology

Stress, like meaningful alternation, is a way of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word by phonetic means. Dynamic monotonic stress can become a grammatical way...

Theory of translation from English

The sentences in the paragraph are ways of developing the thought in the paragraph. They are closely related to the Key Sentence (fragment)...

Phrase stress

Emphasizing one of the words in a phrase by increasing word stress, combining different words into one phrase. Phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the final speech measure (syntagma): There is in the autumn of the original / short, /but marvelous time //.

clocked stress

Highlighting one of the words in a speech tact (syntagma) by strengthening the word stress, which combines different words into one syntagma. The syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the speech tact: There is in the initial autumn / short, / but marvelous time / /.

The speech tact usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech uttered by one pressure of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of the speech tact as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonational design. The intonation center is concentrated on the stressed syllable of the word as part of the speech tact. - - beat accent: On a dry aspen / gray crow/… Each speech measure is formed by one of the intonation structures. The speech beat is sometimes called a syntagma.

The main means of dividing into syntagmas is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, the intensity and tempo of speech and can be replaced by sharp changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last one) is characterized by the strongest stress (In logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma).

The phrase usually stands out, contains several speech measures, but the boundaries of the phrase and the measure may coincide: Night. // The street. // Lamp. // Pharmacy //(Block). The selection of speech measures can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine and Field / behind the ravine.

word stress

A type of stress defined within a word and consisting in the selection of one of its syllables, in contrast to phrasal, rhythmic (clock), syllabic stress. S. at. can be free, as in Russian, or fixed, as in Czech, Hungarian, Polish.

Inside the measure (less often - phrases) allocate two varieties of clock (phrase) stress, depending on the functions - logical and emphatic .

Stress is logical (semantic)

Stress, consisting in highlighting a certain part of a sentence (usually a word), on which the main attention of the speakers is focused. Logical stress is observed in those cases when the content of speech requires a special allocation of some parts of the statement. With the help of logical stress, one or another word is usually singled out in a sentence, which is important from the logical, semantic side, on which all attention should be concentrated

The appearance of logical stress is caused by the transfer of syntagmatic (clock) stress from the last word in the syntagma (speech tact) to another word; compare: There are in the autumn of the original / short, / but wonderful time/ and Is in the autumn of the original / short / but wondrous it's time Logical stress can serve as a means of distinguishing the meaning of sentences that are outwardly homonymous, but different in syntactic structure: He was very pleased / brother's letter and I was very pleased / with his brother's letter.

stress emphatic(gr. emphatikos "expressive"), emotional.

Highlighting a part of a word using phonetic means to emphasize the emotional side of the word: long pronunciation of stressed vowels (goo-o-bchik), drawl of consonants (r-r-revolutionary). Emphatic stress reflects the speaker's emotions, his affective state. Its variant is contrastive accent: I (!) do not have these problems [but others do].

Accent functions

• culminating, that is, ensuring the integrity and separateness of the word by highlighting its top (just as the syllabic core represents the top of the syllable at a lower level of the hierarchy of prosodic units, and the phrasal accent that highlights one of the words in the syntagm is at a higher one);

• significative(semantic), that is, the distinction of identical segment sequences (sushi - sushi, etc.);

• delimitative(delimiter). Stress can be an indicator of word boundaries, especially in languages ​​where it always falls on the same syllable of a word - for example, the last one, as in French, the first, as in Czech, or the penultimate one, as in Polish. However, sometimes in Russian, stress can perform this function, since it is it that sets the scheme for reducing vowels in a word: in particular, the sequence САСКА33 can be divided into words only as САС#СА, since the vowel [ъ] can be in a stressed syllable, but does not happen in the first pre-shock).
• word-forming function: phonetic association of a word. Russian words have only one main (acute) stress, but compound words can have, in addition to the main one, a secondary, secondary (gravitational) stress: cf. rural and agricultural. The word-forming function is also associated with the identification function of word stress, which makes it possible to recognize the word, since the word is characterized by non-two-stress.
• differentiating function (the same semantic difference): stress serves as a means of distinguishing words (flour and flour, castle and lock) and their different meanings (chaos and chaos), word forms (arms and arms), as well as stylistic variants of the word (calling and unfold call cold and dial. cold, alcohol and prof. alcohol,

16. Emphasis. word stress

Stress - the allocation by any acoustic means of one of the components of speech:

A syllable as part of a phonetic word is word stress,

Words in the syntagma - logical stress,

Syntagms in the composition of the phrase - syntagmatic stress.

In Russian beats gl-th differs from unstressed forces-mi, quantity and quality of characteristics

ami. On average, a stressed vowel is 1.5-2 times longer than an unstressed one. The stress can be on any syllable and any part of words (rule, alphabet, bourgeoisie); in different grammatical forms of the same word, the stress can move from one syllable to another (leg - leg, accepted - accepted). Nevertheless, there are certain patterns: for example, in Russian (unlike modern Church Slavonic, which is close to it), the “th” / “th” ending cannot be stressed. Some compound words, as well as words with prefixes anti-, inter -, near-, counter-, super-, super-, ex-, etc., can have, in addition to the main one, side (or secondary) stress. The secondary stress is usually the first in order (closer to the beginning of the word), and the main stress is the second (closer to the end of the word): perjury, near-earth, vice president.

17. Phrase, clock, logical stress

French - creates a general rhythmic pattern of the phrase. A syntagma is a group of words representing a single semantic whole for a given context. The background syntagma is framed. For example, A tall, leggy blonde / passed by. 2 syntagmas, basically each has a single meaning. Syntagmatic stress is associated with division into syntagmas. The meaning of the statement depends on this. Recently / a visiting doctor appeared in the press. A recently arrived doctor / spoke in print. Related to the question of the articulation of syntagmas is the question of unuded words (clitics).

Logical ud-nie - a means of semantic allocation of any significant unit of the statement. Superimposed on the obligatory verbal stress, L. u. usually enhances the phonetic characteristics of the word, emphasizing information that is new or controversial for one of the interlocutors. For example, in the phrase "Your sister has come" L. u. can select any of the three words.

A speech beat is a part of a phonetic phrase, limited by a small pause and characterized by intonational incompleteness. Grammatically, the speech tact correlates with the common members of the sentence. If the speech tact consists of several phonetic words, the selection of one of the words (the most important) within the speech tact is called sigmatic stress.

Phrasal stress is the selection in the speech flow of the most important word in the semantic sense, such stress is one of the clock ones.

18. The concept of orthoepy. Russian literal pronunciation in his

East development

Orthoepy is literally the correct pronunciation. 1) R.o. is a section of the science of language, devoted to the norms of literary production and 2) R.o. - cos-st of the rules of normative literary pronunciation. The science that studies the variation of production norms of r.i. and develop pronounce recommendations. Orthoepy: 1. sound design of words. 2. pronunciation of a group of words (leg by foot) 3. pronunciation of separate gram. forms. 4. accentology.

Important language features developed as early as the 1st half of the 17th century as part of the spoken language of Moscow. Since the 18th century, St. Petersburg has been competing with Moscow. This struggle continued into the 19th century. Now the pronunciation of Mi L is almost the same

19. Orthoepic norm. Norm options. Pronunciation styles.

Trends in the development of Russian lit. pronunciation

Orph.norm is understood as the only possible or preferred pronunciation option compared to others that are less consistent with the pronunciation system. normative scale: 1st level - a word without options (guardianship, alcohol). 2nd - equal options ("and") sparkling, flooded, lattice. 3rd - one is the main option, the second is acceptable ('gave - additional gave').

The unifying style is determined by the function of the system of language elements. You can distinguish between pronunciation styles: neutral, high, colloquial.

20. The concept of vocabulary and lexicology. Word. Lex. and gram-e

word meanings

L.-section of linguistics, from the vocabulary of the language, vocabulary. In a broader sense, see L.-the doctrine of words and stable phrases. Vuzkom, L. deals only with words. Allocate description and diahr-th L. + comparison. The word of the main structural-semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects and their St.S. Word-th Ur-n-roots-base for creating new words. Morph-th Ur-n-words form certain system groups.

According to the method of nomination: 1. independent, 2. service, 3. pronominal, 4. interjection.

According to the phonetic feature: single-beat, unstressed (clitics), multi-beat

By morphic feature: changeable, unchangeable.

S. have lex. and gram. values. L. the meaning of a word reflects one or another phenomenon of reality, characterizes a separate word and individuates it; D.meaning-character of it as an element of a certain grammatical class.

21. Lex types. values

1) according to the degree of semantic motivation: involuntary / arbitrary

2) according to the method of nomination (direct, figurative) 3) if possible, lexical compatibility or type of relation between words 4) according to the nature of the functions performed.

22. Single-valued words. The phenomenon of polysemy. Transfer types

word meanings

One-word words - a clearly expressed subject correlation (terms, tree names, property names) Polysemy - the property of words to have several meanings.

23. System relations in vocabulary. Synonymy. Blue row.

Synonym types

Between the words that form the vocabulary of the language, certain relationships are found both in the nature of the meanings they express and in their phonetic design, i.e. by the similarity of their sound composition. From this point of view, three types of systemic relations between words are observed in the vocabulary of the Russian language: homonymous (coincidence of the sound of words with different meanings), synonymous (identity or similarity of the meaning of words with a complete difference in their sound), antonymic (opposite meaning of words with a difference in their sound ).S.-type of semantic relations jz = x units, consisting in full or partial coincidence of their meanings manifestations (fear-horror); - stylistic; - semantic-stylistic; semantic style

24. System relations in vocabulary. Antonymy. Antonym types

Between the words that form the vocabulary of the language, certain relationships are found both in the nature of the meanings they express and in their phonetic design, i.e. by the similarity of their sound composition. From this point of view, three types of systemic relations between words are observed in the vocabulary of the Russian language: homonymous (coincidence of the sound of words with different meanings), synonymous (identity or similarity of the meaning of words with a complete difference in their sound), antonymous (opposite meaning of words with a difference in their sound ).A.-yaz.phenomenon, reflecting the ratio of yz-x units with the opposite value. 2 types: - counter-A. (words with full opposite meaning) and complementary A. (between lexemes, which occupy an intermediate position)