The method of scientific research is a way of knowing the objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Depending on the content of the studied objects, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, there are methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels.

To methods empirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, simulation, etc.

To theoretical level methods they include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

Methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists refer the method of system analysis to this level, while others include it among the general logical methods.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

a) universal (philosophical), acting in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

b) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

c) private - for related sciences;

d) special - for a particular science, area of ​​scientific knowledge.

From the concept of method under consideration, the concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research should be distinguished.

Under the research technique is understood a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and under the research procedure - a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.

Methodology is a set of methods and techniques of cognition.

Any scientific research is carried out by certain methods and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings:

a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Each science has its own methodology.

There are the following levels of methodology:

1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition.

2. Private methodology of scientific research, for example, for a group of related legal sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition, for example, state-legal phenomena.

3. Methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition.

Among universal (philosophical) methods the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems. So, the dialectical method in K. Marx was combined with materialism, and in G.V.F. Hegel - with idealism.

Russian legal scholars use the dialectical method to study state-legal phenomena, because the laws of dialectics are of universal importance, inherent in the development of nature, society and thinking.

When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles:

1. Consider the objects under study in the light of dialectical laws:

a) unity and struggle of opposites,

b) the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones,

c) negation of negation.

2. Describe, explain and predict the phenomena and processes under study, based on philosophical categories: general, particular and singular; content and form; entities and phenomena; possibilities and reality; necessary and accidental; cause and effect.

3. Treat the object of study as an objective reality.

4. Consider the objects and phenomena under study:

comprehensively,

in universal connection and interdependence,

in continuous change, development,

specifically historical.

5. Check the acquired knowledge in practice.

All general scientific methods for analysis, it is advisable to divide into three groups: general logical, theoretical and empirical.

General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.

Analysis- this is a dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its component parts. It underlies the analytical method of research. Varieties of analysis are classification and periodization.

Synthesis- this is a combination of individual aspects, parts of the object of study into a single whole.

Induction- this is the movement of thought (cognition) from facts, individual cases to a general position. Inductive reasoning "suggests" a thought, a general idea.

Deduction - this is the derivation of a single, particular from any general position, the movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “deduced” from other thoughts.

Analogy- this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena based on the fact that they are similar to others, a reasoning in which, from the similarity of the studied objects in some features, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other features.

To methods theoretical level they include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis.

Axiomatic method - a method of research, which consists in the fact that some statements are accepted without evidence and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.

Hypothetical Method - a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of some phenomenon or object.

A variation of this method is the hypothetical-deductive method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which statements about empirical facts are derived.

The structure of the hypothetical-deductive method includes:

a) putting forward a guess (assumption) about the causes and patterns of the studied phenomena and objects,

b) selection from a set of guesses of the most probable, plausible,

c) deduction from the selected assumption (premise) of the consequence (conclusion) with the help of deduction,

d) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.

Formalization- displaying a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of some artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and studying this phenomenon or object through operations with the corresponding signs. The use of an artificial formalized language in scientific research makes it possible to eliminate such shortcomings of a natural language as ambiguity, inaccuracy, and uncertainty.

When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of study, they operate with signs (formulas). Through operations with formulas of artificial languages, one can obtain new formulas, prove the truth of any proposition.

Formalization is the basis for algorithmization and programming, without which the computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.

abstraction- mental abstraction from some properties and relations of the subject under study and the selection of properties and relations of interest to the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and relationships of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and relationships.

Types of abstraction: identification, i.e. highlighting the common properties and relations of the objects under study, establishing the identical in them, abstracting from the differences between them, combining objects into a special class; isolation, i.e. highlighting some properties and relationships that are considered as independent subjects of research. In theory, other types of abstraction are also distinguished: potential feasibility, actual infinity.

Generalization– establishment of general properties and relations of objects and phenomena; definition of a general concept, which reflects the essential, basic features of objects or phenomena of a given class. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in the allocation of not essential, but any features of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of general, particular and singular.

historical method consists in revealing historical facts and, on this basis, in such a mental reconstruction of the historical process, in which the logic of its movement is revealed. It involves the study of the emergence and development of objects of study in chronological order.

Climbing from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge consists in the fact that the researcher first finds the main connection of the object (phenomenon) being studied, then, tracing how it changes under various conditions, discovers new connections and in this way displays its essence in its entirety.

System Method consists in the study of the system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), the connections of its components and their connections with the external environment. At the same time, it turns out that these interrelations and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are absent from its constituent objects.

To empirical level methods include: observation, description, calculation, measurement, comparison, experiment, modeling.

Observation- this is a way of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena with the help of the senses. As a result of observation, the researcher gains knowledge about the external properties and relationships of objects and phenomena.

Depending on the position of the researcher in relation to the object of study, simple and included observation are distinguished. The first is observation from the outside, when the researcher is an outsider in relation to the object, a person who is not a participant in the activities of the observed. The second is characterized by the fact that the researcher is openly or incognito included in the group, its activities as a participant.

If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, then it is called field, and if the environmental conditions, the situation were specially created by the researcher, then it will be considered laboratory. The results of observation can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on films and in other ways.

Description- this is a fixation of the features of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description happens:

direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the features of the object;

indirect, when the researcher notes the signs of the object that were perceived by other persons.

Check- this is the definition of quantitative ratios of objects of study or parameters that characterize their properties. The quantitative method is widely used in statistics.

Measurement- this is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with the standard. In forensics, measurement is used to determine: the distance between objects; the speed of movement of vehicles, a person or other objects; the duration of certain phenomena and processes, temperature, size, weight, etc.

Comparison- this is a comparison of the features inherent in two or more objects, establishing differences between them or finding common ground in them.

In a scientific study, this method is used, for example, to compare the state-legal institutions of different states. This method is based on the study, comparison of similar objects, identification of common and different in them, advantages and disadvantages.

Experiment- this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the put forward hypothesis is tested.

Experiments can be classified on various grounds:

by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.;

according to the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object - ordinary (experimental tools directly interact with the object under study) and model (the model replaces the object of research). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).

The above classification is not exhaustive.

Modeling- this is the acquisition of knowledge about the object of study with the help of its substitutes - an analogue, a model. A model is a mentally represented or materially existing analogue of an object.

Based on the similarity of the model and the object being modeled, conclusions about it are transferred by analogy to this object.

In modeling theory, there are:

1) ideal (mental, symbolic) models, for example, in the form of drawings, records, signs, mathematical interpretation;

2) material (natural, real- physical) models, for example, mock-ups, dummies, analogue objects for experiments during examinations, reconstruction of a person’s appearance according to the method of M.M. Gerasimov.

Scientific research is purposeful knowledge, the results of which appear in the form of a system of concepts, laws and theories. When characterizing scientific research, the following distinguishing features are usually indicated:

This is necessarily a purposeful process, the achievement of a consciously set goal, clearly formulated tasks;

This is a process aimed at finding something new, at creativity, at discovering the unknown, at putting forward original ideas, at new coverage of the issues under consideration;

It is characterized by systematicity: here both the research process itself and its results are ordered, brought into the system;

It is characterized by strict evidence, consistent substantiation of the generalizations and conclusions made.

The object of scientific and theoretical research is not just a separate phenomenon, a specific situation, but a whole class of similar phenomena and situations, their totality.

The goal, the immediate tasks of scientific and theoretical research, is to find common ground in a number of individual phenomena, to reveal the laws according to which such phenomena arise, function, develop, i.e., to penetrate into their deep essence.

The main means of scientific and theoretical research:

A set of scientific methods, comprehensively justified and consolidated into a single system;

A set of concepts, strictly defined terms, interconnected and forming the characteristic language of science.

The results of scientific research are embodied in scientific works (articles, monographs, textbooks, dissertations, etc.) and only then, after their comprehensive evaluation, are they used in practice, taken into account in the process of practical knowledge and, in a withdrawn, generalized form, are included in the governing documents.

The activity of people in any of its forms (scientific, practical, etc.) is determined by a number of factors. Its final result depends not only on who acts (subject) or what it is aimed at (object), but also on how this process takes place, what methods, techniques, means are used in this case. This is the problem with the method.

Method (Greek - a way of knowing) - in the broadest sense of the word - "the path to something", a way of the subject's activity in any of its forms.

The concept of "methodology" has two main meanings: a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (science, politics, art, etc.); the doctrine of this system, the general theory of the method, the theory in action.

The history and the current state of knowledge and practice convincingly show that not every method, not every system of principles and other means of activity provides a successful solution of theoretical and practical problems. Not only the result of the research, but also the path leading to it must be true.

The main function of the method is the internal organization and regulation of the process of cognition or practical transformation of an object. Therefore, the method (in one form or another) is reduced to a set of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of cognition and action.

It is a system of prescriptions, principles, requirements that should guide in solving a specific problem, achieving a certain result in a particular area of ​​activity.

It disciplines the search for truth, allows (if correct) to save time and effort, to move towards the goal in the shortest way. The true method serves as a kind of compass, according to which the subject of knowledge and action paves its way, allows you to avoid mistakes.

F. Bacon compared the method with a lamp that illuminates the road in the dark, and believed that one cannot count on success in studying any issue by going the wrong way.

He considered induction to be such a method, which requires science to proceed from empirical analysis, observation and experiment in order to learn the causes and laws on this basis.

G. Descartes called the method "exact and simple rules", the observance of which contributes to the increment of knowledge, allows you to distinguish the false from the true. He said that it is better not to think about finding any kind of truth than to do it without any method, especially without a deductive-rationalistic one.

Problems of method and methodologists occupy an important place in modern Western philosophy - especially in such areas and currents as the philosophy of science, positivism and postpositivism, structuralism and post-structuralism, analytical philosophy, hermeneutics, phenomenology and others.

Each method will be ineffective and even useless if it is used not as a "guiding thread" in scientific or other form of activity, but as a ready-made template for reshaping the facts.

The main purpose of any method is, on the basis of relevant principles (requirements, prescriptions, etc.), to ensure the successful solution of certain cognitive and practical problems, the increment of knowledge, the optimal functioning and development of certain objects.

It should be borne in mind that the questions of method and methodology cannot be limited only by philosophical or internal scientific frameworks, but must be posed in a broad sociocultural context.

This means that it is necessary to take into account the relationship of science with production at this stage of social development, the interaction of science with other forms of social consciousness, the correlation of methodological and value aspects, the "personal characteristics" of the subject of activity, and many other social factors.

The application of methods can be spontaneous and conscious. It is clear that only the conscious application of methods, based on an understanding of their capabilities and limits, makes people's activities, other things being equal, more rational and efficient.

Methodology as a general theory of method was formed in connection with the need to generalize and develop those methods, means and techniques that were discovered in philosophy, science and other forms of human activity. Historically, initially the problems of methodology were developed within the framework of philosophy: the dialectical method of Socrates and Plato, the inductive method of F. Bacon, the rationalistic method of G. Descartes, the dialectical method of G. Hegel and K. Marx, the phenomenological method of E. Husserl. Therefore, methodology is closely connected with philosophy - especially with such sections of it as epistemology (theory of knowledge) and dialectics.

Methodology in a certain sense is "wider" than dialectics, since it studies not only the general, but also other levels of methodological knowledge, as well as their interconnection, modifications, etc.

The close connection of methodology with dialectics does not mean that these concepts are identical and that materialist dialectics acts as a philosophical methodology of science. Materialistic dialectics is one of the forms of dialectics, and the latter is one of the elements of philosophical methodology, along with metaphysics, phenomenology, hermeneutics, etc.

Methodology in a certain sense is “narrower” than the theory of knowledge, since the latter is not limited to the study of the forms and methods of knowledge, but studies the problems of the nature of knowledge, the relationship between knowledge and reality, the subject and object of knowledge, the possibilities and limits of knowledge, the criteria for its truth, etc. On the other hand, methodology is "wider" than epistemology, since it is interested not only in the methods of cognition, but also in all other forms of human activity.

The logical study of science is the means of modern formal logic, which are used to analyze the scientific language, identify the logical structure of scientific theories and their components (definitions, classifications, concepts, laws, etc.), explore the possibilities and completeness of the formalization of scientific knowledge.

Traditional logical means were applied mainly to the analysis of the structure of scientific knowledge, then the center of methodological interests shifted to the problems of growth, change and development of knowledge.

This change in methodological interests can be viewed from the following two angles.

The task of the logic of time is the construction of artificial (formalized) languages ​​that can make more clear and accurate, and therefore more fruitful reasoning about objects and phenomena that exist in time.

The task of the logic of change is the construction of artificial (formalized) languages ​​that can make more clear and accurate reasoning about changing an object - its transition from one state to another, about the formation of an object, its formation.

At the same time, it should be said that the really great achievements of formal logic gave rise to the illusion that only its methods can solve all the methodological problems of science without exception. For a particularly long time, this illusion was supported by logical positivism, the collapse of which showed the limitedness, one-sidedness of such an approach - for all its importance "within its competence."

Any scientific method is developed on the basis of a certain theory, which thus acts as its necessary prerequisite.

Efficiency, strength of this or that method is due to the content, depth, fundamental nature of the theory, which is "compressed into a method."

In turn, the "method expands into a system", that is, it is used for the further development of science, the deepening and deployment of theoretical knowledge as a system, its materialization, objectification in practice.

Thus theory and method are both identical and different. their similarity lies in the fact that they are interconnected and in their unity reflect reality.

Being united in their interaction, theory and method are not rigidly separated from each other and at the same time are not immediately one and the same.

They mutually transition, mutually transform: theory, reflecting reality, is transformed, transformed into a method through the development, formulation of principles, rules, techniques arising from it, which return to theory (and through it to practice), because the subject uses them as regulators, prescriptions, in the course of knowledge and change of the surrounding world according to its own laws.

Therefore, the assertion that the method is a theory addressed to the practice of scientific research is not accurate, because the method is also addressed to practice itself as a sensory-objective, socially transforming activity.

The development of theory and the improvement of methods for studying and transforming reality are, in fact, one and the same process with these two inextricably linked sides. Not only is theory summarized in methods, but methods are also developed into theory and have a significant influence on its formation and on the course of practice.

The main differences between theory and method are as follows:

a) theory is the result of previous activity, method is the starting point and premise of subsequent activity;

b) the main functions of the theory are explanation and prediction (in order to search for truth, laws, causes, etc.), method - regulation and orientation of activity;

c) theory - a system of ideal images that reflect the essence, patterns of an object, method - a system of regulators, rules, prescriptions, acting as a tool for further knowledge and change of reality;

d) the theory is aimed at solving the problem - what is a given subject, method - at identifying ways and mechanisms of its study and transformation.

Thus theories, laws, categories, and other abstractions do not yet constitute a method. In order to perform a methodological function, they must be appropriately transformed, transformed from the explanatory provisions of the theory into the orientation-active, regulatory principles (requirements, prescriptions, settings) of the method.

Any method is determined not only by the previous ones and share two other methods simultaneously with it, and not only by the theory on which it is based.

Each method is conditioned, first of all, by its subject, i.e., by what is being studied (individual objects or their classes).

The method as a method of research and other activities cannot remain unchanged, always equal to itself in all respects, but must change in its content along with the subject to which it is directed. This means that not only the final result of cognition must be true, but also the path leading to it, i.e., the method that comprehends and retains precisely the specifics of a given subject.

A method of any level of generality has not only a purely theoretical but also a practical character: it arises from a real life process and again goes into it.

It should be borne in mind that in modern science the concept of "object of knowledge" is used in two main meanings.

Firstly, as a subject area - sides, properties, relations of reality, which have relative completeness, integrity and oppose the subject in his activity (the object of knowledge). For example, a subject area in zoology is a set of animals. Different sciences about the same object have different subjects of knowledge (for example, anatomy studies the structure of organisms, physiology studies the functions of its organs, etc.).

The objects of knowledge can be both material and ideal.

Secondly, as a system of laws to which this object is subject. It is impossible to separate the object and the method, to see in the latter only an external means in relation to the object.

The method is not imposed on the subject of knowledge or action, but changes in accordance with their specificity. Research involves a thorough knowledge of the facts and other data relevant to its subject. It is carried out as a movement in a certain material, the study of its features, connections, relationships.

The mode of movement (method) consists in the fact that the study must become familiar with specific material (factual and conceptual), analyze the various forms of its development, and trace their internal connection.

The variety of human activities causes a diverse range of methods that can be classified according to a variety of criteria.

First of all, it is necessary to single out the methods of spiritual, ideal (including scientific) and methods of practical, material activity.

At present, it has become obvious that the system of methods, methodology cannot be limited only to the sphere of scientific knowledge, it must go beyond it and certainly include the sphere of practice in its orbit. At the same time, it is necessary to bear in mind the close interaction of these two spheres.

As for the methods of science, there may be several reasons for their division into groups. So, depending on the role and place in the process of scientific knowledge, one can single out formal and substantive, empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied methods, methods of research and presentation.

The content of the objects studied by science serves as a criterion for distinguishing between the methods of natural science and the methods of social sciences and the humanities. In turn, the methods of the natural sciences can be subdivided into methods for studying inanimate nature and methods for studying living nature. There are also qualitative and quantitative methods, methods of direct and indirect cognition, original and derivative.

The characteristic features of the scientific method most often include: objectivity, reproducibility, heuristic, necessity, specificity, etc.

In modern science, the multilevel concept of methodological knowledge works quite successfully. In this regard, all methods of scientific knowledge can be divided into the following main groups.

1. Philosophical methods, among which the most ancient are dialectical and metaphysical. In essence, each philosophical concept has a methodological function, is a kind of way of mental activity. Therefore, philosophical methods are not limited to the two named. They also include such methods as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, etc.

2. General scientific approaches and research methods that have been widely developed and applied in science. They act as a kind of intermediate methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences.

General scientific concepts most often include such concepts as information, model, structure, function, system, element, optimality, probability.

On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, the corresponding methods and principles of cognition are formulated, which ensure the connection and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods.

General scientific principles and approaches include systemic and structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization and a number of others.

Such a general scientific discipline as synergetics, the theory of self-organization and development of open integral systems of any nature, natural, social, cognitive, has been developing especially rapidly recently.

Among the basic concepts of synergetics are such as order, chaos, non-linearity, uncertainty, instability.

Synergetic concepts are closely related and intertwined with a number of philosophical categories, especially such as being, development, becoming, time, whole, chance, possibility.

3. Private scientific methods - a set of methods, principles of cognition, research techniques and procedures used in a particular science, corresponding to a given basic form of matter movement. These are methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and social sciences and humanities.

4. Disciplinary methods - a system of techniques used in a particular scientific discipline that is part of some branch of science or that has arisen at the intersection of sciences. Each fundamental science is a complex of disciplines that have their own specific subject and their own unique research methods.

5. Methods of interdisciplinary research - a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods, aimed mainly at the junctions of scientific disciplines. These methods are widely used in the implementation of complex scientific programs.

Thus, the methodology cannot be reduced to any one, even a very important method.

Methodology is also not a simple sum of individual methods, their mechanical unity. Methodology is a complex, dynamic, holistic, subordinated system of methods, techniques, principles of different levels, scope, direction, heuristic possibilities, contents, structures.

The scientific method is a set of basic methods for obtaining new knowledge and methods for solving problems within the framework of any science. The method includes ways to study phenomena, systematization, correction of new and previously acquired knowledge.

The structure of the method contains three independent components (aspects):

conceptual component - ideas about one of the possible forms of the object under study;

operational component - prescriptions, norms, rules, principles that regulate the cognitive activity of the subject;

the logical component is the rules for fixing the results of the interaction between the object and the means of cognition.

An important side of the scientific method, its integral part for any science, is the requirement of objectivity, excluding the subjective interpretation of the results. Any statements should not be taken on faith, even if they come from reputable scientists. To ensure independent verification, observations are documented, and all initial data, methods and research results are made available to other scientists. This allows not only to obtain additional confirmation by reproducing experiments, but also to critically assess the degree of adequacy (validity) of experiments and results in relation to the theory being tested.

12. Two levels of scientific research: empirical and theoretical, their main methods

Methods are distinguished in the philosophy of science empirical and theoretical knowledge.

The empirical method of cognition is a specialized form of practice closely related to experiment. Theoretical knowledge consists in reflecting the phenomena and ongoing processes of internal connections and patterns, which are achieved by methods of processing data obtained from empirical knowledge.

The following types of scientific methods are used at the theoretical and empirical levels of scientific knowledge:

Theoretical scientific method	empirical scientific method
theory(ancient Greek θεωρ?α “consideration, research”) - a system of consistent, logically interconnected statements that has predictive power in relation to any phenomenon.	experiment(lat. experimentum - test, experience) in the scientific method - a set of actions and observations performed to test (true or false) a hypothesis or a scientific study of causal relationships between phenomena. One of the main requirements for an experiment is its reproducibility.
hypothesis(ancient Greek ?π?θεσις - “foundation”, “assumption”) - an unproven statement, assumption or conjecture. An unproven and undisproved hypothesis is called an open problem.	Scientific research- the process of studying, experimenting and testing the theory associated with obtaining scientific knowledge. Types of research: - basic research undertaken mainly to produce new knowledge regardless of the prospects for application; - applied research.
law- a verbal and / or mathematically formulated statement that describes the relationships, connections between various scientific concepts, proposed as an explanation of the facts and recognized at this stage by the scientific community.	observation- this is a purposeful process of perception of objects of reality, the results of which are recorded in the description. Repeated observation is necessary to obtain meaningful results. Types: - direct observation, which is carried out without the use of technical means; - indirect observation - using technical devices.
	dimension- this is the definition of quantitative values, properties of an object using special technical devices and units of measurement.
idealization– creation of mental objects and their changes in accordance with the required goals of the ongoing research
formalization– reflection of the obtained results of thinking in statements or exact concepts
reflection- scientific activity aimed at the study of specific phenomena and the process of cognition itself
induction- a way to transfer knowledge from individual elements of the process to knowledge of the overall process
deduction- the desire for knowledge from the abstract to the concrete, i.e. transition from general patterns to their actual manifestation
abstraction - distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object with the aim of in-depth study of one specific aspect of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.)
classification - combining various objects into groups based on common features (classification of animals, plants, etc.)

The methods that are used at both levels are:

analysis - the decomposition of a single system into its constituent parts and the study of them separately;

synthesis - combining into a single system all the results of the analysis, which allows expanding knowledge, constructing something new;

analogy is a conclusion about the similarity of two objects in some feature based on their established similarity in other features;

modeling is the study of an object through models with the transfer of knowledge gained to the original.

13. Essence and principles of application of methods:

1) Historical and logical

historical method- a research method based on the study of the emergence, formation and development of objects in chronological order.

Through the use of the historical method, an in-depth understanding of the essence of the problem is achieved and it becomes possible to formulate more informed recommendations for a new object.

The historical method is based on the identification and analysis of contradictions in the development of objects, laws and regularities in the development of technology.

The method is based on historicism - the principle of scientific knowledge, which is a methodological expression of the self-development of reality, which includes: 1) the study of the present, current state of the subject of scientific research; 2) reconstruction of the past - consideration of the genesis, the emergence of the last and the main stages of its historical movement; 3) foreseeing the future, forecasting trends in the further development of the subject. The absolutization of the principle of historicism can lead to: a) an uncritical assessment of the present; b) archaization or modernization of the past; c) mixing the prehistory of the object with the object itself; d) substitution of the main stages of its development with secondary ones; e) foreseeing the future without analyzing the past and present.

Boolean Method- this is a way of studying the essence and content of natural and social objects, based on the study of patterns and the disclosure of objective laws on which this essence is based. The objective basis of the logical method is the fact that complex highly organized objects at the highest stages of their development concisely reproduce in their structure and functioning the main features of their historical evolution. The logical method is an effective means of revealing the patterns and tendencies of the historical process.

The logical method, combined with the historical method, act as methods for constructing theoretical knowledge. It is a mistake to identify the logical method with theoretical constructions, just as it is to identify the historical method with empirical descriptions: on the basis of historical facts, hypotheses are put forward, which are verified by facts and turn into theoretical knowledge about the laws of the historical process. If the logical method is applied, these regularities are revealed in a form purified from accidents, and the application of the historical method presupposes the fixation of these accidents, but is not reduced to a simple empirical description of events in their historical sequence, but involves their special reconstruction and disclosure of their internal logic.

Historical and genetic methods- one of the main methods of historical research aimed at studying the genesis (origin, stages of development) of specific historical phenomena and analyzing the causality of changes.

I. D. Kovalchenko defined the content of the method as “successive disclosure of the properties, functions and changes of the studied reality in the process of its historical movement, which makes it possible to get as close as possible to reproducing the real history of the object.” I. D. Kovalchenko considered specificity (factuality), descriptiveness, and subjectivism to be the distinctive features of the method.

In its content, the historical-genetic method is most consistent with the principle of historicism. The historical-genetic method is based mainly on descriptive technologies, however, the result of the historical-genetic research only outwardly has the form of a description. The main goal of the historical-genetic method is to explain the facts, to identify the causes of their appearance, the features of development and consequences, i.e., the analysis of causality.

Comparative historical method- the scientific method, with the help of which, by means of comparison, the general and particular in historical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various historical stages of development of one and the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena is achieved; kind of historical method.

Historical-typological method- one of the main methods of historical research, in which the tasks of typology are realized. The typology is based on the division (ordering) of a set of objects or phenomena into qualitatively homogeneous classes (types), taking into account their common significant features. Typology requires adherence to a number of principles, the central of which is the choice of the basis of the typology, which allows reflecting the qualitative nature of both the entire set of objects and the types themselves. Typology as an analytical procedure is closely related to the abstraction and simplification of reality. This is reflected in the system of criteria and "boundaries" of types, which acquire abstract, conditional features.

deductive method- a method that consists in obtaining particular conclusions based on the knowledge of some general provisions. In other words, this is the movement of our thinking from the general to the particular, separate. For example, from the general position, all metals have electrical conductivity, one can make a deductive conclusion about the electrical conductivity of a particular copper wire (knowing that copper is a metal). If the output general propositions are an established scientific truth, then, thanks to the method of deduction, one can always get the correct conclusion. General principles and laws do not allow scientists to go astray in the process of deductive research: they help to correctly understand the specific phenomena of reality.

All natural sciences acquire new knowledge with the help of deduction, but the deductive method is especially important in mathematics.

Induction- a method of cognition based on a formal logical conclusion, which makes it possible to obtain a general conclusion based on individual facts. In other words, it is the movement of our thinking from the particular to the general.

Induction is implemented in the form of the following methods:

1) single similarity method(in all cases, when observing a phenomenon, only one common factor appears, all the others are different, therefore, this only similar factor is the cause of this phenomenon);

2) single difference method(if the circumstances of the occurrence of a phenomenon and the circumstances under which it does not occur are largely similar and differ only in one factor, is present only in the first case, then we can conclude that this factor is the cause of this phenomenon)

3) connected method of similarity and difference(is a combination of the above two methods);

4) concomitant change method(if certain changes in one phenomenon each time cause certain changes in another phenomenon, then the conclusion follows about a causal relationship between these phenomena);

5) residual method(if a complex phenomenon is due to a multifactorial cause "and some of these factors are known as the cause of some part of this phenomenon, then the conclusion follows: the cause of another part of the phenomenon is other factors that together make up the general cause of this phenomenon).

The founder of the classical inductive method of cognition was F. Bacon.

Modeling is a method of creating and examining models. The study of the model allows you to get new knowledge, new holistic information about the object.

The essential features of the model are: visibility, abstraction, an element of scientific fantasy and imagination, the use of analogy as a logical method of construction, an element of hypotheticality. In other words, the model is a hypothesis expressed in a visual form.

The process of creating a model is quite laborious, the researcher, as it were, goes through several stages.

The first is a thorough study of the experience associated with the phenomenon of interest to the researcher, analysis and generalization of this experience and the creation of a hypothesis underlying the future model.

The second is the preparation of a research program, the organization of practical activities in accordance with the developed program, the introduction of corrections into it, prompted by practice, the refinement of the initial research hypothesis taken as the basis of the model.

The third is the creation of the final version of the model. If at the second stage the researcher, as it were, offers various options for the constructed phenomenon, then at the third stage, on the basis of these options, he creates the final sample of the process (or project) that he is going to implement.

synchronous- is used less often than others and with the help of which it is possible to establish a connection between individual phenomena and processes occurring at the same time, but in different parts of the country or outside it.

Chronological- consists in the fact that the phenomena of history are studied strictly in temporal (chronological) order. It is used in compiling chronicles of events, biographies.

periodization- is based on the fact that both society as a whole and any of its constituent parts go through various stages of development, separated from each other by qualitative boundaries. The main thing in periodization is the establishment of clear criteria, their strict and consistent application in the study and research. The diachronic method implies the study of a certain phenomenon in its development or the study of the change of stages, epochs in the history of a single region.

Retrospective- is based on the fact that past, present and future societies are closely interconnected. This makes it possible to recreate a picture of the past even in the absence of all sources relating to the time under study.

Updates- the historian tries to predict, to give practical recommendations based on the "lessons of history".

Statistical- consists in the study of important aspects of the life and activities of the state, a quantitative analysis of a multitude of homogeneous facts, each of which individually is not of great importance, while in the aggregate they determine the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

biographical method- a method of researching a person, groups of people, based on the analysis of their professional path and personal biographies. The source of information can be a variety of documents, resumes, questionnaires, interviews, tests, spontaneous and provoked autobiographies, eyewitness accounts (survey of colleagues), the study of products of activity.

The method is understood as a set of operations and techniques with the help of which practically and theoretically one can study and master reality. Thanks to the method, a person is armed with a system of rules, principles and requirements, using which he can achieve and achieve his goal. Owning one or another method, a person can figure out in what sequence and how to perform certain actions to solve a particular problem.

A whole field of knowledge has been studying methods for a long time - the methodology of scientific research. Translated from Greek, the concept of "methodology" is translated as "the doctrine of methods." The foundations of modern methodology were laid down in the science of modern times. So, in ancient Egypt, geometry was a form of normative prescriptions, with the help of which the sequence of procedures for measuring land allotments was determined. Such scientists as Plato, Socrates, Aristotle were also engaged in the study of methodology.

Being engaged in the study of the regularities of the human methodology of scientific research, it develops methods for its implementation on this basis. The most important task of the methodology is to study various studies, such as the origin, essence, effectiveness, etc.

The methodology of scientific research consists of the following levels:

1. Specific scientific methodology - focuses on research methods and techniques.

2. General scientific methodology - is the doctrine of the methods, principles and forms of knowledge that operate in various sciences. Here stand out (experiment, observation) and general logical methods (analysis, induction, synthesis, etc.).

3. Philosophical methodology - includes philosophical provisions, methods, ideas that can be used for knowledge in all sciences. Speaking of our time, this level is practically not used.

The concept of scientific research, based on modern methodology, includes the following:

The presence of the object of study;

· Development of methods, identification of facts, formulation of hypotheses, clarification of causes;

· Clear separation of hypothesis and established facts;

· Prediction and explanation of phenomena and facts.

The purpose of scientific research is the final result obtained after its implementation. And if each method is used to achieve certain goals, then the methodology as a whole is designed to solve the following tasks:

1. Identification and comprehension of moving forces, foundations, prerequisites, patterns of functioning of cognitive activity, scientific knowledge.

2. Organization of design activities, its analysis and criticism.

In addition, modern methodology pursues such goals as:

3. Study of reality and enrichment of methodological tools.

4. Finding a connection between a person's thinking and his reality.

5. Finding connection and interconnection in mental reality and activity, in the practice of cognition.

6. Development of a new attitude and understanding to symbolic systems of knowledge.

7. Overcoming the universality of concrete scientific thinking and philosophical naturalism.

The methodology of scientific research is not just a set of scientific methods, but a real system, the elements of which are in close interaction with each other. On the other hand, it cannot be assigned a dominant position. Despite the fact that the methodology includes both the depth of imagination, and the flexibility of the mind, and the development of fantasy, as well as strength and intuition, it is only an auxiliary factor in the creative development of a person.