With ambiguity, one of the meanings of the word is direct, and all the rest portable.

direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed at the object (immediately causes an idea of ​​the object, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context. Words denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in

direct meaning.

Portable meaning of the word- this is its secondary meaning that arose on the basis of the direct one. For example:

toy, -i, well. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys.

2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.

The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object, phenomenon passes, is also transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects, phenomena at the same time. Depending on the basis of which sign the name is transferred, there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.

Metaphor(from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: ripe apple -eyeball(by form); human nose- bow of the ship(by location); chocolate bar- chocolate tan(by color); bird wing- aircraft wing(by function); the dog howled- the wind howled(according to the nature of the sound), etc. yes

Metonymy(then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency *, for example: water boils- behindthe kettle boils; porcelain dish- tasty dish; native gold- Scythian gold etc. A kind of metonymy is synecdoche.

Synecdoche(from the Greek "synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant- ripe currant; beautiful mouth- extra mouth(about an extra person in the family); bighead- clever mind etc.

In the process of development of figurative names, the word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding the main meaning. Over time figurative meanings can become straight.

It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context. See, for example, the sentences: 1) Wesat on the corner bastion, so both sides couldsee everything (M. Lermontov). 2) In Tarakanovka, as in the most remote corner of a bear, there was no place for secrets (D. Mamin-Siberian)

* Adjacent - located directly next to, having about border.

In the first sentence, the word injection used in the literal sense: "a place where two sides of something converge, intersect." And in stable combinations “in a dead corner”, “bear corner”, the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a dark corner- in a remote area bearliving corner - dumb place.

In explanatory dictionaries the direct meaning of the word is given first, and the portable values ​​are numbered 2, 3, 4, 5. A value recently fixed as a portable value is marked "pen,", For example:

Wooden, oh, oh. 1. made of wood 2. trans. Motionless, expressionless. Wooden expression. O wood oil- cheap olive oil.

Introduction

The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is noted not only by specialists - learned linguists, but also by writers and poets. One of the factors of the richness of our language is the ambiguity of most words. This allows you to use them not in one specific context, but in several, sometimes completely different ones.

The meanings of polysemantic words can be direct and figurative. Figurative meanings are involved in creating vivid figurative texts. They make the literary language richer and richer.

Purpose of the work: to find examples of the use of words with direct and figurative meanings in the text of M. Sholokhov "Quiet Flows the Don".

Work tasks:

• Determine which values ​​are considered direct and which are figurative;
• · Find examples of words with direct and figurative meanings in the text of M. Sholokhov "Quiet Flows the Don".

The work consists of two chapters. The first chapter presents theoretical information on the problem of direct and figurative meanings of words. The second chapter is a list of examples illustrating words used in the literal sense and figuratively.

Direct and figurative meaning of words in Russian

Words in Russian have two types of meanings: basic, direct meaning, and non-basic, figurative.

The direct meaning of the word is "a direct connection between the sound complex and the concept, a direct nomination" Modern Russian Literary Language / Ed. P. Lekanta - M .: Higher. school, 1988. - S. 9-11 ..

The figurative meaning is secondary, it arises on the basis of associative links between concepts. The presence of similarity in objects is a prerequisite for the fact that the name of one object begins to be used to name another object; thus, a new, figurative meaning of the word arises.

The use of words in a figurative sense is a generally recognized method of expressiveness of speech. The main varieties of figurative meaning are the techniques of metaphor and metonymy.

A metaphor is “the transfer of a name from one object to another based on some similarity of their features” Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language. - M.: International Relations, 1995. - 560 p..

The similarity of objects that receive the same name can manifest itself in different ways: they can be similar in shape (ring 1 on the hand - ring 2 of smoke); by color (gold medallion - golden curls); by function (fireplace - room stove and fireplace - electric appliance for space heating).

The similarity in the arrangement of two objects in relation to something (the tail of an animal - the tail of a comet), in their assessment (clear day - clear style), in the impression they make (black veil - black thoughts) also often serves as the basis for naming different phenomena. Rapprochement is also possible on other grounds: green strawberries - green youth (a unifying feature is immaturity); fast running - quick mind (common feature - intensity); mountains stretch - days stretch (associative connection - length in time and space).

Metaphorization of meanings often occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: iron nerves, golden hands, an empty head, and vice versa: gentle rays, the roar of a waterfall, the voice of a stream.

It often happens that the main, original meaning of the word is metaphorically rethought on the basis of the convergence of objects according to various signs: a gray-haired old man - a gray-haired antiquity - a gray-haired fog; black veil - black 2 thoughts - black ingratitude - black Saturday - black box (on the plane).

Metaphors that expand the polysemanticism of words are fundamentally different from poetic, individual author's metaphors. The former are linguistic in nature, they are frequent, reproducible, anonymous. The linguistic metaphors that served as the source of the new meaning of the word are mostly unfigurative, therefore they are called "dry", "dead": pipe elbow, boat nose, train tail. But there can be such transfers of meaning, in which the imagery is partially preserved: a blooming girl, a steel will. However, the expressiveness of such metaphors is much inferior to the expression of individual poetic images.

Dry metaphors that give rise to new meanings of words are used in any style of speech (scientific: eyeball, word root; official business: point of sale, alarm signal); language figurative metaphors gravitate toward expressive speech, their use in an official business style is excluded; individual author's metaphors are the property of artistic speech, they are created by masters of the word.

Metonymy is "the transfer of a name from one object to another on the basis of their adjacency."

So, the transfer of the name of the material to the product from which it is made is metonymic (gold, silver - Athletes brought gold and silver from the Olympics); place names - to groups of people who are there (audience - Audience listens attentively to the lecturer); names of dishes - on its contents (porcelain dish - delicious dish); the name of the action - on its result (embroidering - beautiful embroidery); the name of the action - to the place of action or those who perform it (crossing the mountains - underground transition); the name of the object - to its owner (tenor - young tenor); author's name - on his works (Shakespeare - set Shakespeare) etc.

Like metaphor, metonymy can be not only linguistic, but also individual authorial.

Synecdoche is “the transfer of the name of the whole to its part, and vice versa” Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language. - M.: International Relations, 1995. - 560 p. For example, a pear is a fruit tree and a pear is the fruit of this tree.

Transfers of meaning are based on synecdoche in such, for example, expressions: a sense of elbow, a faithful hand.

word polysemantic metaphor expressiveness

Content

The word can be in both direct and figurative meaning. Such words are called polysemantic.

The direct meaning of the word

In order to directly designate an object, its action or the attribute that it possesses, the direct meaning of the word is used. Such lexical units do not raise doubts about the designation and do not change the semantic load or emotional coloring of the text. Examples:

There is a table in the middle of the room with textbooks on it.

The hare jumps along the edge of the forest among trees and bushes.

The sun's rays reflected in the window, creating glare.

Many words are used in speech only in their direct meaning: with eun, apartment, sun, sad, famous.

The direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning.

The emergence of the figurative meaning of the word

The main lexical meaning can serve as a basis for the formation of other secondary meanings. Such values ​​are called figurative meanings and give it a completely different meaning. The basis for using the word in a different sense is the similarity of one object with another, their signs or actions.

For example, when using the word " gold» in the phrase « gold ring”, the meaning of the adjective is clear, denoting a precious metal that determines the cost and value of an item.

In another example - golden hands", word " gold» acquires a figurative meaning, since it is used in a figurative lexical meaning and denotes "skillful", "active", "indispensable".

The replacement is explained by common features in meaning, external similarity. In this example, both direct and figurative meanings can be used as a synonym " precious". This justifies the ambiguity. Words that can be used not only in the literal sense are called ambiguous. Examples:

• soft carpet - soft character - soft light;
• iron door - iron will - iron discipline.

Examples of words in a figurative sense

• the heart muscle is the friend of the heart;
• earthworm - bookworm;
• hit with a stick - thunder struck;
• door handle - ballpoint pen;
• red language - English;
• an idea was born - a daughter was born;
• wave crest - hair comb;
• artistic brush - hand;
• the column of the building is a column of demonstrators;
• the sleeve of the garment is the sleeve of the river.

The figurative meaning allows you to add emotionality, figurativeness to artistic speech. Thanks to him, tropes are formed - the ambiguous use of words in fiction (litote, metonymy, comparison, epithet, metaphor).

A word can have one lexical meaning. Such words are called unambiguous, For example: dialog, purple, saber, alert, appendicitis, birch, felt-tip pen

Several types can be distinguished unambiguous words.

1. These include, first of all, proper names (Ivan, Petrov, Mytishchi, Vladivostok). Their extremely specific meaning excludes the possibility of varying the meaning, since they are the names of single objects.

2. Usually recently emerged words that have not yet become widespread are unambiguous (briefing, grapefruit, pizza, pizzeria etc.). This is explained by the fact that for the development of ambiguity in a word, its frequent use in speech is necessary, and new words cannot immediately receive universal recognition and distribution.

3. Words with a narrow subject meaning are unambiguous (binoculars, trolleybus, suitcase). Many of them denote objects of special use and therefore are rarely used in speech. (beads, turquoise). This helps to keep them unique.

4. One meaning, as a rule, highlights the terms: sore throat, gastritis, fibroids, syntax, noun.

Most Russian words have not one, but several meanings. These words are called polysemantic, they are opposed to single-valued words. The ability of words to have multiple meanings is called polysemy. For example: word root- multivalued. In the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova, four meanings of this word are indicated:

1. The underground part of the plant. The apple tree has taken root. 2. The inner part of the tooth, hair, nail. Blush down to the roots of your hair. 3. trans. Beginning, source, basis of something. The root of evil. 4. In linguistics: the main, significant part of the word. Root- significant part of the word.

The direct meaning of the word is its main meaning. For example, an adjective gold means "made of gold, composed of gold": gold coin, gold chain, gold earrings.

The figurative meaning of the word- this is its secondary, non-primary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one. Golden autumn, golden curls- the adjective in these phrases has a different meaning - figurative ("similar to gold in color"). Golden time, golden hands- in these examples, the adjective has a figurative meaning - "beautiful, happy."

The Russian language is very rich in such transfers:

wolf skin- wolfish appetite;

iron nail- iron character.

If we compare these phrases, we can see that adjectives with a figurative meaning not only tell us about some quality of a person, but evaluate it, figuratively and vividly describe: golden character, deep mind, warm heart, cold look.

The use of words in a figurative sense gives speech expressiveness, figurativeness. Poets and writers are looking for fresh, unexpected, accurate means of conveying their thoughts, feelings, emotions, moods. On the basis of the figurative meaning of words, special means of artistic representation are created: comparison, metaphor, personification, epithet and etc.

Thus, on the basis of the figurative meaning of the word, the following are formed:

comparison(one object is compared to another). The moon is like a lantern; fog like milk;

metaphor(hidden comparison). Rowan bonfire(rowan, like a fire); the bird cherry is throwing snow(bird cherry, like snow);

personification(human properties are transferred to animals, inanimate objects). The grove answered; cranes do not regret; the forest is silent;

epithet(figurative use of adjectives). The grove is golden; birch tongue; pearl frost; dark fate.

Many Russian words have both direct and figurative meanings. About what this phenomenon is, how to define a word in a figurative sense and how this transfer occurs, we will talk in our article.

On the direct and figurative meaning of the word

Even from the elementary grades of school, we know that words in the Russian language have a direct meaning, that is, the main one, directly related to some object or phenomenon. For example, for the noun " output" it is "an opening in a wall or fence through which one can leave an enclosed space" (Another output hid behind a secret door into the courtyard).

But besides the direct, there is also a figurative meaning of the word. Examples of such meanings for one lexical unit are often numerous. So, in the same word " output" This:

1) a way to get rid of the problem (Finally, we came up with a decent output from the situation)

2) the number of products produced (As a result output details turned out to be slightly lower than expected);

3) appearance on stage ( Output the protagonist was greeted with a standing ovation);

4) outcrop of rocks (In this place output limestone made the rocks almost white).

What affects the transfer of the meaning of the word

Depending on which feature can be associated with the transfer of the name of one object to another, linguists distinguish three types of it:

1. Metaphor (transfer is associated with the similarity of features of different objects).
2. Metonymy (based on the adjacency of objects).
3. Synecdoche (transfer of a general meaning to its part).

The figurative meaning of the word by the similarity of functions is also considered separately.

Now let's take a closer look at each of these types.

What is a metaphor

As mentioned above, a metaphor is a transfer of meaning based on the similarity of features. For example, if the objects are similar in shape (the dome of the building - the dome of the sky) or in color (gold decoration - the golden sun).

Metaphor also implies the similarity of other meanings:

• by function ( a heart human is the main organ a heart cities - the main area);
• by the nature of the sound ( grumbles old lady - grumbles kettle on the stove);
• by location ( tail animal - tail trains);
• on other grounds ( green I am youth - not mature; deep longing - it is difficult to get out of it; silk hair - smooth; soft look is pleasant).

The figurative meaning of a word in the case of a metaphor can also be based on the animation of inanimate objects, and vice versa. For example: whisper of leaves, gentle warmth, nerves of steel, an empty look, etc.

Metaphorical rethinking is also frequent, based on the convergence of objects according to seemingly different signs: a gray mouse - a gray fog - a gray day - gray thoughts; sharp knife - sharp mind - sharp eye - sharp corners (dangerous events) in life.

Metonymy

Another trope using words used in a figurative sense, - this is metonymy. It is possible under the condition of contiguity of concepts. For example, moving the name of the room ( Class) to the group of children in it ( Class rose to meet the teacher) is a metonymy. The same happens when transferring the name of an action to its result (to do baking bread - fresh bakery) or properties on their owner (to have bass- a talented aria sang bass).

According to the same principles, the author's name is transferred to his works ( Gogol- staged in the theater Gogol; Bach- listen Bach) or the name of the container to the contents ( plate- he already two plates ate). Adjacency (proximity) is also tracked when transferring the name of the material to a product made from it ( silk- she is in silks walked) or tools on a person working with him ( braid- seen here braid walked).

Metonymy is an important way of the word-formation process

With the help of metonymy, any word in a figurative sense acquires more and more new semantic loads. So, for example, the word " node" even in ancient times it turned out by transferring the meaning "a rectangular piece of matter into which some objects are tied" (take with you knot). And today, in dictionaries, other meanings have been added to it, which appeared through metonymy:

• the place where the lines of roads or rivers intersect, converge;
• part of the mechanism, consisting of tightly interacting parts;
• an important place where something is concentrated.

Thus, as you can see, the new figurative meaning of words, which arose with the help of metonymy, serves the development of vocabulary. By the way, this also saves speech efforts, as it makes it possible to replace the whole descriptive construction with just one word. For example: "early Chekhov" instead of "Chekhov in the early period of his work" or " audience” instead of “people sitting in the room and listening to the lecturer.”

One of the varieties of metonymy in linguistics is the synecdoche.

What is synecdoche

Words in a figurative sense, examples of which were given earlier, acquired a new semantic load due to some similarity or closeness of concepts. A synecdoche is a way of pointing to an object through the mention of its characteristic detail or distinctive feature. That is, as mentioned above, this is the transfer of the general meaning of the word to its part.

Here are some of the most common types of this trail.

How and when to use synecdoche

Synecdoche always depends on the context or situation, and in order to understand which words are used in a figurative sense, the author must first describe the hero or his environment. For example, it is difficult to determine from a sentence taken out of context who is being referred to: “ Beard blew smoke from a clay pipe. But from the previous story, everything becomes clear: "Next to the look of an experienced sailor, a man with a thick beard sat."

Thus, the synecdoche can be called an anaphoric trope oriented towards subtext. The designation of an object by its characteristic detail is used in colloquial speech and in literary texts to make them grotesque or humorous.

Figurative meaning of the word: examples of transfer by similarity of functions

Some linguists separately consider the transfer of meaning, under which the condition that phenomena have the same functions is satisfied. For example, a janitor is a person who cleans the yard, and a janitor in a car is a window cleaning device.

The word "counter" also has a new meaning, which was used in the sense of "a person who counts something." Now the counter is also a device.

Depending on which words in a figurative sense arise as a result of the named process, their associative connection with the original sense may disappear altogether with time.

How sometimes the transfer process affects the main meaning of the word

As already mentioned, as figurative meanings develop, a word can expand its semantic load. For example, the noun " the basis” meant only: “a longitudinal thread running along the fabric”. But as a result of the transfer, this meaning expanded and was added to it: “the main part, the essence of something”, as well as “part of a word without an ending”.

Yes, the emerging figurative meaning of polysemantic words leads to an increase in their expressive properties and contributes to the development of the language as a whole, but it is interesting that in this case some meanings of the word become obsolete and are put out of use. For example, the word " nature' has several meanings:

1. Nature ( Nature beckons me with its purity).
2. Human temperament (passionate nature).
3. Natural conditions, environment (figure from nature).
4. Replacing money with goods or products (pay off in kind).

But the first of the listed meanings, with which, by the way, this word was borrowed from the French language, is already outdated, in dictionaries it is marked “outdated.” The rest, developed with the help of transference on its basis, are actively functioning in our time.

How words are used in a figurative sense: examples

Words in a figurative sense are often used as a means of expression in fiction, the media, and also in advertising. In the latter case, the method of deliberately colliding different meanings of one word in the subtext is very popular. So, about mineral water advertising says: "Source of cheerfulness." The same technique is visible in the slogan for shoe cream: "Brilliant protection."

The authors of works of art, in order to give them brightness and imagery, use not only the already known figurative meaning of words, but also create their own versions of metaphors. For example, Blok's “silence blooms” or Yesenin's “birch Russia”, which has become very popular over time.

There are also words in which the transfer of meaning has become “dry”, “erased”. As a rule, we use such words not to convey an attitude to something, but to name an action or object (go to the goal, the bow of the boat, the back of a chair, etc.). In lexicology, they are called nominative metaphors, and in dictionaries, by the way, they are not designated as a figurative meaning.

Incorrect use of words in a figurative sense

In order for words in the literal and figurative sense to always appear in the text in their places and be justified, it is necessary to follow the rules for their use.

It should be remembered that the use of a metaphor requires the presence of similarities in the features of the object of the name and in the meaning of the word applied to it. Meanwhile, this is not always observed, and the image used as a metaphor sometimes does not evoke the necessary associations and remains unclear. For example, a journalist, speaking of a ski race, calls it a "ski bullfight" or, reporting on inanimate objects, designates their number as a duet, trio, or quartet.

Such a pursuit of "beautifulness" leads to the opposite result, forcing the reader to be perplexed, and sometimes even laugh, as in the case when it was said about Tolstoy's portrait: "Tolstoy hung in the office by the window."