Peter I is one of the most striking and controversial figures in Russian history, she still causes controversy among historians regarding the results and methods of government. Peter's reforms were controversial: on the one hand, he sought to advance Russia along the path of progress, on the other hand, he did it with barbaric methods, at the cost of huge sacrifices and suffering of the people.
Peter the Great with his reforms contributed to the development of all aspects of society. He developed industrial production in the economy, building manufactories, pursued a policy of protectionism, that is, supporting domestic production by imposing high import duties. In addition, a trade charter was drawn up, the port was moved from Arkhangelsk to St. Petersburg. There have also been changes in the military field. The reorganization of the army, the introduction of recruiting sets, the creation of military educational institutions and charters, the construction of the fleet led to the fact that Russia became an empire that undoubtedly could not be ignored in Europe.
Modernization of the management system (creation of the Senate, collegiums, division of the country into provinces) strengthened the secular power in Russia and the autocrat's autocracy.
At the same time, getting acquainted with European achievements during the Great Embassy of 1697-1698. Peter remained indifferent to the ideas of parliamentarism, since he believed that they were unacceptable in Russia. He ruled the country with purely dictatorial methods, causing protests in different sectors of society. Revolts broke out repeatedly: Arkhangelsk (1705–1706), Bashkir (1704–1711), uprising of K. Bulavin (1707–1708). Tsarevich Alexei also spoke out against his father, for which he was executed. The most beautiful city in Russia, the "paradise" of Peter - St. Petersburg was actually built on the bones, since over a hundred thousand people died during its construction.
Ruthlessly broke traditions, folk foundations that have developed over the centuries. All these sacrifices were for the sake of achieving the main goal - the creation of a great Russia.
P.N. Milyukov believed that the reforms were carried out by Peter at random, from case to case, under the pressure of specific circumstances, that only "at the cost of ruining the country, Russia was elevated to the rank of a European power." The famous historian S.M. Solovyov thought otherwise. He believed that the appearance of the reformer tsar was predetermined by history itself: “... the people got up and gathered on the road; but someone was waiting; waited for the leader, and the leader appeared.
Thus, we can conclude that at the beginning of the XVIII century. Russia needed reforms, otherwise it would have remained a backward country. Reforms always cause discontent in society, and only a strong, whole person could cope with resistance.
Peter I tyrant or reformer..doc
History lesson in 7th grade.
Teacher: Lysova O.N. GOOU "Constellation", Volgograd
Peter I: tyrant or reformer.
Lesson Objectives:
Educational : to consolidate the knowledge gained in the process of studying the Peter the Great era.
Educational : the formation of students' ability to analyze documents, draw conclusions, set goals, highlight the main thing from the lesson material.
Educational : the formation of students' perception of a sense of patriotism, respect for the past of their country. Inspire pride in your homeland.
Tasks:
1. Find out in the process of research who Peter I was - a tyrant or a reformer.
2. To consolidate students' knowledge of events in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century.
In the class, 2 groups are distinguished in advance, opposite in their attitude to the personality of Peter. They are given the task to draw up their relationship to Peter the Great in the form of a table.
team - Accusers (they believe that Emperor Peter I is, first of all, a tyrant).
team - Defenders (they consider Emperor Peter I a great reformer).
Throughout history, since the time of Peter the Great, historians have argued about the personality and deeds of the emperor. There is no unambiguous assessment of his personality, as well as his transformations. They said about him: “The Tsar is a carpenter, “Peter, who cut a window to Europe”, “Severe, but fair and democratic”. Others join these judgments, emphasizing that Peter "expressed the interests of the ruling class" and "teared three skins from the working peasantry."
Peter I
Oh, mighty lord of fate!
Are you not so above the abyss,
At the height of the iron bridle
Raised Russia on its hind legs?
“The Bronze Horseman” A.S. Pushkin
A.S. Pushkin, a century later, will say that some of their decrees of the tsar were written with a whip ...
Now an academician, then a hero, Now a navigator, now a carpenter, He is an all-encompassing soul On the throne was an eternal worker. (Pushkin A.S. "Stans")
Who was Peter the Great? Tyrant or reformer? What he was right about and what he was wrong about - these are the main questions of our discussion. Pay attention to the blackboard, which lists the basic rules of the discussion.
DISCUSSION RULES (Discussion rules are posted either on the board or shown using ICT. Students must be familiar with the rules at the beginning of the lesson)
1. You can't criticize people, only their ideas.
2. Each participant must have the right and opportunity to speak.
3. Listen carefully to your opponent, then state your point of view.
4. All positions without exception are subject to discussion.
5. Do not forget that the best way to convince the enemy is clear reasoning and impeccable logic.
6. Speak clearly, precisely, simply, distinctly and in your own words, and not according to a "piece of paper."
7. Have the courage to admit that your opponent is right if you are wrong.
8. Never give "labels" and do not allow derogatory statements, skirmishes, ridicule.
Before you are excerpts from documents, with the help of this material you must answer this question. Before you worksheets, you must, in the course of acquaintance with the document, highlight the evidence that Peter I is a great reformer or a tyrant
Peter I is a great reformer.
Politics.As a result of the administrative, state reform carried out by Peter I, Russia received a clearer structure of state administration. The cumbersome system of orders was replaced by colleges, which were subordinate to the Senate. On January 24, 1722, the "Table of Ranks" was introduced, which introduced a new classification of employees. The nobility of the family in itself, without service, does not mean anything, does not create any position for a person, thus, the aristocratic hierarchy of the breed, the genealogical book, was put in its place.
Economy.Under Peter there was a significant growth of large-scale manufacturing industry. By 1725 there were 220 manufactories in Russia (and in 1690 only 21). Iron smelting increased 5 times, which made it possible to start exporting abroad. Under Peter I, trade took a noticeable step forward (internal and external. Metalworking plants were built in the Urals, in Karelia, near Tula. If before the beginning of the 18th century, Russia imported iron from abroad, then by the end of the reign of Peter I the country began to sell it. Deposits of copper ore were discovered. (Ural.) New types of manufactory appeared: textile, chemical, shipbuilding.
Army. Announced by decree of 1699 on the beginning of recruitment. In the period from 1699 to 1725, an army (318 thousand people, along with Cossack units) and a fleet were formed. The army was with a single principle of recruitment, uniform uniforms and weapons. Simultaneously with the creation of the army, the construction of the fleet continued. By the time of the Battle of Gangut (1714), the Baltic Fleet was created from 22 ships, 5 frigates and many small ships. Russia had both a navy and a merchant fleet.
Tsar Peter I founded the city on May 16 (27), 1703, laid a fortress on one of the islands in the Neva delta. In 1712, the capital of Russia was moved from Moscow to St. Petersburg. The city officially remained the capital until 1918.
On the question of religion .
Education and science . Under Peter I, Russia became a powerful European power. He paid great attention to education and science. Peter ordered all children of the nobility to learn to read and write, not only sent many to study abroad, but also opened schools and colleges in Moscow and St. Petersburg: a naval, engineering school, an artillery school. By order of Peter, the publication of the first printed newspaper in Russia began. It was called "Vedomosti" and was published in St. Petersburg since 1702. To facilitate reading and writing in 1708, he reformed the Russian alphabet, greatly simplifying it. In 1719, Peter founded the country's first Kunstkamera museum. And, already at the end of his life, on January 28, 1724, Peter I issued a decree establishing the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Russia.
Don't you think that the Petrine manufactories, which use the labor of forced laborers, are not progressive capitalist enterprises? 2. Don't you think that as a result of the administrative reform, a cumbersome, bureaucratic system of governing the country has developed? What changes took place in the army, economy, politics during the reign of Peter the Great?
.
Politics . The administrative reforms carried out by Peter I led to an increase in various malfeasances, the number of officials and the cost of their maintenance increased. The burden of taxes fell on the shoulders of the people. The Northern War worsened the economic situation of the population, as they required huge material costs. Numerous taxes, direct and indirect, were introduced. All this worsened the position of the taxable population (peasants, townspeople, merchants, etc.).
Social side. The reforms of Peter I led to the strengthening of serfdom. The decree of Peter I in 1721 allowed manufacturers to buy villages with peasants for factories. The decree forbade the sale of factory peasants separately from the factory. Manufactories using forced labor were unproductive. The people responded to the deterioration of their situation with resistance. (Astrakhan uprising, the uprising of K. Bulavin, the uprising in Bashkiria).Peter used mass executions, torture, exile as a means of punishment. For example, The Streltsy rebellion of 1698 was a brutal massacre of the archers, which was committed by the sovereign. 799 archers were executed. Life was saved only for those who were from 14 to 20 years old, and even then they were beaten with whips.
Construction of St. Petersburg. In order to speed up the construction of stone houses, Peter even banned stone construction throughout Russia, except for St. Petersburg.
Church. Peter ordered to remove the bells from the churches, because. there was not enough metal for weapons for the army, up to 30 thousand pounds of bell copper was then brought to Moscow. Reform of the Synod of the Church: When Patriarch Adrian Peter died in 1700, he forbade choosing a successor. In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and the "Holy Governing Synod" was created to manage the church, which was subordinate to the Senate. The state tightened control over the income of the church from the monastic peasants, systematically withdrew a significant part of them for the construction of the fleet, the maintenance of the army, schools, etc. It was forbidden to create new monasteries, and the number of monks in existing ones was limited.
Old Believers. Tsar Peter allowed the Old Believers to live openly in cities and villages, but imposed a double tax on them. They took a tax from every man for wearing a beard, they took a fine from them and for the fact that the priests performed their spiritual duties. They did not enjoy any civil rights in the state. For disobedience, they were exiled to hard labor as enemies of the church and state.
Culture. The desire of Peter I to turn Russians overnight into Europeans was carried out by violent methods. Shaving beards, introducing European-style clothing. Dissenters were threatened with fines, exile, hard labor, and confiscation of property. Peter's "Europeanization" marked the beginning of the deepest gap between the way of life of the people and the privileged strata. Many years later, this turned into distrust of the peasantry towards any person from the "educated", since a nobleman dressed in European style, speaking a foreign language, seemed to the peasant a foreigner. Peter openly despised all popular customs. Peter, returning from Europe, ordered to forcefully shave his beards and wear foreign clothes. At the city outposts there were special spies who cut off the beards of passers-by and passers-by and cut off the floors of long national cut clothes. The beards of those who resisted were simply uprooted. On January 4, 1700, all residents of Moscow were ordered to put on wine-earth dresses. Two days were given to execute the order. It was forbidden to ride on Russian saddles. Merchants were graciously promised a whip, confiscation of property and hard labor for the sale of Russian dresses.
Don't you think there's more to cultural change than shaving beards? Do you think that the creation of new educational institutions, textbooks, museums, civil type are progressive phenomena in culture? Do you think it is possible for Russia to become a great empire without a strong army? Who should keep it?What actions could Peter take to achieve his goal, or what actions could he refrain from? Were alternative actions possible?
- So, you got acquainted with the documents and we need two masters who will record your evidence on this issue ( proofs are written by masters on the board, or shown using ICT) . So, you, as true historians, what conclusion did you come to when studying the documents. Was Peter I evil and treacherous, immoral and greedy, or was Peter the genius of the Russian land, a great reformer.
Yes, well, you painted a picture for us. Let's now listen to the defense team.
|
Peter was a reformer |
Peter was a tyrant |
|
1. A clear structure of public administration 2. The "Table of Ranks" was introduced. the nobility of the family in itself, without service, does not mean anything 3. The growth of a large-scale manufacturing industry and new types of manufactories appeared. 4. Under Peter I, trade (internal and external) stepped forward noticeably 5. New factories were built. 6. Russia started selling metal to Europe. 7. Creation of a new army. 8. Construction of the military and merchant fleet. 9. Construction of St. Petersburg, which in 1712 became the capital of Russia. 10. Tsar Peter I proclaimed the principle of religious tolerance in the state 11. Peter I paid great attention to education and science. opened schools and colleges in Moscow and St. Petersburg: naval, engineering schools, artillery school. 12. By order of Peter, the publication of the first printed newspaper in Russia began On 13.1708 he carried out a reform of the Russian alphabet, greatly simplifying it. 14. . In 1719, Peter founded the country's first Kunstkamera museum. On January 28, 1724, Peter I issued a decree establishing the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Russia. 15. Peter himself was engaged in any work and personally took part in all undertakings. 16. Under Peter I, Russia became a powerful European power |
1. The administrative reforms carried out by Peter I led to an increase in various malfeasance. 2. All transformations in the country, incl. The Northern War worsened the economic situation of the population, as they required huge material costs 3. Numerous taxes were introduced, direct and indirect 4.Reforms of Peter I led to the strengthening of serfdom. 5. A large number of popular performances (Astrakhan uprising, the uprising of K. Bulavin, the uprising in Bashkiria) 6. A huge number of consequences and cruel executions. 7. A huge number of people died. 7. Banned stone construction throughout Russia, except for St. Petersburg 8.30,000 people died during the construction of the city. 9. The Tsar encroached on the brightest thing in Russia - the church. Peter ordered to remove the bells from the churches, because. there was not enough metal for weapons for the army, up to 30 thousand pounds of bell copper was then brought to Moscow 10. In 1721, the patriarchate was liquidated, the creation of new monasteries was prohibited, and the number of monks in existing ones was limited. 11. Tsar Peter allowed the Old Believers to live openly in cities and villages, but imposed a double tax on them, both direct and indirect. 12. Violent methods of carrying out reforms. 13. Peter's "Europeanization" laid the foundation for the deepest gap between the way of life of the people and the privileged strata |
Summarize: we got two almost identical columns. What is the conclusion? Ask for your opinion (listen to students' answers)
What do you think, was there an alternative to the development of Russia, was it necessary to apply such radical measures?
Conclusion: History does not know the subjunctive mood. Peter the Great was and his deeds are great. I think and hope that our descendants will support me, that Tsar Peter I embodied so many different and sometimes contradictory qualities in himself that it is difficult to characterize him unambiguously. The merits of Peter I are so great that they began to call him the Great, and the state turned into an empire. Peter was naturally a reformer, but the methods he chose to carry out the reforms were radical. Yes, Peter appears before us violent and cruel, but such was the age. The new made its way. Just as fiercely and mercilessly as the obsolete old clung to life.
I would like to end our discussion with a statement by the historian M.P. Pogodin, who lived in Pushkin's times. In the book “Peter the Great” M.P. Pogodin wrote: “We are waking up. What day is it? January 1, 1841 - Peter the Great ordered to count the months from January. It's time to get dressed - our dress is sewn according to the style given by Peter the Great ... the essence is woven at the factory that he started, the wool is sheared from the sheep he bred. A book catches your eye - Peter the Great introduced this font into use and cut out these letters himself.
At dinner, from salted herring and potatoes, which he ordered to sow, to grape wine diluted by him, all dishes will tell you about Peter the Great. A place in the system of European states, administration, legal proceedings ... Factories, factories, canals, roads ... Military schools, academies are monuments to his tireless activity and his genius.
The era of Peter the Great is in many ways instructive for us today, when, as Peter the Great happened to do in his time, we have to create and defend a new Russia on the old obsolete basis, reform the army and navy, cultivate industriousness, active patriotism, devotion to state interests and love for the military. case. Love your Fatherland and be proud of Russia.
Bibliography:
A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulin "History of Russia: the end of the 16th - 18th centuries". M., "Enlightenment", 2010
Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia at the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. Moscow: Thought, 1995
Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great and his time, Moscow: Enlightenment, 1989
Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. M., Thought, 1990
Pogodin MP Peter the Great. - In the book: Historical and critical passages, vol. 1.M., 1846
Pushkin A.S. “The Bronze Horseman” Poems. Moscow., Bustard-Plus., 2010
Pushkin A.S. "Stans" Works in three volumes. St. Petersburg: Golden Age, Diamant, 1997.
documents on the topic Peter the tyrant or the reformer.doc
Peter I is a great reformer. Student card(s) ______________________
Politics.As a result of the administrative, state reform carried out by Peter I, Russia received a clearer structure of state administration. The cumbersome system of orders was replaced by colleges, which were subordinate to the Senate. Instead of the Boyar Duma, which did not play a significant role by the beginning of the 18th century, the Governing Senate was created, which has legislative, administrative and judicial power. The Boyar Duma was numerous, practically never convened, and is considered by historians to be an ineffective institution. The "Table of Ranks" was introduced. The list of ranks on January 24, 1722, the Table of Ranks, introduced a new classification of employees. This founding act of the reformed Russian bureaucracy put the bureaucratic hierarchy, merit and service, in place of the aristocratic hierarchy of the breed, the genealogical book. In one of the articles attached to the table, it is explained with emphasis that the nobility of the family in itself, without service, does not mean anything, does not create any position for a person: no position is given to people of a noble breed until they do not serve the sovereign and the fatherland. they will show "and for these character ("honor and rank", according to the then wording) they will not receive"
Economy.The most remarkable phenomenon in the economy of the late 17th and early 18th centuries was the significant growth of large-scale manufacturing industry. By 1725, there were 220 manufactories in Russia (and in 1690 only 21), that is, in 30 years the country's industry grew 11 times. Iron smelting increased 5 times, which made it possible to start exporting abroad. Under Peter I, trade (internal and external) made a noticeable step forward. Peter I based economic activity on a policy of mercantilism (stimulating exports and restricting imports). In 1726, exports amounted to 4.3 million rubles, and imports - 2.1 million rubles. In 1724, the Customs tariff came out (low export duties were introduced and high import duties - 75% of the cost). Metalworking factories were built in the Urals, in Karelia, near Tula. If before the beginning of the XVIII century, Russia imported iron from abroad, then by the end of the reign of Peter I the country began to sell it. Deposits of copper ore were discovered. (Ural.) There were manufactories associated with the production of linen, ropes, cloth. Moreover, the textile industry was actually created anew. A new branch of industry was shipbuilding (Voronezh, St. Petersburg.)
Army. The construction of a standing army was announced by decree of 1699. In the period from 1699 to 1725, 53 recruiting was carried out, which gave the army and navy 280 thousand people. The system of recruitment took shape over the course of five years, and by the end of the reign of Peter I, the total number of the army was 318 thousand people (together with the Cossack units). This is how a regular army was formed with a single principle of recruitment, uniform uniforms and weapons. Simultaneously with the creation of the army, the construction of the fleet continued. Until 1702, 28 ships, 23 galleys and many small vessels were built in Voronezh. Since 1702, ships have already been built in the Baltic, on the Syas River. By the time of the Battle of Gangut (1714), the Baltic Fleet was created from 22 ships, 5 frigates and many small ships.
Construction of St. Petersburg
Tsar Peter I founded the city on May 16 (27), 1703 by laying a fortress on one of the islands in the Neva delta. The city was named after St. Peter the Apostle. In 1712 the capital of Russia was moved from Moscow to St. Petersburg. The city officially remained the capital until 1918.
On the question of religion . Tsar Peter I proclaimed the principle of religious tolerance in the state. It was widely used in Russia by various religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Mohammedan, Jewish.
Education and science . Peter I paid great attention to education and science. He not only obliged all children of the nobility to learn to read and write, not only sent many to study abroad, but also opened schools and colleges in Moscow and St. Petersburg: a naval, engineering school, and an artillery school. By order of Peter, the publication of the first printed newspaper in Russia began. It was called "Vedomosti" and was published in St. Petersburg since 1702. To facilitate reading and writing in 1708, he reformed the Russian alphabet, greatly simplifying it. In 1719, Peter founded the country's first Kunstkamera museum. And, already at the end of his life, on January 28, 1724, Peter I issued a decree establishing the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Russia.
Personality of Peter. Peter himself always took a direct part in all events. The launching of a new ship was a celebration for the king. Peter the worker, Peter with callused hands - this is the personification of the entire Russian people in the so-called era of transformation. Memoirs of the Danish envoy Julius Yust: “I went to the Admiralty shipyard to be present at the lifting of the stems (the main beams in the hull of the ship). The king, as the chief ship master, disposed of everything, he chopped with an ax, which he wielded more skillfully than carpenters. Having made an order, the tsar took off his hat in front of the admiral-general who was standing there, asked him: “Should I wear it?”, and upon receiving an affirmative answer, put it on. The king expresses such respect to all senior persons in the service. Under Peter I, Russia became a powerful European power.
"Peter I is not a great reformer". Student card(s) ______________________
Politics . The administrative reforms carried out by Peter I led to an increase in various malfeasance, in connection with which in 1722 special authorities (fiscals, prosecutors) were created and the position of prosecutor general was introduced, which led to another increase in the number of officials and the cost of their maintenance. The burden of taxes fell on the shoulders of the people. All transformations in the country, incl. The Northern War worsened the economic situation of the population, as they required huge material costs. Numerous taxes were introduced, direct and indirect (changes in the tax system, the state introduced a monopoly on the sale of certain goods). All this worsened the situation of the tax-paying population (peasants, townspeople, merchants, etc.).
Social side. The reforms of Peter I led to the strengthening of serfdom. The decree of Peter I in 1721 allowed manufacturers to buy villages with peasants for factories. The decree forbade the sale of factory peasants separately from the factory. Manufactories using forced labor were unproductive. The tax reform enslaved "walking" people and serfs. The people responded to the deterioration of their situation with resistance. (Astrakhan uprising, the uprising of K. Bulavin, the uprising in Bashkiria)
Streltsy uprising 1698 - uprising of Moscowarchery regiments , caused not the hardships of service in the border cities, exhausting campaigns, harassment by the colonels. The Streltsy rebellion of 1698 was a brutal massacre of the archers, which was committed by the sovereign. Pyotr Alekseevich said: “And they deserve death for their innocence, that they rebelled.” After all, the investigation had not yet been completed, but the execution had already begun. Peter the First himself participated in them and even expressed dissatisfaction when the boyars, without due skill, chopped off the heads of the rebels. Alexander Menshikov boasted: "I personally cut off the head of 20 archers." 799 archers were executed. Life was saved only for those who were between 14 and 20 years old, and then they were beaten with whips.In the next six months, 1182 archers were executed, beaten with a whip, branded and 601 people were exiled. The investigation and executions continued for almost ten more years, the total number of executed reached 2,000 people.
Construction of St. Petersburg. In order to speed up the construction of stone houses, Peter even banned stone construction throughout Russia, except for St. Petersburg. Stonemasons were forced to go to work in St. Petersburg. In addition, a “stone tax” was taken from each cart that entered the city: you had to bring a certain amount of stone with you or pay a special fee. Peasants from all the surrounding regions came to the new lands to work on construction.Serfs were widely used for work in the project. It is believed that about 30,000 died during construction.
Church. All reforms were made for the people and in the name of the people... But what is the price of this? What did people pay for it? The Tsar encroached on the brightest thing that is in Russia - on the Church of God! The Church has always helped the people, gave hope and faith. Peter ordered to remove the bells from the churches, because. there was not enough metal for weapons for the army, up to 30 thousand pounds of bell copper was then brought to Moscow. Every fifth temple was left without a language.
Church synod reform: When Patriarch Adrian Peter died in 1700, he forbade him to choose a successor. The management of the church was entrusted to one of the metropolitans, who served as the "locum tenens of the patriarchal throne." In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and the Holy Governing Synod, or the Spiritual College, was created to manage the church, which was also subordinate to the Senate. In parallel with this, the state increased control over the income of the church from the monastery peasants, systematically withdrew a significant part of them for the construction of the fleet, the maintenance of the army, schools, etc. It was forbidden to create new monasteries, the number of monks in existing ones was limited
Old Believers. The Old Believers did not have freedom in their native land. In the reign of Peter they were no longer burned in masses, but individual cases of burning and other executions were not rare. Tsar Peter allowed the Old Believers to live openly in cities and villages, but imposed a double tax on them. They took a tax from every man for wearing a beard, they took a fine from them and for the fact that the priests performed their spiritual duties. In a word, the Old Believers were a source of income for both the government and the clergy. However, they did not enjoy any civil rights in the state. The Old Believers were divided into the so-called "recorded" and "non-recorded". Noteworthy were those who were on a special account and paid a double tax; the unrecorded lived in secret, they were caught and exiled to hard labor as enemies of the church and state, despite the fact that they were the most faithful sons of their fatherland.
Culture. The desire of Peter I to turn Russians overnight into Europeans was carried out by violent means. Shaving beards, introducing European-style clothing. Dissenters were threatened with fines, exile, hard labor, and confiscation of property. Peter's "Europeanization" marked the beginning of the deepest gap between the way of life of the people and the privileged strata. Many years later, this turned into distrust of the peasantry towards any person from the "educated", since a nobleman dressed in European style, speaking a foreign language, seemed to the peasant a foreigner. Peter openly despised all popular customs. He threw off his brocade royal clothes and dressed up in foreign camisoles. He imprisoned the legitimate queen in a monastery .... According to the Russian concept, barbering was a sin. Christ himself wore a beard, the apostles also wore beards, and all Orthodox must wear a beard. Only heretics shave their beards. Peter, returning from Europe, ordered to forcefully shave his beards and wear foreign clothes. At the city outposts there were special spies who cut off the beards of passers-by and passers-by and cut off the floors of long national cut clothes. The beards of those who resisted were simply uprooted. On January 4, 1700, all residents of Moscow were ordered to put on wine-earth dresses. Two days were given to execute the order. It was forbidden to ride on Russian saddles. Merchants were graciously promised a whip, confiscation of property and hard labor for the sale of Russian dresses.
I chose this essay topic because the personality of Peter I is interesting, ambiguous in the assessments of historians and ordinary people. Peter not only “cut a window to Europe”, but also did everything to make Russia from a boyar and ignorant one become a European country. N. I. Kostomarov writes in his work "Russian history in the biographies of its main figures." “Peter, as a historical figure, represents a peculiar phenomenon not only in the history of Russia, but in the history of all mankind of all ages and peoples. In Peter, not the genius of the artist, who understands the meaning of human nature, but nature itself created the opposite type - a man with an irresistible and indefatigable will, in whom every thought immediately turned into action. “I want it that way, because I think it’s good, and what I want, it must certainly be,” was the motto of all the activities of this person.
Peter's transformations. Fleet building.
For two and a half centuries, historians, philosophers, and writers have been arguing about the significance of Peter's transformations. Indeed, they can be evaluated in different ways. But everyone agrees on one thing: the Petrine reforms were the most important stage in the history of Russia. All of it can be divided into pre-Petrine and post-Petrine eras. The famous historian S. M. Solovyov wrote: “The difference in views came from the enormity of the deed accomplished by Peter, the duration of the influence of this deed; the more significant any phenomenon, the more contradictory views and opinions it generates, and the more they talk about it, the more its influence is on itself. The well-known Russian historian Kostomarov N. N. in his book “Russian history in the biographies of its main figures” wrote: “. Everything he learned, he sought to apply to Russia in order to transform it into a strong European state.
A positive assessment of the transformations in Russia is given by B. G. Pashkov in the book “Rus. Russia. Russian empire. Chronicle of the reigns of events 862-1917. ” describes the beginning of Peter’s transformations in this way: “Peter got stronger. Fun could no longer satisfy his needs. The White Sea was not enough for him. Peter began to dream about the Baltic, but the Swedes blocked access to the sea. Finally, he settled on a plan for access to the Black Sea. At the beginning of 1695, a campaign against Azov was scheduled. Peter understood that it was this city that gave access to the sea in the south of the country. On June 29, 1695, the army approached Azov. On July 8, the Russian battery began to operate, but the Turks constantly received reinforcements from the sea. Peter realized that Azov is not a game. Two assaults on the city failed. On September 27, they decided to retreat from Azov and prepare for a new campaign.
M. Aksenova in the encyclopedia for children "History of Russia" in the section "Azov campaigns", in my opinion, does not reveal the reasons for the unsuccessful first campaign, like A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina "History of Russia".
A more complete analysis, I believe, is given by N. I. Kostomarov in Russian History. Analyzing the reasons for Peter’s failures, he writes about the traitors, and also “the main reason was that the military leaders, independent of each other, acted independently, and therefore their orders lacked the necessary unity. The first failure did not plunge Peter into despondency. He ordered the construction of a rowing fleet on the Don for the convenient transportation of troops, for operations against the Turks from the sea, for communication with the Don Cossacks and the delivery of grain supplies to them. The construction of the ships proceeded with great difficulty. “Peter invented a means to create a fleet in the shortest possible time. On November 4, 1696, in the village of Preobrazhensky, the sovereign gathered a duma, to which foreigners were also invited. This Duma decided the following sentence: all residents of the Muscovite state to participate in the construction of ships. Estates, guests and merchants had to build ships, and small estates to help with a contribution of money.
S. F. Platonov describes the preparations for the second Azov campaign in this way. “The dissatisfaction among the people against foreigners, who were credited with failure, was very great. Peter did not lose heart, did not drive out foreigners and did not leave the enterprise. For the first time he showed here all the strength of his energy and in one winter, with the help of foreigners, he built on the Don, at the mouth of the Voronezh River, a whole fleet of sea and river ships. Many obstacles and failures were overcome by the tsar, who at that time became an autocratic sovereign. In May, the Russian army moved from Voronezh along the Don to Azov and laid siege to it for the second time. This time the siege was complete, because Peter's fleet did not allow Turkish ships to reach Azov. Peter himself was present in the army (in the rank of captain) and, finally, he waited for a happy moment: on July 18, Azov surrendered to capitulation. How hard the failure was before, so great was the joy in Moscow when they received news of the victory. Peter himself rejoiced: in success he saw the justification of his previous activities, his "fun". The victory was celebrated by the solemn entry of troops into Moscow, festivities and large awards. The allies were also solemnly informed of the Russian victory. In Poland and in the West, they did not expect such a success for Peter and were amazed by him.
N. I. Kostomarov writes about Peter’s future plans and his belief that there should be a fleet in Russia: “Peter’s passion for shipbuilding consistently attracted him to the closest rapprochement with Western Europe. The construction of ships, in the way that it was done in Voronezh, could not be a lasting matter for the future. It was necessary to prepare knowledgeable Russian masters. For this purpose, Peter sent fifty young stolniks abroad, each with a soldier. The purpose of the parcel was special training in ship art and architecture, and therefore they were sent to such countries where navigation flourished at that time: to Holland, England and Italy, mainly to Venice. This measure aroused a strong murmur: in Russia, which had lived for so many centuries in alienation from the West, fear constantly prevailed that the Russians, assimilating knowledge from other peoples, would not lose the purity of their faith; the clergy interpreted that Russian Orthodox people should not communicate with foreigners.
Those found guilty of such rumors were punished with a whip and exiled, but displeasure did not stop. Peter didn't look at anything; devoted to passion for his work, he decided to encourage and captivate his subjects by his own example. He confessed to the boyars that, having not received a proper education, he was not yet able to do the things that he considered useful for his state, and he did not see any other means than, having laid down the crown for a while, to go to enlightened European countries to study. There has never been such an example in the history of Russian tsars. Adherents of immovable antiquity greeted this intention with indignation. Peter was in the retinue of the embassy, under the name of Captain Peter Mikhailov. The embassy went in March 1697 to the Swedish frontier.
About the Great Embassy of S. F. Platonov, “The Complete Course of Lectures on Russian History” writes and shows us Peter as a purposeful person: “For Peter himself, the journey was the last act of self-education. Conscious of the superiority of the West, he decided to bring his state closer to it through reform. We can safely say that Peter, as a reformer, matured abroad. Peter was attracted by maritime and military affairs, culture and industry, but comparatively very little was occupied by the social structure and administration of the West. Upon his return to Moscow, Peter immediately begins "reforms", finally breaks with the old traditions.
Peter's transformations. New phenomena in the way of life of people.
Returning from abroad, Peter began new transformations.
Kostomarov N. I. writes that the transformations of Peter in Russian life, which were carried out without indulgence, naturally, should have caused enmity, opposition. “The beginning of the transformations was a change in external signs that separated Russian life from European. Peter, the very next day after his arrival in Moscow, on August 26, in the Transfiguration Palace, began to cut off his beards with his own hands. Shaving beards and changing clothes from the first time aroused horror and showed that Peter would not show indulgence to the customs of ancient Russian life, which had taken on a religious significance.
The authors of the history of Russia A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina give an assessment of the significance of the cultural heritage of the Petrine era: “The main features of the development of culture in the era of Peter I were the strengthening of its secular principles and active penetration and even
planting Western European specimens. On the basis of the grandiose changes of the time of Petrovsky, domestic science was born and developed, the education system took shape, the artistic culture flourished not only in the subsequent decades of the 18th century, but also in the 19th century. The authors write that the cultural achievements introduced by Peter are not accepted and understood by the entire population of Russia. “However, the culture of the Petrine era was still of a transitional nature. It combined the innovations of Peter and the traditions of former Russia. Moreover, all these innovations and achievements have become the property of only the upper strata of the population of a vast country. The main part of him perceived the new features of life that appeared under Peter, nothing more than the eccentricities of the king and masters himself. “At the end of 1699, Peter changed the way of reckoning. Peter ordered January 1 of this year 7208 to be celebrated as the New Year and this January to be considered the first month of the year 1700 from the Nativity of Christ.
N. I. Kostomarov describes it this way: “The New Year of 1700 was celebrated in Moscow on the royal orders for seven whole days. The king ordered that at weddings and all kinds of public entertainments, women should be together with men, and not especially, as was done before, and that there should also be music and dances at such gatherings. Those who voluntarily did not want to have fun on a foreign model had to fulfill the will of the king; the stubborn were punished with fines. Peter abolished the ancient custom - to make marriages at the will of the parents, without any participation of their children who entered into a marriage union. The tsar had to fight many features of the savagery of his time: for example, in February it was forbidden to sell sharp-pointed knives, which Russians usually carried with them and often fought to the death with them; the punishment of the ignorant, who, not knowing the medical sciences, undertook to heal the sick and did harm. A secular school appeared and the monopoly of the clergy on education was abolished. Peter I founded the Pushkar School (1699), the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences (1701), the Medical and Surgical School; the first Russian public theater was opened. In St. Petersburg, the Naval Academy (1715), engineering and artillery schools (1719), schools of translators at collegiums were established, the first Russian museum - a cabinet of curiosities (1719) with a public library was opened. Since 1703, the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti, was published; in 1708-10, a "civilian" font close to the modern one was introduced instead of a semi-ustav. In 1725 the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was opened with a gymnasium and a university. In the era of Peter I, many buildings were erected for state and cultural institutions, the architectural ensemble of Peterhof (Petrodvorets). Fortresses were built (Kronstadt, Peter and Paul Fortress, etc.). It was the beginning of the planning of cities (Petersburg), the construction of residential buildings according to standard projects. Peter I encouraged the activities of scientists, engineers, artists, etc. All reforms in the field of culture were characterized by the development of ties with Western European culture and were closely connected with the tasks of strengthening the absolutist state.
With F. Platonov, he writes about Peter's difficult internal struggle when introducing something new into people's lives, shows him as a tyrant:
“There was a murmur in society about cruelty, about Peter’s innovations, about foreigners who led Peter astray. To the voice of public displeasure, Peter responded with repressions: he did not yield a single step on the new path, mercilessly tore all ties with the past, lived himself and forced others to live in a new way. Peter felt restless, irritated, losing his temper.
N. I. Kostomarov believes that Peter's innovations brought harm to Russia in the subsequent time, because during the reforms he neglected moral concepts.
“The Russian people saw in their tsar an opponent of piety and good morals; the Russian tsar was annoyed with his people, but he persistently wanted to force them to go by force along the path indicated by him. One thing gave him hope for success: the old obedience to tsarist power, slavish fear and patience that amazed all foreigners, that patience with which the Russian people in past centuries endured both the Tatar yoke and the arbitrariness of all despots. Peter understood this and said: “With other European peoples, it is possible to achieve the goal in philanthropic ways, but not so with the Russians: if I had not used strictness, I would not have owned the Russian state for a long time and would never have made it what it is now. I am not dealing with people, but with animals that I want to transform into people." He neglected not only religious prejudices, but also more essential moral concepts.
Then he continues: “All the orders of that time, concerning the external side of life, irritated Peter’s contemporaries as much as brought harm to Russia in subsequent times. It was they who taught the Russians to rush at the outward signs of education, often with detriment and inattention to the inner content. Between those who had assimilated a European appearance and the rest of the people, an abyss formed, and meanwhile, in a Russian man, covered with a European gloss, all the internal signs of ignorance, rudeness and laziness were retained for a long time. This sad property took root in Russian society and continues to dominate to this day; it was introduced into Russian customs by Peter the Great. The Russian people were not at all so hostile to acquaintance with knowledge as they were to foreign methods of life that were forced upon them. It was possible, without caring at all about appearance, to carry on the work of internal transformation and public enlightenment, and the appearance would change by itself.
N. M. Karamzin in “History of the Russian State”, condemns Peter, compares Russia after Peter’s transformations with an unfinished building: “The offspring gave zealous praise to this immortal Sovereign. But we Russians, will we say that Peter is the Creator of our state greatness? Let's keep silent about personal vices; but this passion for customs new to us overstepped the bounds of prudence in him. Peter did not want to delve into the truth that the spirit of the people is the moral power of the State, like the physical, necessary for their firmness. This spirit and faith saved Russia during the Pretenders. The sovereign of Russia humiliated the Russians in their own hearts. Russian clothes, food, beards did not interfere with the establishment of schools. Two States can stand on the same level of civic enlightenment, having different customs. A state can borrow useful information from another without following it in its customs. Let these customs naturally change, but to attribute the Rules to them is violence, lawless even for an autocratic monk. For centuries, the people got into the habit of honoring the Boyars, as men marked by greatness: they worshiped them with true humiliation. Peter destroyed the dignity of the boyars: he needed Ministers, Chancellors, Presidents! Russian women stopped blushing at the indiscreet gaze of men, and European liberty took the place of Asian coercion. Platonov S. F. gives a commentary on the role of Peter by N. M. Karamzin: “Peter as a figure Karamzin preferred another historical figure - Ivan III. This latter made his principality a strong state and introduced Russia to Western Europe without any breaking and violent measures. Peter, on the other hand, raped Russian nature and sharply broke the old way of life. Karamzin thought that one could do without it. With his views, Karamzin became in some connection with critical views on Peter. He did not show the historical necessity of Peter's reforms, but he already hinted that the need for reform was felt before Peter." The thoughts of S. F. Platonov are close to me. The personality of Ivan the Terrible, his methods in carrying out reforms were assessed ambiguously by many historians and people. Ivan III is a great ruler who made his state strong. But Peter the reformer was already needed. I believe that Peter I was a great reformer and his harsh measures were necessary for the enlightenment and cultural development of Russia. And, if Peter I had more supporters and like-minded people, perhaps it would have been possible to avoid human casualties and violence during the reforms.
Peter's transformations. military reform.
The military reform of Peter is connected with the war for access to the seas: Black and Baltic.
S. F. Platonov, in his work “The Complete Course of Lectures on Russian History”, part 3, writes: “the end of the beginning of the form Since 1700, Peter began the Swedish war.
end of formbeginning of formIt can be said with certainty that at the very beginning of the war with Sweden, Peter had a single goal - to take possession of the coast of the Gulf of Finland, to acquire a sea with a convenient harbor.
end of the beginning of the form Peter began the campaign in the fall, the weather interfered with military operations, impassability left the army without bread and fodder. The shortcomings of the military organization made themselves felt: although the troops stationed near Narva were regular, of a new order, Peter himself confessed that they were "not trained." In addition, most of the officers were foreigners, not loved by the soldiers, who did not know Russian well, and there was no one power over the entire army. The Narva defeat showed the weak combat effectiveness of the Russian troops and the need to accelerate the reform of the Russian army. S. F. Platonov, exploring the causes of the Narva defeat, points out: “end of form, beginning of form, Peter considered the case near Narva lost and left to prepare the state for defense against the Swedish invasion. end of form beginning He left to his share the difficult task of organizing state defense and military forces. end of form beginning of form In the spring of 1703, after a trip to Voronezh, Peter again appeared on the Neva with Sheremetev's troops, took the fortification of Nyenschantz (near the mouth of the Neva) and founded the fortified harbor of St. Petersburg by the sea (in May 1703). Peter valued the new harbor very much, and all further military operations in the north were aimed at ensuring the possession of St. Petersburg. To this end, there was a systematic conquest of the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland. “On June 27, 1709, the famous battle of Poltava took place. This general battle ended with the complete flight of the Swedes to the south.
N. I. Kostomarov describes the victory of the Russian troops:
“The Battle of Poltava received in Russian history such a significance that no other had before. The Swedish strength was broken; Sweden, which occupied a first-class place among the European powers, lost it forever, yielding to Russia.
In the eyes of all Europe, Russia, hitherto despised, has shown that she is already in a position, by her means and military education, to fight the European powers, and therefore has the right to be treated by other powers as an equal."
N. I. Kostomarov also connects the reforms of the army with the conduct of the war: “Peter, having received news of the defeat, did not lose heart, but on the contrary, he realized that it could not be otherwise, attributed the misfortune to the lack of training and order in the army and with more vigorous activity took steps to improve. In anticipation of an enemy attack, in cities close to the border, Peter ordered to hastily build fortifications, sent to work not only soldiers and male residents, but even women, priests and clerks, so that for some time in churches, except for cathedrals, there was no worship. It was ordered by the spring to recruit new regiments, prepare new guns, and take bells from churches and monasteries for pouring into cannons. Ordinary Russian laziness interfered a lot with the speedy production of work, but Peter severely punished any disobedience and evasion from his will: he ordered to be beaten with a whip for failure to appear at work, to be hanged. With such measures, within a year after the battle of Narva, the king already had more than three hundred new weapons prepared. »
S. F. Platonov covers in most detail the military reform of Peter, who, according to him, first of all takes into account the national interests of Russia and achieves a brilliant result as a result, although: “He undertook the war with Sweden with a deep understanding of national interests and was looking for victories not personal glory, but the best conditions for the cultural and economic prosperity of Russia - and Peter directed his inner activity towards the achievement of the people's good. But when the Swedish war became the main business of Peter and demanded enormous efforts, then Peter involuntarily gave himself up to it, and his inner activity itself became dependent on military needs. The war demanded troops: Peter was looking for funds to better organize the military forces, and this led to the reform of the military and to the reform of the noble services. The war required funds: Peter was looking for ways to raise the paying power of the state, and this led to a tax reform, to encourage industry and trade, in which Peter always saw a powerful source of people's well-being. Peter changed the organization of the troops. He made the regular regiments the dominant, even exclusive type of military organization. He, differently than before, began to replenish the troops. Only in this respect can he be considered the creator of the new Russian army. Peter tied the soldier exclusively to the service, tearing him away from home and trade. Military service now fell on all classes of society, except for the clergy and citizens. In 1715, the Senate decided, as a norm for recruiting, to take one recruit from 75 households of the owner's peasants and serfs. Recruits from the tax-paying classes in the troops became on the same level as the soldiers-nobles, mastered the same military equipment, and the entire mass of the serving people made up a homogeneous army, not inferior in its fighting qualities to the best European troops. At the end of the reign of Peter the Russian regular army consisted of 210,000 people. The basis of the new army was the "amusing" regiments - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky. It was equally important to create their own war economy. Its beginning was laid by the transfer of the state-owned Nevyansk plant in the Urals by the Tsar Nikita Demidov. In 1701-1704. The factory owners Demidovs built the first large metallurgical plants in the country. State-owned manufactories were created for the production of gunpowder, small arms, as well as cloth for uniforms. In 1716, Tsar Peter adopted the "Military Regulations", summarizing 15 years of experience in military operations. Russia has become one of the great military and maritime powers of Europe.”
S. F. Platonov describes the significance of the world for Russia and the formation of the All-Russian Empire: Naturally, he transferred military operations to the Baltic Sea and in 1710 took Vyborg, Riga and Revel. The Russians became a firm foot on the Baltic coast, the existence of St. Petersburg was ensured. On August 30, 1721, peace was concluded in Nishtad. Russia became the main power in the north of Europe, finally entered the circle of European states, associated itself with them by common political interests and received the opportunity of free communication with the entire West through the newly acquired borders. During the solemn celebration of peace on October 22, 1721, the Senate presented Peter with the title of Emperor, Father of the Fatherland and Great. Peter took the title of Emperor. The Muscovite state thus became the All-Russian Empire, and this change served as an external sign of the turning point that took place in the historical life of Russia.
Peter's transformations. Petersburg construction.
"In 1703. On May 16, on the island, which was called Janni-Saari and was renamed Peter Lust-Eiland (that is, the Merry Island), on the day of the Holy Trinity, Peter founded the city. In November 1703, the first Dutch merchant ship arrived in the city just founded by Peter. Peter personally led him to the harbor. At this time, the tsar spoke to his nobles a wonderful speech, the meaning of which was as follows: “None of you, brothers, even dreamed about thirty years ago that we would be carpentry here, wear German clothes, build a city in the country we conquered, we will live to see brave Russian soldiers and sailors, and many foreign artists, and our sons who returned from foreign lands smart, we will live to see foreign sovereigns respect me and you. In our century, we will shame other educated countries and exalt the Russian name to the highest degree of glory. Peter had such a view of the future fate of Russia, and, according to his assumption, Petersburg was the foundation of a new Russia. Peter's favorite epithet for his creation was the word "paradise". All of Russia had to work for the structure and population of this paradise. After the victory over the Swedes, Peter, considering his beloved Petersburg already strong for Russia, set about organizing it in a more energetic way, and this served as a pretext for such a burden on the people, with which all other measures could hardly be compared. In 1708, forty thousand workers were sent to St. Petersburg. In 1709, it was ordered to collect the same number - 40,000 people and drive them to work in St. Petersburg. In June 1714, it was indicated to people of various ranks to build courtyards in St. Petersburg. They were to be built during the summer and autumn of 1714. For three years, from 1718-1721, the government paid great attention to the improvement and deanery of the new city. One of the signs of social life in the new city was the establishment of assemblies. On November 26, 1718, Peter gave a decree about this. "Assembly", according to the interpretation of this decree, "is a French word, which in Russian cannot be expressed in one word, but to say in detail - free, where an assembly or congress is held not only for fun, but also for business, where you can see each other and talk or hear what is being done." The sovereign continued to take care of the settlement of his beloved St. Petersburg. In March 1722, it was ordered to take 350 carpenters with their families from various northern cities and counties to live in St. Petersburg. All of them were obliged to arrive by the next winter and, under pain of deprivation of everything movable and immovable, to begin construction. Each house must be ready by 1726, on pain of confiscation of half of the estate. Peter had a desire to give his St. Petersburg a local patron and chose the holy prince Alexander Nevsky for this purpose. On June 4, 1723, the sovereign ordered his relics to be transported from Vladimir to the Alexander Nevsky Monastery. The relics were met a few miles from St. Petersburg by the tsar himself and delivered by ship to the Alexander Nevsky Monastery.
N. M. Karamzin in his work “History of the Russian State” calls the construction of St. Petersburg a big mistake of Peter, which led to the death of people: “Can we hide from ourselves another brilliant mistake of Peter the Great? I mean the foundation of a new capital on the northern edge of the State, among the swells of the swamps, in places condemned by nature to barrenness and lack. Even without having either Riga or Revel, he could lay a merchant city on the banks of the Neva for the import and export of goods; but the thought of establishing the sojourn of our Sovereigns there was, is, and will be harmful. How many people died, how many millions were used to put this intention into action? We can say that Petersburg is based on tears and corpses. Transformed Russia then seemed like a majestic unfinished building.
Peter's transformation. Social reorganization of Russia.
S. F. Platonov in his lectures justifies the unsystematic nature of Peter's measures in the social reorganization of Russia: “Only in the last years of his reign, when the war no longer required excessive efforts and means, Peter took a closer look at the internal structure and sought to bring into a system a number of separate events at different times. Was it possible, under this condition, to indulge in systematic reform, when military needs determined all the internal activities of the government?
His upbringing and life could not develop in him an inclination towards abstract thinking: in all his make-up he was a practical figure who did not like anything abstract.
The common sense of the reformer kept him from transplanting doctrines completely alien to Russian soil. If Peter transferred the collegial structure of administrative bodies to Russia, it is because everywhere in the West he saw this form of government and considered it the only normal and suitable one.
N. I. Kostomarov in his classic work “History of Russia” emphasizes that only a boundless, absolute monarchy made it possible for Peter to carry out reforms.
“Peter was autocratic, and at such a moment in history, into which Russia then entered, only autocracy could be suitable. A free republican system is no good at a time when it is necessary to change the fate of the country and the spirit of its people, uproot the old and plant the new. Only where autocracy is limitless can a bold lord dare to demolish and rebuild the entire state and public edifice. Many new institutions and ways of life were introduced by the reformer to Russia; he could not breathe a new soul into her; here his power was powerless. Only the spiritual upbringing of society could create a new man in Russia, we owe this by no means to Peter.” “Torture of the Preobrazhensky Prikaz and the secret office, painful death penalty, prisons, penal servitude, whips, tearing of the nostrils, espionage, encouragement with awards for denunciation. Peter in such ways could not instill in Russia either civic courage, or a sense of duty, or that love for his neighbors, which is higher than all material and mental forces and more powerful than knowledge itself; in a word, having created many institutions, creating a new political system for Russia, Peter still could not create a living, new Russia.
Peter's transformations. Church reform.
With the establishment of the Synod, Peter got out of the difficulty in which he had stood for many years. His church-administrative reform preserved authoritative power in the Russian church, but deprived this power of the political influence with which the patriarchs could act. The question of the relationship between church and state was decided in favor of the latter. S. F. Platonov in his "Lectures" indicates that under Peter I, the process of turning the church into one of the most important state institutions, completely subordinate to the highest secular power, was completed. “For more than twenty years (1700-1721) a temporary disorder continued, in which the Russian church was governed without a patriarch. Finally, on February 14, 1721, the "Holy Governing Synod" was opened. This spiritual college forever replaced the patriarchal authority. The Spiritual Regulations frankly pointed out the imperfection of the patriarch's one-man management and the political inconveniences resulting from the exaggeration of the authority of the patriarchal authorities in state affairs. The composition of the Synod was similar to that of the secular colleges. The political significance of the Synod has never risen as high as the authority of the patriarchs.
At the end of his reign, Peter expressed his views on the social significance of monasteries in the "Announcement of Monasticism" (1724). Monasteries should have a charitable purpose and should serve to prepare people for higher spiritual positions. With all his activities regarding the monasteries, Peter strove to bring them into line with the indicated goals.
In 1721, the Synod issued an important decree on allowing marriages between Orthodox and non-Orthodox. Political motives were partly guided by Peter in relation to the Russian schism. In the second half of Peter's reign, repressions went along with religious tolerance: schismatics were persecuted as civil opponents of the ruling church; at the end of the reign, religious tolerance seemed to have decreased, and the restriction of the civil rights of all schismatics without exception followed. In 1722, the schismatics were even given a certain outfit, in the features of which there was, as it were, a mockery of the schism. The church reform finally turned the church into a pillar of Russian absolutism.
Peter's transformations. Reforms of central and local government.
A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina in “History of Russia” write: “The trend towards absolutism that emerged back in the 17th century required even greater centralization of power in the conditions of the Northern War. In 1699, the Boyar Duma was replaced by the Tsar with the Near Chancellery, renamed in 1708 into the “Council of Ministers”.
The next step was the creation in 1711 of the Governing Senate, which became the highest government institution. The tsar appointed 9 people to the Senate. In 1722, a prosecutor general was appointed, who was called the eye of the sovereign in the Senate. The reform of 1718-1720 abolished cumbersome and clumsy orders and introduced colleges. Initially, there were 11 of them. Each board was headed by a president, vice president, and several advisers. To guide the activities of the collegiums, the General Parliament and the regulations of each collegium were issued. Cases of state crimes were in charge of the Preobrazhensky Prikaz, and then the Secret Chancellery. They were under the control of the emperor himself.
In 1708, in order to strengthen the local apparatus of power and increase its authority and role in governance, the country was divided into eight provinces (later their number increased. They were headed by governors appointed by the king and possessing administrative, military and judicial power. The provinces were divided into counties, and later on the provinces.
N. I. Kostomarov emphasizes that when reforming the government, Peter sought to put the royal power at the head of everything: “On February 5, 1722, a new law on succession to the throne was issued, which, one might say, destroyed any meaning of tribal law in this matter. Any reigning sovereign, in accordance with this law, could, according to his arbitrariness, appoint a successor to himself. "To whom he wants, he will determine the inheritance, and to a certain one, seeing what obscenity, packs to cancel."
Since Peter wished to put the civil service above the prejudices of the breed, then the other legalizations of Peter that followed were of the same nature. S. F. Platonov points out that the old essence remained in Peter’s administrative reforms: “Peter’s institutions nevertheless became very popular in Russia in the 16th and 2nd centuries. In Peter's administration, "the old Russia had all its effect in the reform institutions." The foundations of the administrative system remained the same: Peter left the entire administration of Russia in the hands of almost exclusively nobles, and the nobility carried the entire administration in the 17th century; Peter mixed the collegiate principle with the sole one in the administration, as was the case before; Peter, as before, managed the "order system", ordering the administration to the Senate, with the prosecutor general. Thus, under the new forms, the old essence remained. On February 5, 1722, a new law on succession to the throne was issued, which, one might say, destroyed any meaning of tribal law in this matter.
Peter's transformations. Recent events.
“In August 1723, Peter surveyed the fleet in Kronstadt and admired his work, which he had done with love throughout his life. The entire fleet in 1723 consisted of 24 ships and 5 frigates, it had 1,730 guns and up to 12,500 crew members. It seems that at that time already Peter had a flash of the idea to transfer the throne after himself to his wife Catherine. True, Peter did not express this directly anywhere, but such an assumption can be conveniently deduced from his actions at that time. In the spring of 1724, Peter decided to crown her; she already bore the title of empress, but only by her husband. Peter wanted to give this title to her person, regardless of marriage. On May 7, 1724, the empress was crowned with great solemnity at the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Peter personally laid the crown on Catherine.
“This law of Peter after his death more than once subjected the fate of the Russian throne to fluctuations, and Peter himself did not use it. He did not appoint a successor; indirectly, as they thought, Peter pointed to his wife as the chosen heiress, ”S. F. Platonov wrote about this event.
“On January 27, Peter expressed a desire to write an order on the succession to the throne. The papers were handed to him; the sovereign began to write and managed to write only two words: "give everything" - and he was no longer able to write, but ordered to call his daughter Anna Petrovna so that she would write from his words, but when the young princess appeared, Peter no longer could not utter a single word. The next day, at four o'clock in the morning, Peter died.
Reflecting on the personality of Peter, on his reforms, I sometimes involuntarily transferred myself to those Peter's times, as if trying on what people experienced. And, admiring the personality of Peter, considering him one of the greatest political figures in Russia, I believe that many of Peter's actions cannot be justified by any historical necessity. Still, the idea of statehood cannot be higher than human life and individual freedom.
While working on the abstract, I significantly expanded my knowledge of the history of Russia. I think that I will continue to work on this topic in the future.
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Peter the Great is one of the brightest rulers in the history of Russia. And today, historians are arguing about who Peter the Great was for our country - a reformer who managed to put the Russian Empire on a par with the most developed European powers, or a tyrant who achieved his lofty goals with rather low methods.
Opinions about the reign of Peter the Great are different, but they can be divided into three main groups: panegyrists, who see only positive aspects in Peter's activities; accusers, I condemn here the reforms of Peter and his desire to be closer to Europe; and objectivists, recognizing the merits of Peter, but also showing the shortcomings of his deeds.
Personally, I am more inclined towards objectivists, because I think that it is difficult to say unequivocally good or unambiguously bad about the reign of such an outstanding historical figure as Peter the Great. The reign of Peter was marked by the most ambitious reform of life in Russia.
Speaking about the positive side of Peter's reign, it is worth mentioning that, firstly, Peter managed to completely get rid of the old state administration and make the organization of power easier. Secondly, during the time of Peter the Great, the Russian army took shape as a regular, permanent formation. Various types of troops appeared in the army, as well as stages of military service. Thanks to this, every officer could make a career for himself. It is impossible not to say about the Russian fleet, which became one of the most powerful on the world stage of the 17th century precisely thanks to Peter's reforms. Thirdly, under Peter the Great, an active struggle against the abuses of officials began for the first time. A special body of secret supervision was engaged in this, namely its employees - the fiscals. Fourthly, Peter the Great drew attention to the position of the estates of Russian society. At the same time, using the experience of European countries, Peter was guided not by the material situation or the kind of people, but by their benefit to society.
But if you look at the reign of Peter from a critical point of view, then first of all we recall the strengthening and already a century of serfdom, the use of violence in response to disagreement with the reforms, Peter's willingness to use all resources to win the Northern War, even those that were previously considered inviolable. All these moments also characterize the reign of Peter, but in a certain way. That is why it is difficult to say about the personality of Peter the Great whether the end justifies the means or not.
I prefer to remain of the opinion that the reign of Peter the Great had both pluses and minuses, and it would be unfair to talk about it, considering only benefits or only harm.
Goldobina Elena, 11th grade
Works of art have been written about all Russian tsars. But Peter the Great in this regard was the most popular. Apparently, because he “cut a window to Europe” and was the first reformer on a national scale in Russia. A. S. Pushkin especially honored him in his work. In my opinion, it is natural that the writer Alexei Tolstoy also turned to the image of Peter the Great. As you know, this writer liked to cover fateful times in his works. For the first time, Peter appeared in his story “Peter's Day”, which was written immediately after the 1917 revolution. Later, his play “On the Rack” was released, which also touched on the Petrine era. From work to work, Tolstoy Peter more and more manifested himself as a concrete historical figure, capable of significantly influencing the course of the history of the state.
It is known that A. Tolstoy was interested in politics and, according to his political views, belonged to the supporters of strengthening the Russian statehood. About this he wrote
in his “Open Letter to N.V. Tchaikovsky” on the eve of his return from emigration: “... strengthening Russian statehood, restoring economic life in devastated Russia and asserting Russia’s great power,” he wrote, “is the main task for the writer.” He also believed that the only force capable of coping with this task in Russia were the Bolsheviks. Therefore, A. Tolstoy, although not officially a supporter of the Bolsheviks, was nevertheless ready to cooperate with them on this basis. It is difficult to judge how sincere his statements about loyalty to the Soviet regime were, but unlike other writers, he quite painlessly went through the path of getting used to the new political and literary environment, although proletarian criticism was ready at any moment to declare him a counter-revolutionary.
The turning point in the fate of A. Tolstoy was 1930, when the first book of the novel “Peter the Great” was published. The book was in tune with the times. The Bolsheviks, I think, liked the theme of becoming a leader in the novel. Tolstoy described in detail the childhood, youth, and period of maturation of the future Peter the Great. The author noted not only the positive, but also the negative aspects of Peter's character, but he always justified them with state necessity or self-defense. In principle, Tolstoy's Peter turned out to be an ideal reformer, who was called upon by the time to save Russia and bring it into the civilized world. It seems to me that A. Tolstoy showed diplomatic flexibility. For example, describing the Streltsy rebellion, he concentrated all the reader's attention on the external historical color of those events, without trying to assess the tragedy in accordance with modern moral standards.
I see Tolstoy as a diplomat in many episodes of this novel. For example, the author constantly compares Peter with Prince Vasily Golitsyn and the Swedish King Charles XII. The meaning of these comparisons is to show the importance of having a strong royal personality in the state during the period of reforms. Such in Sweden is King Charles XII, and Prince Golitsyn is simply a theoretician, but not a man of will and action, he does not have the grip of a leader. Tolstoy makes it clear that Peter the Great compares favorably with both of them, but nevertheless it is better for him to take an example from Charles XII, although he thinks only of his own glory.
The writer endows Peter with the ability to worry about the glory of the fatherland, and the result is an ideal Russian state reformer.
Modern history has proved that the reign of Peter the Great cost Russia many sacrifices and defeats. A. Tolstoy, who had an excellent education, could not have been unaware of this. This means that the writer consistently and consciously continued his thin diplomatic line in the development of the image of the tsar-reformer. Tolstoy emphasized that in his work Peter relied on devotion to a common cause. Canceled all privileges for belonging to a noble family. “Nobleness according to suitability to consider” - this is how the young Tsar Peter ordered. There are episodes in the novel in which it is described how, for example, the boyar Buynosov showed his state failure, and vice versa - an humble kind of people proved their zeal for the state, an example of this is the former Moscow pie merchant Menshikov and the Brovkin family, who rose to high positions and ranks.
