Causes of violation of the norms of the Russian language. Violation of the norms of the modern Russian literary language

Competent speech is not only expressive speech, but, above all, correct speech. Correct speech is based on its compliance with modern language norms.

There are lexical, phraseological, word-formation, grammatical (morphological and synthetic), spelling, punctuation, stylistic, orthoepic (pronunciation) norms.

Violations of certain literary norms are qualified as speech errors (in the broad sense of the word).

I. Lexical errors.

Characteristics	Example	Cause	Correction
1. Mixing in the use of paronyms	Before us opened the great prospects of the ancient city.	Ignorance of the difference in the lexical meaning of words.	The majestic vistas of the ancient city opened before us.
2. Use of extra words (pleonasms)	Scolding and swearing were heard. The enemies were getting closer. My autobiography. Criminal crimes.	Students put different meanings into words. Ignorance of the exact meaning of foreign words.	Scolding was heard. The enemies were approaching. Autobiography. It is a crime.
3. Violation of the lexical compatibility of words	People begin to sow crops.	Poor representation of the described phenomenon; ignorance of the laws of combination of words.	They begin to sow winter crops, rye (or harvest)
4. Lexical incompleteness of the statement	The author sympathizes and even exalts his hero.	Insufficient understanding of the semantic relationships in the sentence.	The author sympathizes with his hero and even exalts him.
5. Distortion or destruction of phraseological units	Plays a role Has a role Thought passes through the red line	Ignorance of the meanings and forms of phraseological units	Plays a role Matters The red thread passes thought

II. Grammatical errors

Characteristics	Example	Cause	Correction
1. Word-building mistakes
1. Violation of the word-formation structure	With her stubbornness, she got what she wanted.		With your directness...
2. Morphological errors
1. Mistakes in the gender and number of nouns	Mom learned to make jam. Streams ran on the asphalt	Influence of vernacular	... to make jam. ... on asphalt.
2. Errors in the use of reliable forms	He spent the evening with his friends. His best friends were the drivers.	Circumstantial meaning of noun. II declension has an ending y. Indeclinable nouns do not change the ending: without a coat, in the cinema ...	…in the circle of your friends. ...were chauffeurs.
3. Mistakes in the formation of adjective forms	The day was more cloudy than usual. We solve the most important problem. More than fifty rubles	The comparative degree of adjectives is formed using the words more, less, or the suffix ee, eish.	was more cloudy. … the most important task. Fifty rubles
4. Mistakes in the use of forms of nouns	In four hundred and seventy-six books. year two thousand and eight	When declining compound numbers, all words change, in ordinal numbers only the last one.	In four hundred and seventy-six books. Year two thousand and eight.
5. Mistakes in the use of verb forms. A mix of times.	We played in the forest for a very long time. "Go, son, to the city alone." Burns a fire. At the meeting were representatives of all districts, with the exception of two delegates, absent for a good reason.		They played in the forest. "Go, son, to the city alone." Burns a fire. At the meeting were representatives of all districts, with the exception of two delegates, about absent for a good reason.
6. Mistakes in the formation of participles	Student writing an essay.	Communion has no future tense	The student who will write the essay. (the participial turnover must be replaced by a subordinate attributive clause).
7. Mixing the recurrent and passive meanings of participles.	A girl raised by her grandmother...		A girl raised by her grandmother...
3. Syntax errors
1. Violation of agreement in the number between the subject and the predicate	The youth have always been ahead. Chekhov shows philistinism with their petty interests.		The youth has always been ahead. ... philistinism with its petty interests.
2.Wrong management of words.	Gogol describes the adventures of Chichikov. Confidence in victory.		Describes the adventures of Chichikov. …in victory.
3. The use of homogeneous members of the proposal: - a combination of incompatible concepts; - connection of participial turnover and subordinate attributive;	I drink tea with lemon and enjoy. Mayakovsky is pleased with the labor upsurge that has gripped the masses and in which he sees a guarantee of victory.		I enjoy tea with lemon. Mayakovsky is pleased with the labor upsurge that has gripped the masses. In it he sees the key to victory.
4. The use of adverbial turnover.	Trying to convince readers, the author does not always succeed.	The main verb and the additional action of the gerund must be performed by one person (subject)	Trying to convince readers, the author is sometimes too straightforward.
5. Erroneous use of prepositions.	Thanks to the art of the artist. Came from school		Thanks to the art of the artist. …from school.
8. Use of participial turnover	The book lying on the table is read.	Ignorance of the structure of the participial turnover	The book on the table has been read. or The book on the table is read.
9. Errors in the use of direct and indirect speech.	Yuri said that I would be a pilot. The mayor told the officials who had gathered at his place that I invited you, gentlemen, in order to tell you unpleasant news.		Yuri said that he would be a pilot. The mayor told the officials who had gathered at his place that he had invited them to inform them of the unpleasant news.
10. Agreement of the subject with the predicate.	Everyone who has ever visited St. Petersburg will never forget ...	Incorrect allocation of the grammatical basis in the main and subordinate parts of a complex sentence.	Everyone who has ever visited St. Petersburg will never forget ...
11. Pile of alliances.	All the newspapers wrote about the scandal in the government, but, nevertheless, there were people who knew nothing about it.		All the newspapers wrote about the scandal in the government, but there were people who knew nothing about it. (or any of these cos).

In KIMs 2008 there are tasks that test speech knowledge. Tasks A3 test the ability to determine the meaning of a word or distinguish paronyms in the context. Paronyms are usually called words of one part of speech, usually with the same root, similar in sound, but differing in prefixes or suffixes. For example, malicious - evil (poachers are malicious, i.e. deliberately violating the law, deserving punishment; evil - a quality of a person, not subject to punishment).

Grammar norms

Possession of grammatical (morphological) norms is checked by tasks A4. Grammatical (syntactic) norms are presented in tasks A5, A6, A28. Tasks A5 test the ability to build a sentence with a participial turnover. It should be remembered that the participial turnover (gerundial participle) and the predicate denote the action of the same person. For example, When sending a telegram, be sure to include the address. Tasks A6 test the possession of a syntactic norm (coordination, control, construction of a sentence with homogeneous members, complex sentences with direct and indirect speech). Difficulties are caused by the assimilation of the norms of agreement of the predicate with the subject, the agreement of participles and adjectives with the noun being defined: the image of the heroine mourning her youth (does the image mourn?).

Tasks A28 allows you to check the possession of various grammatical means, the expression of thought, involves the transformation of syntactic constructions in compliance with the main meaning, if there is a demonstrative word in the main part of a complex sentence, then it is impossible to replace the subordinate part with participial turnover. For example, Grushnitsky is one of those people who has pompous phrases ready for all occasions.

IV. But what about part C?

In the structure of the USE test in the Russian language, the third part is of the greatest importance, since it is this task that allows you to sufficiently check the speech preparation of the examinees objectively, to assess their practical literacy.

Dear graduates, first we offer you some advice, what not necessary make:

DO NOT go beyond the field on the form;

DO NOT forget about the correct and accurate writing of letters;

DO NOT forget about the paragraph division of the essay (a red line is required!) And its

compositional completeness (conclusions are mandatory!);

DO NOT turn the essay into a presentation; what is needed is not a retelling of the text, but its inter-

pretation - interpretation of the problem raised in the text;

DO NOT start your essay with a pronominal phrase (I'm interested ... I

liked ... This article ...) and from unions;

DO NOT forget to use speech clichés;

DO NOT forget to justify your point of view (2-3 examples);

DO NOT forget about the moderate use of quotes (no more than 2-3 small ones).

volume, well-designed in different ways);

DO NOT distort quotes;

DO NOT forget to give examples from the text when designating copyright artists

essential techniques, as well as explain their role in the text;

DO NOT show your ignorance by changing the name, patronymic of the writer, title

works, etc.;

DO NOT impose your point of view, but prove it, arguing with facts or

quotes;

DO NOT forget that a work written without relying on the proposed text is not about

believed and not judged;

DO NOT forget that the length of the essay should be between 150 and 300 words;

DO NOT forget that about half of the time is allotted for writing, i.e.

90 minutes, of which approximately 60 minutes must be worked on a draft, and

in 30 minutes - check and rewrite the essay for a clean copy.

Some features of the genres of writing-reasoning:

Essay- a prose essay of small volume and free composition, expressing individual impressions and thoughts on a specific occasion or issue and not claiming to be an exhaustive interpretation of the subject, but, as a rule, suggesting a new, original view of the subject. The style of the essay is figurative, aphoristic, and often used introductory words.

Review- a general assessment of the work, an expression of one's own attitude to what was read, viewed, an emotional assessment of the personal perception of the work, impressions about it with justification: what exactly caused these feelings and experiences in the work.

Review- analysis, analysis and evaluation of the text, a genre of criticism, literary and newspaper journalism, in which a creative dialogue takes place between the reviewer and the author. The reviewer must see the creative individuality of the author, the color of the text, and carefully substantiate his opinion.

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

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NRU HSE - Nizhny Novgorod

Faculty of Business Informatics and Applied Mathematics

On the Russian language and culture of speech

Violations of the norms of the Russian language. Common Mistakes

Russian literary language norm

Prepared

Zelenov Alexey Alexandrovich

Group: 12PMI

Lecturer: Batishcheva T.S.

Nizhny Novgorod, 2012

Many, including myself, believe that a language (no matter what) resembles a self-learning machine that develops under the influence of people and it is not possible to stop or leave its development within certain limits. But, of course, each language at a certain point in its development has its own norms, and the language, as a rule, has an oral or written form.

Let's move on to the Russian language, the ideal use of the language is described by the "Law on the state language of the Russian Federation", which states that "3. The procedure for approving the norms of the modern Russian literary language when it is used as the state language of the Russian Federation, the rules of Russian spelling and punctuation is determined by the Government of the Russian Federation.

4. The state language of the Russian Federation is a language that promotes mutual understanding, strengthening interethnic ties between the peoples of the Russian Federation in a single multinational state.”

Unfortunately, this is not always the case, and the state simply cannot regulate the Russian language and its development, except perhaps the literary language, which, at the current pace of development, is not so easy to keep track of. So what are the norms of the Russian language? Are they really government regulated? There are 2 norms in the Russian language - linguistic and literary. “Language norm is a historically conditioned set of commonly used language means, as well as the rules for their selection and use, recognized by society as the most suitable in a particular historical period. The norm is one of the essential properties of the language, ensuring its functioning and historical continuity due to its inherent stability, although not excluding the variance of linguistic means and noticeable historical variability, since the norm is intended, on the one hand, to preserve speech traditions, and on the other hand, to satisfy current and changing needs of society "Language norm -https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0% D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0.

The literary norm is aimed at "preserving the means and rules for their use accumulated in a given society by previous generations" Literary norm - https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0% BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0. Who must follow these rules? Naturally the media, writers, and other organizations/people working in the cultural field. But do they always follow these rules? - No. Often, in order to interest a person, it is necessary to use a language that is more “close to the people”, i.e. resort to colloquial turns and vernacular, and here language norms come into force, which, in my opinion, are wider than literary ones. How often are the rules broken? Yes, the rules are violated, and often, and this cannot be avoided.

“When analyzing the Second World War, American military historians discovered a very interesting fact, namely: in a sudden clash with the forces of the Japanese, the Americans, as a rule, made decisions much faster and, as a result, defeated even superior enemy forces. Having studied this pattern, scientists came to the conclusion that the average word length for Americans is 5.2 characters, while for the Japanese it is 10.8, and, therefore, it takes 56% less time to issue orders, which plays an important role in a short battle ... For the sake of of interest, they analyzed Russian speech, and it turned out that the length of a word in Russian is on average 7.2 characters per word. However, in critical situations, the Russian-speaking command staff switches to profanity and the word length is reduced to ... 3.2 characters per word. This is due to the fact that some phrases, and even phrases are replaced by ONE word" Joke about orders - http://vvv-ig.livejournal.com/25910.html

We can conclude that it is almost impossible to get rid of the mat, although it is recognized as petty hooliganism, the rules exist to break them, which people do, because it is not fatal. But my attitude towards swearing is negative, because a person gave meaning to all words, therefore, if swear words were given some negative meaning, then you should not use such words.

It is worth talking about slang, “Slang (from English slang) is a set of special words or new meanings of existing words used in various human associations (professional, social, age and other groups)” Slang - https://ru. wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B3. Most often, slang is used by representatives of certain professions or social groups, most often slang is used by young people. What's wrong with slang? The main plus is the acceleration of communication, but the minus is misunderstanding, i.e. not everyone can understand what a person is talking about, especially this applies to the past generation, where technical progress has not gone so far. You can give an example: “yesterday I found a bug in the program”

Here you can clearly see the use of slang, and professional ones, and many will not understand that a person has found an error in his program, but representatives of the corresponding profession will immediately understand what is the matter and communication between them will happen faster if they use slang.

Another type of the most common violations is the incorrect placement of stress in words. Most of all, such mistakes are made in the words “spoil (a child), contract, leisure, extraction, (he) calls, (you) call, invention, tool, catalog, self-interest, more beautiful, medicines, intention, start, facilitate, provide , convict, put, reward, means, carpenter, Ukrainian, deepen (knowledge), in-depth (knowledge), phenomenon, intercession, hosts, cement, linguistic (culture) "emphasis - http://ege-legko.livejournal.com/ 23795.html. But the most common word in which a huge number of people incorrectly stress is the word “call” (does not call, but calls), and in different contexts the stress is placed differently (that is, many say call, but in a different context, for example “ Will you call me?" put the wrong stress. Such errors are most often due to the fact that the stress in the Russian language is "movable". The stress in the word can also change over time, with the development of the language, for example, during the development of air transport (then the flight time was not measured hours, but kilometers), most spoke not kilometer, but kilometer, then somehow smoothly turned into kilometer, but some still say kilometer.

There are a huge number of mistakes that people make, but there are “Top 13 mistakes”, they are so common that people, trying to rid humanity of them, create such memos:

"one. "PAY FOR THE TRAVEL"! You can either "pay the fare" or "pay the fare"!

2. In Russian, the word "LIE" DOES NOT EXIST! With prefixes - please: Put, Lay, Shift.

3. Are you still "calling"?! Educated people say: “Vasya is calling you”, “you will call your mother”.

4. As you know, in Russia there are two troubles: “-TSYA” and “-TSYA”. Everyone made this mistake!

5. There are no words "in general" and "in general"! There are words "IN GENERAL" and "IN GENERAL".

6. Spelling "sorry" instead of "sorry."

7. How can you shove the letter “U” into the word “future” to get “future”? “I will” - “future”, “follow” - “next”.

8. How much can you doubt: "come" or "come"? Remember once and for all, correctly - "come". BUT in the future: I WILL COME, COME, COME.

9. Ordered an espresso? To cook faster? The coffee is called ESPRESSO! And there is also "latte" (emphasis on "A", two "T") and "capu Chino" (one "H").

10. Congratulations on (what?) Birthday (what?)! I'm going (where?) On the day (of what?) of my birthday! Was on a birthday party.

No “going to my birthday”, “congratulations, happy birthday”, etc.!

11. Girls, if a guy writes “pretty girl” and “looks good”, put a fat cross on him! Why are you so literate?!

12. Keep in mind that "TO HAVE IN_VIEW" is written separately!

13. Everyone who still says "THIS" will burn in hell!

But of course, the most common mistake (by the way, this is the MOST common mistake in the exam) is the spelling: “-TSYA” and “-TSYA”. This really looks like a “trouble”, you can stumble upon such a mistake anywhere, I can’t even say for sure if I made this mistake in this text? After all, many write on the machine, forgetting about spelling, although there are people who just have great intuition, and they almost never make mistakes. But how can one develop such an intuition? - reading, if you read a lot, then you will develop a kind of memory and the words will simply be remembered, and, as a rule, there will be much fewer mistakes, even if you did not learn Russian well at school.

Summarize. Violation of the norms of the language is quite normal for any language, but we must try not to make such mistakes. We are native speakers and must respect it, first of all, without distorting it with our mistakes, if everyone does this, the language will become cleaner, and foreigners will begin to understand us and they will awaken interest in the language.

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Varieties of speech errors

If norms are mandatory rules for the use of language in speech, then sharp, unmotivated deviations from the literary norm should be considered as speech errors. The typology of errors caused by deviations from the literary and linguistic norm is related to the levels of the language.

In written speech, there are spelling and punctuation errors resulting from violations of the rules of spelling and punctuation.

In oral speech, it is possible spelling errors- Violations of the norms of pronunciation and incorrect placement of stress in words. In order to avoid spelling errors, it is necessary to use orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and stress dictionaries.

Both oral and written are possible lexical errors arising as a result of incorrect or inaccurate use of words, without taking into account their semantics (lexical meaning), features of lexical compatibility, as a result of mixing paronyms, their inappropriate choice in speech.

Grammatical errors appear due to a violation of the grammatical laws of the Russian language, the norms of form formation, the construction of syntactic structures - phrases and sentences. In accordance with the three main sections of grammar, errors in inflection, word formation and syntax are distinguished. These mistakes are overcome with the help of knowledge of the grammar of the Russian language. To eradicate these errors, it is necessary to refer to grammars, grammar dictionaries of the Russian language, dictionaries of grammatical difficulties.

Due to deviation from the modern stylistic norm at all levels of the language differ and stylistic errors, which arise as a result of incorrect or unmotivated use of language units (words, phrases and sentences) that have a stylistic coloring that does not correspond to the stylistic coloring of the entire text. For example, book words, inappropriately used in colloquial and everyday speech, violate the stylistic unity of the text and create a terrible speech disease, which K.I. Chukovsky wrote about in his book about the Russian language “Alive like life”, clerk : What are you crying about? or Darling, does the cape limit you?

Options, their typology

In literary language exist also a layer of linguistic units that stand on the verge of norm and non-norm. These units are language options. Language variants exist at the phonetic, lexico-semantic and grammatical levels. At the phonetic level, there are pronunciation options ([d´e] kan - [de] kan, [t´e] mp - [te] mp, do [zhd] and - do [lzh] and), accent ( agreement - agreement, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, call - call), phonemic ( tunnel - tunnel, closet - closet). Lexical variants are linguistic units that have the same lexical meaning, but differ in sound composition ( wind - wind, gold - gold, fire - fire).

Grammar variants are variant forms of the same word. Exist inflectional variants, which are variants of inflectional forms (forms of the genus : banknote - banknote, reserved seat - reserved seat, spasm - spasm, case forms: accountants - accountants, behind the doors - behind the doors); derivational, which have variable word-building affixes ( double - dual, diplomatic - diplomatic, tourist - tourist) and syntactic- options for control, coordination and connection.

Thus, and speech errors, and variants of the literary norm can be classified by language levels. But if speech errors are gross violations of the norm, which are unacceptable in the speech of educated people, then variants of the norm are possible in the speech of native speakers, because. appear as a result of objective fluctuations of the norm at a certain stage of language development, manifestations of instability, instability of language units of the expression plane.

ORPHEPIC NORM

orthoepic(from Greek. orthos- correct and epos- speech) norm considers the rules for pronunciation of words and the placement of stress in them.

Historical foundations of Russian orthoepy. Old Moscow and Leningrad pronunciation norms

Russian literary pronunciation evolved over time. Before the formation of the national language in the XVII century. dialect varieties of the Russian language were widespread in different territories. Along with joining Moscow principality other principalities, the economic, political, cultural role of Moscow as the capital of the centralized Russian state grew. In this regard, the prestige of the Moscow dialect also grew. Its norms, including pronunciation, developed into national norms.

This process was facilitated by the fact that the dialect of Moscow is Central Russian, where the sharpest dialectal features of the northern and southern dialects are smoothed out. The norms of literary pronunciation finally took shape by the end of the 19th century. It was the pronunciation of the old Moscow intelligentsia, behind it was the indisputable tradition of the Moscow Maly Theater. It is no coincidence that V.I. Chernyshev, linguist, corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1931), one of the organizers of the seventeen-volume Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language, wrote in 1915: “Educated people in all places of Russia speak Moscow.”

But already in the second half. 19th century. the Moscow norm had a competitor - the St. Petersburg pronunciation, which began to claim the role of a model. Its main difference from the Moscow norm was in the bookish, “letter” pronunciation. Petersburg pronunciation did not become an orthoepic norm, was not recognized by the stage, but its features had a huge impact on the development of the pronunciation system. And the change in the composition of the population of Moscow led to the fact that the Moscow pronunciation, while retaining the main characteristic (akanye), has changed significantly.

Lecture 3. Norms of the modern Russian literary language and speech errors

1. Lexical and phraseological norms, types of their violation.

2. Morphological norms and morphological speech errors.

3. Syntactic norms and their deviations from them.

4. The concept of literary editing

Lexical norms regulate the rules for the use of words, ᴛ.ᴇ. the accuracy of the choice of the word in accordance with the meaning of the statement and the appropriateness of its use in the social meaning and generally accepted combinations. When determining lexical norms, one should take into account changes in the vocabulary of the language: the polysemy of a word, the phenomena of synonymy, antonymy, stylistic consideration of vocabulary, the concept of active and passive vocabulary, the social sphere of vocabulary use, the extreme importance of a justified choice of a word in a particular speech situation, and many other.

Changes in the vocabulary of the Russian language occur in parallel with changes in the life of society; to designate new phenomena in social life, a new word must either be created using word-formation means existing in the language, or a foreign word should be borrowed, or a complex, compound name should be formed, or, finally, a word that already exists in the language is adapted, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ in this case, in a certain way, modifies its meaning (and often at the same time its stylistic coloring).

Polysemy refers to the presence of several (two or more) meanings in a word. The consequences of a careless attitude to polysemantic words are the ambiguity and ambiguity of the expression, as well as the unlawful, excessive expansion of the meanings of known words.

Homonymy should be distinguished from ambiguity. Homonyms - ϶ᴛᴏ words that sound the same, are identical in form, but whose meanings are in no way related to each other, ᴛ.ᴇ. do not contain any common elements of meaning.

Synonymy is the opposite of polysemy and homonymy. With synonymy, a different form expresses the same (or similar content). Synonyms- ϶ᴛᴏ words that sound differently, but are the same or very close in meaning. Synonyms are conceptual (close, not quite identical in meaning) and stylistic (identical in meaning, but having a different stylistic coloring). The presence of synonyms ensures the expressiveness of speech and at the same time obliges all speakers and writers to be careful about choosing a word from a number of close, similar ones.

Antonyms are ϶ᴛᴏ words with the opposite meaning. Οʜᴎ has long been used as a technique to create contrasting patterns, to sharply contrast signs, phenomena, etc.

A number of words are provided in explanatory dictionaries with the marks “high”, “bookish”, on the one hand, and “colloquial”, “colloquial” - on the other. These marks indicate the stylistic stratification of vocabulary. The main part of the vocabulary fund is the so-called. “neutral” vocabulary, against which the expressive possibilities of stylistically colored words appear, the use of which in speech requires a developed linguistic instinct and aesthetic taste.

Some words (or meanings of words) are perceived as obsolete (archaisms and historicisms), but their relation to the passive and active vocabulary remains unchanged: individual obsolete words “return” to the active fund of the dictionary, sometimes acquiring new meanings, cf.
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thought, governor, banker, goalkeeper.

From the point of view of the social sphere of use, all words of the Russian language can be divided into the vocabulary of an unlimited sphere of use and the vocabulary of a limited sphere of use, which includes professionalisms, dialectisms, terms. Words of limited use may eventually enter the lexical composition of the literary language. At the same time, regional words lose their dialect coloring (cf.: outskirts, plow, stubble), and the terms are determinologized (for example: social reaction, environment, atmosphere). Closely related to the problem of stylistic and social stratification of vocabulary is the question of the use of foreign words in modern Russian speech. Focusing on the United States as a political, economic, scientific and technical center determines the prestige of the English language, contributes to the penetration into our speech of a whole stream of borrowings - Americanisms. In some cases, there is an unjustified duplication of Russian words by foreign vocabulary. For example:

1. Many are now experiencing ʼʼfuture shockʼʼ(ʼʼfuture shockʼʼ).

2. Electorate gathered in long queues for ballots by twelve o'clock.

3. The deadline for the implementation of the law must be prolonged.

Words should be used strictly according to their meaning.

Lexical meaning - ϶ᴛᴏ display in the word of one or another phenomenon of reality (object ͵ quality, relationship, action, state). With a clear, precise presentation of thought, the words we use fully correspond to their subject-logical meaning. The use of words without taking into account their meaning leads to a speech error - inaccuracy of word usage. For example:

1. ʼʼThere were mostly people in the hall fair ageʼʼ.

2. ʼʼThis fight is under thesis protection of human rightsʼʼ.

3. ʼʼThousands of Leningraders gathered at the microphonesʼʼ.

for the correct use of words in speech, it is not enough to know their exact meaning, it is extremely important to take into account the peculiarities of lexical compatibility, ᴛ.ᴇ. the ability of words to connect with each other.

Violation of lexical compatibility is a common lexical error. For example:

1. In Moscow schools a new tradition was born.

3. In deep childhood he looked like his mother.

The semantic accuracy of speech must be impaired as a result of speech insufficiency(excessive laconism) - missing the necessary words. For example:

1. Oil Paintings placed in frames.

2. Due to the cold in the X-ray room We only make emergency cuts.

3. Persons you are interested in we will send by mail.

The inability to find the exact words for naming certain concepts leads to speech redundancy- verbosity. For example:

1. They were shocked by the sight of the fire, which they were witnesses.

2. He could not stay away from family conflicts as husband of a woman and father of children.

3. The dead corpse lay motionless and showed no signs of life.

Speech redundancy can take the form pleonasm(from the Greek pleonasmos - excess) - the use in speech of words that are close in meaning and therefore unnecessary words ( main essence, valuable treasures, dark darkness). Pleonasm is a type tautology(from the Greek tauto - the same thing, logos - a word - a repetition of words with the same root (to tell a story, ask a question, resume again).

The word serves to name and designate an object in a variety of situations and relationships. It can have several meanings, which are revealed when the word is used, in context. There are direct, figurative and substitutive words. A figurative (or metaphorical) meaning is associated with the transfer of the properties of one object to another on the basis of a feature common or similar to comparable objects. For example, the word ʼʼtalkʼʼ should be used to characterize the noise of waves, and the word ʼʼbronzeʼʼ should be used to characterize body colors. The replacing (metonymic) meaning of a word arises when one word is replaced by another on the basis of the connection of their meanings by adjacency. For example, ʼʼthe audience got upʼʼ - instead of ʼʼstudents got upʼʼ, ʼʼthe neighbor is on fireʼʼ - instead of ʼʼthe neighbor's house is on fireʼʼ.

In the event that the ambiguity of the word is not taken into account, there is ambiguity or inappropriate semantic associations:

1. Our chess player lagged behind her opponent in development.

2. People saw in him good leader.

3. The plane flies much faster than the train.

Similar in appearance to polysemy homonymy(from the Greek homos - the same, onima - name), ᴛ.ᴇ. coincidence in sound and spelling of words with different meanings. Mistakes in the use of homonyms are extremely widespread in speech. For example:

1. Now judges endure glasses.

2. Growth of young figure skaters is stimulated with the help of demonstration dances.

3. You see on the screen Gavrilov in a beautiful combinations.

Phraseological norms - ϶ᴛᴏ rules for the use of phraseological units, non-free word combinations that are not produced in speech, but are reproduced in it. Phraseologisms are distinguished by a stable ratio of semantic content, lexical composition and grammatical structure, in connection with this, any changes in the composition and structure of these expressions lead to speech errors.

There are the following main types of phraseological speech errors:

1. Stylistically unjustified change in the composition of a phraseological unit: with all her long legs she rushed to run.

2. Unjustified reduction in the composition of a phraseological unit: this is an aggravating circumstance(instead of aggravating circumstance).

3. Distortion of the lexical and grammatical composition of a phraseological unit: he entered himself (instead of leaving ); he thought that these words would come true in his fate to the full extent (instead of to the full extent).

4. Distortion of the figurative meaning of a phraseological unit: Oblomov was a sign of the times (instead of a sign of the times).

The grammatical norms of the Russian literary language include morphological and syntactic . Morphological norms- ϶ᴛᴏ rules for the use of forms of different parts of speech (gender forms, numbers of nouns, degrees of comparison of adjectives, verb forms, etc.). Syntactic norms- ϶ᴛᴏ rules for using phrases and sentences. Violations of the grammatical norms of the Russian literary language are gross speech errors.

Morphological norms are numerous and relate to the use of forms of different parts of speech. These norms are reflected in grammars and reference books. Let's take a look at some of the rules.

1. Nouns with a stem in a soft consonant and a zero ending can be both masculine and feminine. Some semantic groups can be distinguished among them. Thus, the names of animals, birds, fish, insects are usually masculine, with the exception of the words: bittern, moth, owl, mouse. Among real and specific nouns there are words of masculine and feminine gender, which is determined only by the traditions of use, in this regard, in cases of doubt, one should refer to dictionaries. Morphological norms are numerous and relate to the use of forms of different parts of speech. These norms are reflected in grammars and reference books. Let's take a look at some of the rules.

2. Nouns with subjective assessment suffixes (-yshk-, -ishk-, -ushk-, -ish-) retain the gender of the word to which the suffixes are attached: house - big house, barn - old shed, sparrow - young sparrow, perch - a small perch, a strong voice, an absurd letter.

3. The gender of indeclinable nouns is associated with the meaning of the word. Inanimate nouns are usually neuter: aloe, coat, taxi, cocoa, piano, medley, popsicle, jersey, jelly, jury, landau, muffin, kimono, mashed potatoes, stew, radio, etc. At the same time, some deviations from the norm are registered in the modern literary language, for example: avenue - for women. genus, and also less often cf.
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genus; bolero (Spanish national dance) - male. and cf.
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genus; whiskey (vodka) cf.
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and wives. genus; kohlrabi (cabbage) - for women. genus; mango (fruit of a tropical tree) - husband. and cf.
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genus; sirocco (hot wind in Africa) - husband. genus; penalty - husband. and cf.
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genus; salami (sausage variety) - for women. genus; Urdu, Hindi (languages) male. clan, coffee - husband. genus; in times. speech - cf.
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clan and a few others.

The names of persons are masculine or feminine based on the gender of the designated person, for example:

Some words belong to the common gender, as they can denote males and females: vis-a-vis, incognito, protégé, Sami (nationality), Somali (nationality).

The names of animals, in accordance with the literary norm, are masculine, for example: dingo, jaco, zebu, hummingbird, cockatoo, kangaroo, marabou, pony, chimpanzee. The exception is the words: ivasi (fish) - female. genus; tsetse (fly) - female. genus.

The names of animals in a sentence can be used as feminine words, if the text refers to a female animal: the kangaroo was feeding the cub.

4. For alphabetic abbreviations (complex abbreviated words read by the names of the letters), the gender is associated with their morphological form. If the abbreviation is inclined, then its gender is determined by the ending: university - husband. gender, since in the nominative case it has a zero ending (cf .: in a university, university, etc.); tsum - husband. clan (in tsume, tsumom). If the abbreviation is not declined, then usually its gender is determined by the gender of the core word from which the abbreviation is formed: Central Committee - Central Committee - husband. kind, VDNKh - exhibition - for women. genus. At the same time, this kind of abbreviations often deviate from this rule, especially in cases where abbreviations become familiar and break away from the core word. For example, NEP is a husband. gender, although the core word is feminine (politics); MFA - husband. gender, although the core word of the middle gender (ministry); VAK - husband. gender, although the commission is feminine.

5. A large number of masculine words in Russian denote both males and females. Such nouns designate persons by profession, occupation, name positions and titles, for example: hero, associate professor, professor, lawyer, economist, accountant, lawyer, prosecutor, etc. Over the past decades, constructions such as director have become widespread in literary use. came with the designation of females. Moreover, if the predicate when designating females is put in the feminine gender, then definitions for them are used only in the masculine form: the young prosecutor Ivanova, an experienced economist Petrova made a report.

6. In the instrumental case of the singular for feminine nouns, in accordance with the literary norm, variant endings -oy, -oy, (-ey, -ey), which differ only stylistically: endings -oy (-ey) are characteristic of the book, official or poetic speech, and the endings - oy (-ey) have a neutral character, ᴛ.ᴇ. are used in any style: water - water, country - country.

7. For masculine nouns that name substances, in the genitive case of the singular, variant endings -a and -y are possible: snow - snow, sugar - sugar, forms with these endings differ either in meaning or stylistically. The difference in meaning lies in the fact that the forms ending in -y denote part of the whole: bought sugar, but: sugar production, got drunk on tea, but: growing tea. Stylistic differences are manifested in the fact that forms with the ending -a are neutral (characteristic of any style), and forms with the ending -y are primarily characteristic of oral, colloquial speech. In written speech, the forms in -y are found in stable combinations: give heat, there was no agreement, give a blunder, no passage, no passage, without asking. These forms are also found in words with a diminutive meaning: a beam, a seagull, a kvass.

8. In the nominative plural, according to the traditional norms of the literary language, most words correspond to the ending -ы, -и: locksmiths, bakers, turners, searchlights. At the same time, the ending -a occurs in a number of words. Forms with the ending -a usually have a colloquial or professional coloring. Only in some words the ending -a corresponds to the literary norm, for example (70 words are stable): addresses, banks, sides, sides, centuries, bills, director, doctor, tunic, master, passport, cook, cellar, professor, variety, watchman , paramedic, junker, anchor, sail, cold.

Sometimes forms with endings -a and -s (-i) differ in meaning, cf .: furs (dressed animal skins) and furs (blacksmith's); corps (torsoes of people or animals) and corps (buildings; large military formations); camps (socio-political groups) and camps (parking lots, temporary settlements); breads (cereal plants) and breads (baked); sable (furs) and sables (animals); wires (electrical) and wires (of someone); orders (insignia) and orders (in medieval society, for example, the Order of the Sword).

Here are examples of nouns ending in -s, -and: boatswains, accountants (accountants - razᴦ.), winds (winds - razᴦ.), elections, reprimands, jumpers (jumpers - razᴦ.), contracts (contracts - razᴦ.), inspectors , instructors (instructors - razᴦ.), engineers (engineers - razᴦ. and vernacular), designers, sweaters (sweaters - razᴦ.), drivers (chauffeurs - razᴦ.), turners.

Variant forms, forms corresponding to the literary norm, are described in detail in the book: L.K. Graudina, V.A. Itskovich, L.P. Katlinskaya. Grammatical correctness of Russian speech: Experience of the frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants. – M.: Nauka, 1976, p. 116-119.

9. Particular attention should be paid to the inclination of surnames of non-Russian origin and geographical names. Here are just a few norms of the literary language.

a) Surnames on ʼʼkoʼʼ such as Shevchenko, Sidorenko in official speech and in written form of the literary language are not inclined.

In colloquial speech and in fiction, these surnames are used in two versions, ᴛ.ᴇ. they are inflexible, but they can also be inclined: he sent to Semashka, talking about Ustimenka.

b) If the surnames coincide with common nouns, then female surnames do not decline (met Anna Sokol), but male ones decline (met Vladimir Sokol), while several cases are possible: surnames with suffixes -ets, -ek, -ok, -ate better to decline without dropping out a vowel: Ivan Zayats, Timothy Peretz; surnames ending in a soft consonant, denoting males, are declined as masculine nouns, although, being common nouns, they are feminine words. Wed: lynx - female. kind, but: Ivan Rys, far - wives. genus, but: Vladimir Dahl.

c) Russian surnames ending in -in, -ov in the instrumental case have the ending -y: Frolov, Ivanov, Kalinin. Geographical names in the instrumental case have endings -om: ᴦ. Kalinin, s. Golyshmanov. The ending -om also has foreign-language surnames in -in, -ov: Darwin, Chaplin, Colvin. Female foreign-language surnames are not inclined: Darwin, Zeitlin, etc. [For more on this, see the book cited above, pp. 150–160]

The norms for the use of numerals in modern Russian are peculiar and specific.

So, for example, complex numbers like eighty, seven hundred - ϶ᴛᴏ is the only group of words in which both parts are declined: eighty, seven hundred (creation.
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Pad.), about eighty, about seven hundred (adv. Pad.). In modern colloquial speech, the declination of complex numbers is lost, which is also facilitated by the professional speech of mathematicians, however, in official speech, the norm requires the declination of both parts of complex numbers.

Collective numbers (two, three, ..., ten) are not used in official speech, although they coincide in meaning with cardinal numbers. But even in colloquial speech, their use is limited: they do not combine with the names of feminine persons, with inanimate nouns, with the names of high ranks, positions (hero, general, professor, etc.). Collective numerals are combined with the names of males (except for the names of high ranks, positions): two boys, six soldiers; with the names of the cubs: seven kids, five wolf cubs; with substantiated adjectives: seven cavalry, four military.

In the field of adjectives, the formation of a complex form of a comparative degree belongs to frequent violations of the norm. The norm corresponds to forms like “more + the initial form of the adjective”: more interesting. Formation of the type more interesting is erroneous.

There are many rules regarding the use of verbs.

1. So, when forming aspectual pairs of a verb, there are norms regarding the alternation of vowels in the root:

a) Alternation is mandatory if the stress does not fall on the root (shorten - shorten);

b) There is no alternation, if the stress falls on the root (to lure - to lure), however, in a number of words, the absence of alternation is archaic, artificial (earn, procure, master, challenge, adapt, finish, reassure, double, triple).

c) About 20 verbs allow fluctuations (options) in the formation of aspect pairs (with alternation in colloquial speech, without alternation in book, business), for example: agree - agree and agree, honor - honor and honor, condition - condition and condition .

2. There are verbs in Russian that end in -ch. In the personal forms of these verbs, except for the 1st person singular and the 3rd person plural, the alternation of the consonants Mrs., k-ch is obligatory: burn, burn, but: burn, burn, burn, burn; dragging, dragging, but: dragging, dragging, dragging, dragging.

Residents of the Tyumen region often do not have this alternation of consonants in such verbs, which is explained by the influence of dialects and vernacular: bake (instead of bake), flow out (instead of flow out) and under.

The appearance of syntactic speech defects is due to ignorance of 1) the order of words in a sentence, 2) the coordination of the subject and the predicate, 3) the coordination of definitions and applications, 4) the rules of management. B) the rules for the use of participial and adverbial phrases.

1. In Russian, there is a relatively free order of word arrangement, that is, there is no strictly fixed place for one or another main or secondary member of the sentence. At the same time, there is a more or less accepted order of the members of the sentence in declarative, motivating and interrogative sentences - the direct order and deviation from it - the reverse order (inversion - lat. inversio - permutation). Inversion is used in colloquial speech and in works of fiction to give speech a special expressiveness.

In declarative sentences with direct word order, the subject precedes the predicate, and the topic (initial information) is the rheme (new information). If this provision is not observed, we receive an ambiguous sentence and hardly understand its content. For example, sentences with the same nominative and accusative forms in the subject and object: ʼʼThe sun covered the cloudʼʼ - ʼʼThe cloud covered the sunʼʼ, ʼʼThe bike crashed the busʼʼ - ʼʼThe bus crashed the bikeʼʼ. Only the words ʼʼcloudʼʼ (it could cover the moon, stars, mountain, lake, etc.) and ʼʼbusʼʼ (it could crash a motorcycle, car, pole, etc.) are the only topic here. But in the sentences ʼʼThe tram crashed the busʼʼ or ʼʼThe bus crashed the tramsʼʼ only submission to the direct word order allows you to understand the true meaning of the information. Compare the sentences: ʼʼTruck is towing a dump truckʼʼ and ʼʼDump truck is towing a truckʼʼ, ʼʼOar hit the dressʼʼ and ʼʼDress hit the oarʼʼ. How does the meaning of statements change in connection with the change of topic in rhemes?

In the declarative sentence ʼʼThere is a bookcase in the cornerʼʼ, the theme (initial information) is the predicate ʼʼstandsʼʼ and the adverb ʼʼin the cornerʼʼ, and the rheme (new information) is the subject ʼʼcaseʼʼ. If the subject and circumstance are interchanged (ʼʼThe closet is in the cornerʼʼ), the ratio of the rheme and theme will change, and, consequently, the meaning of the transmitted information. The subject can be located after the predicate if: 1) denotes a period of time or a natural phenomenon with a predicate with the meaning of being, becoming, the course of an action - ʼʼAutumn has comeʼʼ, ʼʼA day has passedʼʼ, ʼʼThere was an equal winterʼʼ; 2) the text is descriptive: ʼʼThe sea sings, the city hums, the sun shines brightly, creating fairy talesʼʼ (M. Gorky); 3) in the words of the author, standing after or inside a direct speech: ʼʼWe will have to spend the night here, - said Maxim Maksimych, - you won’t move through the mountains in such a snowstormʼʼ (M. Lermontov); ʼʼWhy aren't you going?ʼʼ - I asked the driver impatientlyʼʼ (A. Pushkin).

2) Coordination (lat. con - with, together, jointly + ordinatio - ordering, arrangement) (the term ʼʼagreementʼʼ is used in the school course) of the subject and predicate - ϶ᴛᴏ syntactic connection, in which there is a complete or partial likeness of word forms. The laws of coordination are generally well acquired in a natural way, but there are cases that cause difficulties. Οʜᴎ are associated with fluctuations in number forms in gender. The verb can take both the singular form and the plural form in the following cases: if the subject is expressed by a word or phrase with the meaning of quantity - ʼʼ two came (came)ʼʼ, ʼʼ part of the students did not appear (did not appear)ʼʼ; if the subject is expressed by a combination with the meaning of compatibility - ʼʼ came (came) brother and sister ʼʼ; if the subject is expressed by the pronoun ʼʼwhoʼʼ, ʼʼsomeoneʼʼ, ʼʼsomeoneʼʼ, ʼʼsomeoneʼʼ, ʼʼsomeoneʼʼ, indicating many, - ʼʼEveryone who came (came) was placed in the standsʼʼ. The norm prescribes to use only the singular form of the verb-predicate when: a) subjects expressed by the phrase ʼʼnoun of quantitative-collective meaning + noun in the genitive plural ʼʼ: ʼʼA flock of swans flew to warm climesʼʼ; b) with the subject expressed by the phrase ʼʼ indefinitely quantitative numeral + noun ʼʼ; ʼʼIn the yard he brought up several wolf cubsʼʼ.

Gender fluctuations can occur when the subject is expressed by a quantitative-nominal combination - ʼʼletters survived (preserved) very littleʼʼ; a masculine noun, naming a person by occupation, but in this sentence referring to a female person, - ʼʼthe doctor came (came)ʼʼ.

In sentences with the link ʼʼwasʼʼ or with a semi-significant verb, if the generic and numerical meanings of names in the subject and predicate do not match, there may be fluctuation in the generic forms of the verb - ʼʼthe wedding was (was) a joyful eventʼʼ.

3) In accordance with the norm of the literary language, the gender of the definition for nouns of the general gender depends on the gender of the person in question. For this reason, about a girl, a girl, a woman, we will say: ʼʼShe is a terrible confusion (a bastard, dirty, sweet, etc.)ʼʼ, and about a boy, a young man, a man: ʼʼHe is an incorrigible bully (a couch potato, an evil, a sleepyhead, etc. .)ʼʼ. In colloquial speech, it is permissible to use a feminine definition to characterize the quality of a male person: ʼʼHe is such a messʼʼ.

Special rules exist in the use of the case. When the definition refers to the phrase ʼʼnumeral ʼʼtwoʼʼ (three, four) + noun ʼʼ and stands between its elements, the following forms of agreement are used:

1) with masculine and neuter nouns, the definition is put in the form of the genitive plural, for example, ʼʼfour deep wellsʼʼ, ʼʼtwenty-two small windowsʼʼ; 2) with feminine nouns in this position, the nominative plural form is more often used, for example, ʼʼthree lush lilac branchesʼʼ, ʼʼtwenty-four diligent studentsʼʼ. It is permissible to use the genitive plural with a feminine noun (ʼʼtwo dark boatsʼʼ, ʼʼthree large roomsʼʼ), but this form is less common. If the definition comes before the phrase ʼʼnumeral ʼʼtwoʼʼ (three, four) + noun ʼʼ or after it, then most often it is put in the form of the nominative case, for example, ʼʼthe next three yearsʼʼ, ʼʼany four definitionsʼʼ, ʼʼtwo doors, boarded up tightly ʼʼ, ʼʼfour bags filled with groceriesʼʼ.

How to use the number of definitions when agreeing? Quite often there are nouns that have two definitions with them, which indicate the type of objects. In the singular, the definition is made in the following cases: 1) if the noun does not have a plural form: ʼʼscientific and technological progressʼʼ, ʼʼhappy and carefree childhoodʼʼ; 2) if the noun takes on a different meaning in the plural: ʼʼelectronic and cosmic connectionʼʼ (compare, ʼʼclose tiesʼʼ); 3) If the definitions characterizing the noun are connected (compared or opposed) among themselves (''It ,'''''levny''''''''Muzhsky''''levny''''''Muzhsky''''levsky'''''Mezhny'''''zhensky'''''Me'''''en-'''Nesserved''''''Veveny''''З''Niznizhnij''''''verthey''''niznizhnij'''''''verthey''''nizhnij''''''''verthey''''nizhniy'''''''Veja''''nizhniy''''''''VEY ʼʼsingular and plural verbsʼʼ, ʼʼequations of the first and second orderʼʼ. In the plural, a noun is used when the presence of several objects is emphasized, for example, ʼʼwooden and plastic framesʼʼ, ʼʼJapanese and Chinese dictionariesʼʼ, ʼʼbasketball and football teamsʼʼ.

There are expressions where one definition refers to two or more nouns: ʼʼmy father and motherʼʼ, ʼʼsiblingsʼʼ. What should be followed to avoid mistakes? We use the definition in the singular, if it is clear in meaning that it refers not only to the first (nearest) noun, but also to the rest: ʼʼtraffic vanity and confusionʼʼ, ʼʼwinter cold and coldʼʼ, ʼʼnight silence and peaceʼʼ. In the plural, we use the definition when it may be unclear whether it refers only to the nearest noun or to the entire series of homogeneous members: house and school (the house is multi-storey, but the school is not)ʼʼ.

When matching applications, difficulties arise, as a rule, when you need to choose the case form of a geographical name that acts as an application. The names of cities usually agree in all cases with the word being defined: ʼʼin the city of Kazanʼʼ, ʼʼnear the city of Vitebskʼʼ, ʼʼto the city of Rostovʼʼ. Consistent and inconsistent forms for city names on -О are acceptable: ʼʼin the city of Zverevoʼʼ and ʼʼin the city of Zverevoʼʼ. The compound names of cities do not agree: ʼʼnear the city of Velikiye Lukiʼʼ, ʼʼto the city of Velikie Lukiʼʼ, ʼʼwith the city of Nizhny Novgorodʼʼ, ʼʼin the city of Nizhny Novgorodʼʼ.

The names of the rivers, as a rule, are consistent with the word being defined, only little-known ones do not change into compound names: ʼʼbetween the Volga and Donokʼʼ, ʼʼat the Lena Riverʼʼ, in ʼʼon the Shilka Riverʼʼ, ʼʼHide and Seek of the Aksai Riverʼʼ, ʼʼwith the Seversky Donetsʼʼ. The names of bays, straits in bays, islands in peninsulas, mountains and mountain ranges, deserts do not agree. The only exceptions are well-known names, which are often used without a generic word. Compare: ʼʼto the Yamal Peninsulaʼʼ, ʼʼalong the Elton lakes to Baskunchakʼʼ, ʼʼnear the Bosphorusʼʼ, ʼʼto the Golden Hornʼʼ, but ʼʼon the Kamchatka Peninsulaʼʼ - ʼʼthe southern part (peninsula) of Kamchatkaʼʼ.

The names of ports, stations, foreign administrative-territorial units, astronomical names do not agree; ʼʼat the metro station ʼʼKropotkinskayaʼʼ, ʼʼin the port of Murmanskʼʼ, ʼʼin the department of Bordeauxʼʼ, ʼʼin the orbit of the planet Jupiterʼʼ. The names of the streets in the form of the feminine gender are consistent (ʼʼon Ordynka Street, Ostozhenkaʼʼ) and the rest are not consistent (ʼʼnear Krymsky Val Street, Krinichny Proezdʼʼ). The names of foreign countries, including the word ʼʼrepublicʼʼ, are consistent if they end in -IYa: ʼʼagreement with the Republic of Zambiaʼʼ, ʼʼtrade relations between Russia and the Republic of Nigeriaʼʼ, ʼʼtraveled in the Republic of Cyprusʼʼ.

4) The title of management rules allows, using case forms and prepositions, to correctly build phrases. Consider the designs in which errors are most common.

The verb ʼʼpayʼʼ has the meaning of ʼʼpay someone for somethingʼʼ and forms a phrase with a noun in the accusative case without a preposition using control: ʼʼpay expenses (bill, travel, food, accommodation, work)ʼʼ. Most often, its nouns, not denoting ʼʼ a specific subject. The verb ʼʼpayʼʼ has the meaning ʼʼto give money in return for somethingʼʼ and is used in a phrase with a noun in accusative hope with the preposition ʼʼforʼʼ: ʼʼto pay for tickets (for food, for furniture)ʼʼ. In this case, we are dealing with nouns denoting specific objects. The verbs ʼʼpayʼʼ and ʼʼpayʼʼ form an unprepositional construction with the noun ʼʼtaxʼʼ: ʼʼpay taxes, pay taxesʼʼ.

Mastering the rules for constructing phrases with control, you need to remember about such phenomena as synonymy and variability in the meanings of prepositions. ʼʼВʼʼ (inside something) and ʼʼonʼʼ (on the surface of something) are close in meaning in the phrases: ʼʼ ride a tram - ride a tram ʼʼ, ʼʼ fly in an airplane - fly on an airplane ʼʼ. At the same time, they cannot be recognized as identical - the use of the preposition ʼʼinʼʼ indicates being inside a specific named object͵, and the preposition ʼʼonʼʼ indicates the vehicle used.

A great difficulty is the use of the preposition ʼʼpoʼʼ in combination with nouns and pronouns in the dative and prepositional cases. In combination with nouns and personal pronouns of the 3rd person, the preposition ʼʼpoʼʼ governs the dative case: ʼʼmiss your loved onesʼʼ, ʼʼmiss herʼʼ. If the pronoun of the 1st or 2nd lad is used in the phrase, this preposition requires a prepositional case, in this regard, you should say in writing: ʼʼmiss youʼʼ, ʼʼmiss usʼʼ, and not ʼʼfor youʼʼ and ʼʼfor youʼʼ, as it is can often be heard and read. If the preposition ʼʼpoʼʼ is used in the meaning of the preposition ʼʼafterʼʼ, then the noun must also be put in the prepositional case: ʼʼupon receiving the orderʼʼ, ʼʼafter the end of the sessionʼʼ, ʼʼupon the expiration of the termʼʼ.

It should be noted that there are frequent errors in the use of nouns with the prepositions ʼʼthanks toʼʼ and ʼʼcontraryʼʼ. Both prepositions require the dative case, in connection with this, the expressions ʼʼcontrary to threatsʼʼ, ʼʼcontrary to instructionsʼʼ, ʼʼthanks to a good educationʼʼ and so on are outside the norm. The preposition ʼʼthanks toʼʼ has a pronounced positive connotation, in this regard, it should not be used if it is a negative phenomenon - ʼʼdid not come to the exam due to illnessʼʼ.

Ambiguity can arise when a noun or pronoun in the genitive case is used in a sentence. This case can denote the one who performs the action expressed by the verb, be the so-called ʼʼgenitive of the subjectʼʼ. It is extremely important to distinguish it from the ʼʼparent objectʼʼ, which names the object of action, desire, achievement, expectation. In the sentence ʼʼPetrov's treatment turned out to be uselessʼʼ it is impossible to clearly understand whether the doctor Petrov is treating or Petrov's patient is being treated.

In written speech, there is also such a stylistic flaw as ʼʼheapingʼʼ of genitive cases. D.E. Rosenthal and I.V. Golub cites in his manual a construction that describes the owner of a certain book in this way; book niece of the husband of the teacher of the son of my neighbor ...ʼʼ This speech defect is especially common when trying to express family relationships. The authors of the manual also remind about the found by K.I. Chukovsky in a school manual on literature example: ʼʼCreative processing courtyard image walks the line strengthening the display of the tragedy of his fate ...ʼʼ

In constructions with control, often with two control words there is a common dependent: ʼʼrun and jump on the siteʼʼ, ʼʼcollect and scatter stonesʼʼ. Such constructions are flawless if the verbs in them require the same control. At the same time, there is a speech defect caused by the fact that the common dependent word is used with words that require different management: ʼʼtreat and take care of the sickʼʼ, ʼʼI love to be interested in musicʼʼ: treat (whom?) - take care (of whom?), love (what?) - to be interested in (what?).

5) Proper use of participial phrases requires knowledge of the following rules; a) op

Lecture 3. The norms of the modern Russian literary language and speech errors - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Lecture 3. Norms of the modern Russian literary language and speech errors" 2017, 2018.

The reason for the occurrence of errors in language and style should be considered the use of judgments in the manuscript that allow for various interpretations or cause undesirable associations. Double meaning errors are divided into logical, semantic - lexical, morphological, syntactic and stylistic.

The editor's requirements for the language and style of the manuscript follow from the language norms and rules existing in the language, from the requirement for clarity and accuracy of wording, and specificity. Particularly great attention when working on the language and style of the manuscript should be given to the accuracy of word usage, the use of foreign words and professionalisms, and the syntactic constructions of phrases. It is also necessary to pay attention to the brevity, conciseness of the presentation.

The task of the editor in linguistic and stylistic editing is to help the author convey his thoughts to the reader most accurately and fully.

Criteria for evaluating the language and style of a literary work:

1. The linguistic and stylistic means of the manuscript must correspond to the idea, theme, content of the work.

2. The language of the manuscript must be accessible to the reader for whom it is intended. It should be remembered that the language of mass publications should be distinguished by simplicity, intelligibility, and popularity.

4. The brevity of the manuscript without compromising the content, the struggle of the editor during the linguistic and stylistic editing with verbosity in the manuscript.

5. Liveliness, expressiveness, brightness of presentation and presentation of the material. The editor should apply this principle differently to different genres of literature.

6. The requirement of the purity of the language, but by no means its simplification. When editing literary works, illiterate use should be distinguished from unusual, contributing to the creation of a particular image.

The principle of expediency in the selection of linguistic means of stylistic devices used in the manuscript, these criteria should be applied creatively, taking into account the peculiarities of the topic, the nature of the work, the audience, and the individual style of the author. It is necessary to take into account the current state of the language and the prospects for its development, since the norm of the language is gradually changing, although it is based on neutral or literary language means. Therefore, in the manuscript, deviation from the norm of the literary language can be justified, and the editor must evaluate the expediency of the author's departure in the manuscript from the existing norm of the language.

The issues of linguistic and stylistic editing of the manuscript are developed in detail as criteria for selecting lexical and other linguistic means and evaluating their use in the text in stylistics courses. It takes into account in detail the subject meaning of the word, its ambiguity, emotional coloring, stylistic characteristics, grammatical design.

Terminology work. One of the aspects of the linguistic and stylistic editing of the manuscript is the work on terminology. There are rules according to which it should be carried out:

In the terminology established in this area, there should not be ambiguous terms, this is allowed only for certain areas of knowledge;

The terms established in this area of the building should not have synonyms;

The term should reflect the necessary and sufficient features of the concept, which create, on the one hand, the generality of concepts, on the other hand, their specificity;

The term must have certain systematizing properties and the features that form the basis for the construction of terms for concepts that are on the same classification level must be the same;

The term should be as short and easy to pronounce as possible.

The work of the editor to eliminate speech stamps.

This is one of the most important aspects of the editor's activity, which he should deal with only together with the author of the work. Speech stamps are a rather complex phenomenon, which is widespread due to the stereotyped thought and content. Speech stamps can be represented by: words with a universal meaning (worldview, question, task, moment), paired words or satellite words (initiation-response), stamps - decorations of style (blue screen, black gold), stencil formations (hold an honorary watch ), stamps - compound words (oven-giant, miracle tree).

The main feature of the stamp is the lack of semantic content in it. A stamp must be distinguished from a linguistic cliché, which is a special kind of linguistic means and is used in business, scientific and technical literature to more accurately convey the circumstances of an event or phenomenon (special special courses will be devoted to this).

The editor must also take into account that there are styles of different types of literature: journalistic, scientific, artistic, official business, industrial, etc. Colloquial vocabulary, phraseological units, grammatical colloquial forms and syntactic constructions are most often found in journalistic literature and especially in media genres. At the same time, the boundaries between styles are quite unsteady, the styles of the language themselves are constantly evolving. But each system of style, using all the means of language, gravitates towards some of them and is most often used more or less steadily in any literature and texts. Within the same type of literature, one can see some differences in the use of linguistic means, depending on the purpose of the text and its genre features. For example, both the essay and the feuilleton are newspaper genres, and although they belong to the same style (journalistic) and to the same group of genres (literary and artistic), they will use very different linguistic and stylistic means, a single style will manifest itself in them in different ways. differently.

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