Briefly about Switzerland

The history of Switzerland is short, relatively speaking. Although people lived here for a long time, Switzerland stood out as an independent state only in the 14th century. It is known for certain that in the third century BC. this land was inhabited by the Celts, but in 58 BC. the Romans came here. This land was part of the Roman Empire until its collapse, after which it constantly changed hands until it became part of Frankish state.
However, towards the end of the 13th century, an event occurred that pushed Switzerland towards self-determination. In 1291, the so-called "perpetual union" of the forest cantons was formed. This formation, occupying a relatively small territory, managed to fight off all attempts to encroach on its independence. The allied cantons fought off Austria several times, and since then the Swiss military has become famous throughout Europe. Although Switzerland was officially recognized only in 1643, after the failure of the Austrian invasion, no one else risked attacking it, but the Swiss were often invited as mercenaries, knowing their unparalleled discipline and loyalty to their word. Even to this day, it is the Swiss Guard that is responsible for the safety of the Pope.
However, the French captured Switzerland in 1798, but Napoleon Bonaparte decided to restore the independence of Switzerland. In 1847, a bourgeois revolution also took place in the country, and the following year the constitution of the Swiss Confederation was adopted. In subsequent years, Switzerland managed to remain neutral, even Hitler did not attack her. As already mentioned, Switzerland occupies only a small area, in short, it is equal to half the territory of Austria, it is 41.284 thousand km, about 8 million people live here.

Modern Switzerland is the most militarized country in the world, literally every Swiss has weapons at home, and is ready at any moment to join the ranks and defend their homeland. However, this does not mean at all that the country is dangerous for visitors, on the contrary, the Swiss are very hospitable hosts and are always happy to see tourists, especially since the country is rich in old buildings and is located in perhaps the most picturesque region of Europe.

The official name is the Swiss Confederation (Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, Confederation Suisse, Confederazione Svizzera, Swiss Confederation). Located in Central Europe. The area is 41.29 thousand km2, the population is 7.3 million people. (2002). The official languages ​​are German, French, Italian. The capital is Bern (112.5 thousand people, 2001). National holiday - Day of creation of the Swiss Confederation on August 1 (since 1291). The monetary unit is the Swiss franc.

Member of 67 international organizations, incl. UN (since 2002), OECD, UNCTAD, WTO, etc.

Landmarks of Switzerland

Geography of Switzerland

It is located between 8°00' east longitude and 47°00' north latitude. The country has no access to the sea. It borders in the east with Austria (164 km) and Liechtenstein (41 km), in the north with Germany (334 km), in the west with France (573 km), in the south with Italy (740 km). The landscape of the country is mainly mountainous: 58.5% of the entire territory (south, southeast, center) is occupied by the Alps, 10% by the Jura mountains (northwest), the rest falls on the Swiss Plateau (Mittelland), which is located between the two main mountain ranges. arrays. The highest mountains: Dufour peak (4638 m), Finsteraarhorn peak (4275 m).

Main rivers: Rhine (within the country - 375 km), Rhone (264 km), Ticino (91 km) - a tributary of the river. Po, Inn (104 km) - a tributary of the Danube. There are a large number of lakes on the Swiss plateau, the largest are: Geneva (581 km2), Constance (538.5 km2). The country's soils are not naturally fertile. In the highlands, the soil cover is not continuous and is replete with rubble. On the Swiss plateau - brown forest and alluvial soils, which are relatively fertile.

In the flora, the influence of vertical zonality is pronounced. Up to a height of 800 m, cultivated vegetation (meadows, orchards, vineyards) predominates. Deciduous and coniferous forests are located at an altitude of 0.8-1.8 thousand meters (they occupy a quarter of the entire territory of the country). Above 2 thousand meters, alpine meadows begin.

The fauna is included within the European-Siberian subregion of the Palearctic region. There are (mainly in reserves): a bear, a wolf, a hare, a deer and a mountain goat. Chamois and alpine marmot are found in the highlands. The country's climate is also characterized by vertical zoning. On the Swiss plateau - moderately warm and humid; in the valleys of the southern slope of the Alps - approaches the Mediterranean; in the high mountains it is cold and humid (snow usually does not melt even in summer).

Of the minerals stand out: water resources, forests and rock salt.

Population of Switzerland

Dynamics of population growth since ser. 1950s quite active - an increase occurred by 46% (in 1950 - 5 million people). At the same time, the annual increase reaches 2.4‰ (2002). The net influx of immigrants is 1.37‰. Birth rate 9.84‰, mortality 8.79‰, infant mortality 4.42 people. per 1000 newborns. The average life expectancy is 79.86 years, incl. men 76.98 years, women 82.89 years (2002).

Age structure of the population: 0-14 years -16.8%, 15-64 years - 67.7%, 65 years and older - 15.5%. The average ratio of men and women is 0.97, but at the age of 65 years and older, women predominate - 0.69. The educational level of the population is high. Over the age of 15, 99% of the entire population of the country can read and write. Ethnic composition: Germans (65%), French (18%), Italians (10%) and Romansh (1%). Spoken languages: Germano-Swiss (dialect of High German) - 63.7%, Franco-Swiss (Provençal dialect of French) - 19.2%, Italian-Swiss (Lombard dialect of Italian) - 7.6%, Romansh (Graubund dialect Romanized Rhine tribes) - 0.6%.

Among believers, Catholics (46.1%) have a slight preponderance compared to Protestants (40%).

History of Switzerland

On the territory of modern Switzerland in the 2nd century. BC. the Celtic tribe of the Helvetians lived (after their name the country in ancient times was called Helvetia). Then these lands were conquered by the troops of Julius Caesar (58 BC) and were included in the Roman Empire. In 3-5 centuries. AD this territory was constantly invaded by the Germanic tribe of the Alemanni, who gradually occupied the entire eastern part. In the 2nd floor. 5th c. the western regions went to the Burgundians. In the 6th c. these territories became part of the Frankish state. After its collapse (843), the eastern part went to Germany (which later became the core of the Holy Roman Empire), and the western part to Burgundy (such a division basically corresponded to linguistic and ethnic differences).

In 1033 both parts were incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire. Large fiefdoms (counties and duchies) began to appear. In the east, the Habsburgs seized the dominant positions, in the west - the Savoy counts. But some influential cities (Geneva, Zurich and Bern), as well as the "forest cantons" (Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden) managed to achieve special imperial rights, i.e. gain real independence.

The Swiss confederation arose in 1291 as a result of an allied treaty between the three "forest cantons" for a joint struggle for independence against the rule of the Habsburgs. Another attempt to subdue them again ended with the defeat of the imperial troops at Margarten (in 1315), after which other cantons (Lucerne, Zurich, Zug, Glarus and Bern) began to join the alliance of victors. Thus, a union of 8 cantons arose, which continued the struggle for independence. In 1388 the Habsburgs were forced to make peace on terms very favorable to the Swiss Union.

In long and almost continuous wars, Swiss military prowess reached a high level. In the 14-16 centuries. the confederation even became the main supplier of hired soldiers in the armies of many leading European countries. In con. 15th c. Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Maximilian I made another attempt to again make the union of the Swiss cantons dependent. However, this Swiss (or Swabian) war ended with the complete defeat of the imperial troops. In the concluded treaty (dated 1511), the Swiss Union completely terminated its connection with the empire and was defined as an independent state (this act received international recognition in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648).

In subsequent years, the territorial expansion of the confederation continued (by 1798 it already included 13 cantons). The process of gradual organizational restructuring of the union began. Within the framework of the confederation, there was no permanent central governing body, it was replaced by periodically held sejms, in which only "full cantons" had the right to vote. Along with them, there were "allied lands" (Geneva, St. Galen, etc.) and even "subject territories" (Aargau, Ticino, etc.). The latter were completely powerless. The contradictions between the members of the "union of cantons" led to constant struggle and even armed clashes.

The first attempt to create a central government and proclaim the equality of all cantons was made within the framework of the Helvetic Republic (1798), created with the assistance of France. But after the collapse of the Napoleonic empire, the Swiss Sejm adopted (in 1814) a new version of the treaty of alliance on the confederation of cantons, which again significantly limited the competence of the central government. The Congress of Vienna (1814 - 15) approved this treaty, the principle of "permanent neutrality" of Switzerland, as well as the accession to the confederation of new cantons (their total number increased to 22).

At the same time, the supreme power, which was again transferred to the Sejm, became less and less effective. In 1832, the seven most economically developed cantons (Zurich, Bern, and others) created the so-called. "Siebenbund" ("Union of Seven"), which came forward with a demand to revise the union treaty (dated 1814). In contrast to it, in 1845, the Sonderbund (“Special Union”) arose, which also included 7 cantons, but economically less developed with a feudal-clerical society (Schwyz, Uri, etc.). Between the opposing unions, contradictions increased and even a civil war began (November - December 1847), which ended in the victory of the bourgeois forces.

In 1848, the country's new Constitution was adopted, on the basis of which the Swiss Confederation was transformed from a fragile union of cantons into a single union state. Instead of the Sejm, the Federal Assembly was established, consisting of the National Council and the Council of State (Council of Cantons). Executive power was transferred to the Federal Council (i.e. the government). In 1874, changes were made to the Constitution that significantly expanded the competence of the central government, incl. allowing the establishment of state supervision over the activities of the church.

The completed centralization contributed to the faster economic development of the country. A single internal market appeared (customs, post offices were merged, the monetary system was unified, etc.). Light industry, watchmaking began to grow at a rapid pace, and in con. 19th century mechanical engineering began. The main prerequisites for the industrialization of the country were the accumulation of capital as a result of intermediary operations in the international financial sphere, a significant influx of technical intelligentsia and skilled labor from neighboring leading European countries. A significant role was played by the growing income from the resort and tourism sector, which gradually turned into one of the leading sectors of the national economy.

A large-scale change in the general appearance of the country (as a “quiet and cozy alpine paradise”) was facilitated by increased activity in the formation of a new transport infrastructure. Of great importance was the railway construction, the opening of the two largest tunnels: St. Gotthard (1882) and Simplon (1906). The country gradually turned into the most important European transport crossroads (especially between the North and South of the continent). This factor turned out to be one of the most important in the formation of new "production niches" of the country, oriented mainly to world markets. A particularly intensive development of specialized branches of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and chemistry (especially pharmaceuticals) began.

During the 1st and 2nd World Wars, Switzerland remained neutral, but its Armed Forces were very active in protecting national borders (for example, during the 2nd World War, over 200 aircraft were shot down (or interned) in the airspace of the country warring countries). Of course, during these wars, the country received huge incomes from the implementation of not only large production orders, but also large-scale intermediary financial transactions.

Modern Switzerland is one of the most highly developed countries in the world. Relying on the basic principles of "eternal neutrality" allowed it to create an effective democratic society, characterized by political stability and economic prosperity. Switzerland has made a particularly significant contribution to the formation of the religious and educational image of modern Europe and the whole world.

State structure and political system of Switzerland

Switzerland is a federal republic, the country has a Constitution adopted on May 29, 1874. Switzerland includes 26 cantons (Aargau, Appenzell Ausser - Roden, Appenzell Inner - Roden, Basel - Landscape, Basel - Stadt, Bern, Fribourg, Geneva, Glarus, Graubunden, Jura, Lucerne, Neuchâtel, Nidwalden, Obwalden, St. Gallen, Schaffhausen, Schwyz, Solothurn, Torgau, Ticino, Uri, Wallis, Vaud, Zug, Zurich). The largest cities (thousand people): Bern, Zurich (337.9), Geneva (175), Basel (166), Lausanne (114.9).

The principles of state administration of the country differ in some features. The head of state and government (i.e. the Federal Council) is the president. Since January 2003 this position has been occupied by P. Couchepin, the vice-president is R. Metzler. They are elected by the Federal Assembly for 1 year from the members of the Federal Council (it includes 7 people), which is also formed by it, but for 4 years. The Federal Council includes representatives of the four parties that received the largest number of votes in the elections to the Federal Assembly (two representatives each from the first three parties and one from the last fourth).

The bicameral Federal Assembly consists of the Council of State (i.e. the Council of Cantons, 46 members elected for 4 years) and the National Council (200 deputies elected by direct popular vote on the basis of proportional representation for 4 years). The last elections to the State Council were held in 1999 (in different months in each canton), to the National Council on October 24, 1999.

The largest number of votes in the last elections to the National Council was given to: the Swiss People's Party (SVP) - 22.6%, the Social Democratic Party (SPS) - 22.5%, the Radical Free Democratic Party (FDP) - 19.9 % and the Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP) - 15.8%. They account for 80.8% of all votes (the "big four" won all the seats in the State Council).

The highest judicial power is exercised by the Federal Supreme Court. Its members are elected by the Federal Assembly (for 6 years).

Features of the functioning of the executive and legislative powers are manifested primarily in the annual automatic rotation of heads of state (and government). Switzerland is the only European country in which the principle of a “correspondence system” of socio-political movements operates. This allows representatives of the "big four" political parties that are members of the Federal Council to head the state for a very specific period and pursue their own policies. But in order to achieve success in the implementation of their concept, socio-political parties, temporarily at the head of the state, must rely on the principles of constant compromise. They need to reach agreement with other members of the Federal Council, who will inevitably also temporarily head the state.

The “correspondence system”, which involves various parties in the process of forming national strategic goals, thus prevents unexpected changes in concepts in the social development of the country, it is able to absorb conflicts and tensions that must inevitably arise in a country with many national mentalities and different religions. This process usually develops in a complex and slow manner, but it is considered one of the main factors that ensure sustainable, political stability and identity in the country.

The second feature can be considered the functioning of the principle of a kind of Swiss political culture in the form of direct democracy. This system allows every citizen to be directly involved in solving state problems at the cantonal and federal levels. To hold a popular referendum, it is necessary to collect at least 50,000 signatures to make a decision on the draft law and 100,000 to amend the existing legal norms. When holding popular referendums, it is necessary to ensure the majority not only of the population, but also of the cantons.

Leading associations of business circles also have a serious influence on the formation of the basic principles of the functioning of Swiss society. The Swiss Union of Industrialists and Traders (it came into being in 1870) stands out in particular, as it constantly orients the main directions of the country's strategic economic growth. The focus is on increasing the share of capital-intensive and science-intensive products in national production. No less significant influence on the formation of society is exerted by the Association of Swiss Bankers. It is making great efforts to maintain the prestigious level of this sector in the global economy. It is especially important to show the failure of the international myth about the so-called. the gnomes of Zurich, who in the depths of their dungeons provide a "safe harbor" for not entirely conscientious investors.

The main strategic goal of domestic policy is to ensure the sustainability of socio-economic development, the stability of the political system and the identity of the country's population. The importance of this problem is determined by the fact that within the framework of the Swiss Confederation there is no single common language and national culture. Three leading Eurocontinental ethnic groups are united in Switzerland, each of which is joined by neighboring large countries with a kindred mentality. Therefore, the main focus in solving internal problems is on respect for the equal rights of minorities.

The most important mechanism for the consolidation of Swiss society is considered to be the active use of the postulates of the "correspondence system" at all levels. The shock-absorbing ability of this principle of public administration was quite clearly demonstrated during the integration into the governing coalition (within the Federal Council) of the radical nationalist party of the famous Swiss multimillionaire K. Blocher. Using populist nationalist slogans (about 19% of the total population of the country are foreigners - the highest European figure), this party received almost 1/5 of all votes in the last elections. However, the access to the highest level of state administration by representatives of national radicals did not lead to the destruction of the unshakable stability of the country's socio-political system.

In foreign policy, the most radical shifts occurred in March 2002 - Switzerland became a member of the UN. For many years, the Alpine Republic, based on the principles of "permanent neutrality", avoided membership not only in NATO, the EU, but even in the UN. True, she was a member of some specialized agencies of this organization, and often adhered to the economic sanctions imposed by it. Made in 1986, the country's attempt to join the UN was blocked in a popular referendum, 75% of Swiss citizens opposed. But in March 2002, more than half voted positively, and Switzerland became the 190th member of the UN.

The main reason for such a decisive change in the principles of foreign policy is related to economic factors. For leading industrial and financial corporations, the volume of products (and services) produced abroad already significantly exceeds national indicators. Under these conditions, the persistence of "traditional Alpine isolation" began to threaten Swiss competitiveness in world markets.

The situation with the country's accession to the EU, which accounts for the vast majority of foreign economic turnover, is becoming more complicated. But, according to Swiss analysts, this is more a political issue than an economic one. Supposed to be ok. 90% of all economic problems arising from not joining the EU have already been resolved as a result of a bilateral agreement (Switzerland - EU) within the framework of the European Economic Area. This is primarily about establishing the principle of freedom of movement of goods, capital, labor and patents (licenses).

Serious objections to the country's possible accession to the EU are associated with the need to adapt the existing Swiss socio-political system to European norms. The gradual elimination of the main rather specific postulates of the country's state administration (automatic annual rotation of heads of state, "direct democracy" through holding popular referendums, etc.) can damage the identity of the Swiss population, traditional socio-political stability. The latest polls (2002) showed that only 1/3 of the population is in favor of joining the EU, 1/3 is categorically against it, and, finally, the rest believe that they approve of this process with their “head”, while their “heart” strongly opposes accession. to this organization.

The country's armed forces are considered the largest in Europe. The Swiss regular army has approx. 360 thousand people (and under conditions of mobilization it can be increased up to 500 thousand people within 48 hours). It consists of the Ground Forces, the Air Force, the Border Guard and fortification units (personnel of mountain bunkers). The annual conscription into the army is 42.6 thousand people. (2002). Military spending is $2.5 billion, which is 1% of GDP.

The reserve structure of the army is formed on the basis of the "militia system", according to which part of the male population (aged 20-24 years) is regularly called up as recruits for military service (18 weeks). The second group consists of reservists who can be called up under conditions of full mobilization. All those liable for military service receive uniforms, weapons, the necessary ammunition and even a bicycle for storage at home in order to independently arrive at their destination in full combat readiness.

Such a large-scale militarization of the social life of the Alpine Republic is based on well-defined historical traditions. The centuries-old struggle for independence, the long period of participation of Swiss "mercenary soldiers" as the most professionally trained personnel of many European armies, etc. - all this contributed to the introduction into the public consciousness of the importance of military service to ensure the security and well-being of the confederation. In addition, the army is a kind of symbol of the "Swiss identity" of the inhabitants of this country.

And yet in the con. 2002 began a large-scale military reform, according to which by the end. 2004 the regular army should be reduced three times (up to 120 thousand people). Accordingly, there will be a decrease in the number of recruits (up to 20 thousand people) and reservists (up to 80 thousand people). But it is assumed that military spending will not be reduced. They will be directed in large volumes to the development and implementation of the latest military equipment.

Economy of Switzerland

Switzerland is a technologically advanced country with a market economy. The economy is focused on the production of high-quality specialized products (within its own "production niche"), most of which is intended for sale on the world market (its own "marketing niche"). The country continues to be one of the world's largest financial centers focused on serving foreign investors.

The country's economic growth rates are traditionally more stable and moderate compared to the European average - 1.5-2% per year. They are less dependent on the state of the economic situation, since the country is dominated by the production of durable products (and services). The volume of GDP is 231 billion dollars (2002), which is 0.7-0.8% of world production. GDP per capita $31.7 thousand Employment 4 million people (2001), unemployment - 1.9%, inflation - 0.5% (2002).

Sectoral structure of the economy in terms of contribution to GDP: agriculture - 2%, industry - 34%, services - 64%; in terms of the number of employees: agriculture - 5%, industry - 26%, services - 69% (2002). More clearly, the features of the economic structure are indicated at the corporate level.

The international image of the modern industrial structure of Switzerland is determined by a relatively small group of corporations. These are, first of all, manufacturers of pharmaceutical products, the food giant Nestle and the block of the banking and insurance sector. Pharmaceutics is the undisputed leader of the Swiss industry. Its position is especially strong in the production of antipyretic drugs, vitamins, anti-cancer interferon, drugs for the treatment of AIDS. Switzerland accounts for approx. 10% of world drug production and almost 30% of world exports. The enterprises employ 85 thousand people. (including within the country 26.5 thousand people). The share of pharmaceutical products in national exports is 20%.

The second basis of the Swiss international "manufacturing niche" is made up of specialized engineering companies (special industrial equipment, precision machine tools, medical equipment, watchmaking, etc.). The share of mechanical engineering in the value of national exports is approx. 44%. The number of people employed in the industry is approx. 1 million people (including within the country - 332.7 thousand people). Medium and small specialized firms predominate (about 4.2 thousand). In terms of the value of exported machine-building products, Switzerland ranks 7th in the world, and is among the top five in the world in terms of exports of machine-tool products.

There are 644 firms operating in the watch industry, employing approx. 39.5 thousand people Share of products in national exports approx. 7.7%. Switzerland remains the world's leading manufacturer of high quality watch products. In the volume of manufactured products (27.8 million pieces), the share of Switzerland is relatively small (7% of the world market), but in terms of the value of watch products (about $ 6.5 billion), the country remains an unattainable leader (52% of the world market).

The latest trends in modern world mechanical engineering (nanotechnology, software, medical equipment, etc.) have allowed Switzerland to quite clearly define its new “industrial niche”. On the basis of a number of traditional areas of national industrial specialization (pharmaceutical and precision watchmaking), the country is forming the largest European cluster of "med-tech producers". According to the OECD, Switzerland was recognized as the country with the best prospects for global success in knowledge-intensive industries (2001).

The banking and insurance sector of the country is also a traditional specialization of the Swiss economy. Almost 1/3 of the annual world volume of financial transactions falls on Switzerland (approx. 2.0-2.5 trillion dollars).

There are 375 banks operating in the country (2000), incl. so-called gross banks (large joint-stock companies), cantonal and regional (public property), private banks (family ownership), etc. Their total final balance is 2.1 trillion Swiss francs. fr. (2000), the number of employed is 112 thousand people, the tax contribution provides 12% of all revenues to the state budget. Cross-border asset management mainly involves large banks (UBS, Credit Suisse), as well as leading private banks (Baloise - capitalization of $5 billion, Iulius Baer - $3.5 billion, Vontobcl - $1.9 billion, etc. ). Cantonal banks are mainly focused on servicing domestic financial transactions.

The main modern problem of Swiss banks is related to the growing international claims regarding their use of the principle of “bank secrecy”, which allows some foreign depositors to evade national taxes and even “launder money”. The Swiss banking sector seeks to get rid of such an "unfavorable image". Additional tightening is being carried out, obliging banks to more carefully check the origin of any money. But international claims persist.

In general, the activities of Swiss elite companies within the framework of the “industrial and marketing niches” they have mastered are developing quite successfully. In the list of the 500 largest European corporations, there is always a solid group from Switzerland (in September 2002 there were 26 of them, in Sweden - 25; in the Netherlands - 22, etc.). But the global economic recession has not bypassed the “Swiss economic paradise”. Such failures were usually experienced by corporations that, for the sake of economic expansion, went beyond their traditional specialization.

The country's agriculture is focused mainly on animal husbandry (75% of the total value of agricultural products). Highly productive cattle of local dairy breeds (Simmental, Schvitsky, etc.) are bred. The vast majority of milk is used to produce high-quality cheese (half of the 725,000 cows graze exclusively in alpine meadows).

Plowed land accounts for 6.5% of rural land. Grain crops are insignificant, but viticulture is actively developing. Small and medium-sized farms predominate with the active development of various types of agricultural cooperation. Own agricultural sector provides only approx. 60% of national food needs.

Transport and communications in Switzerland occupy an extremely important place in the entire system of European transport communications. Numerous highways of the continent (North - South, East - West) pass through the country. In the conditions of a mountainous landscape, it was necessary to build numerous and expensive structures: tunnels (Simplonsky - 19.7 km; Saint Gotthard - 14.9 km, etc.), bridges, viaducts, etc. Currently, two new transalpine tunnels are under construction, this infrastructure project is considered the largest in Europe.

The length of the railway network is 4406 km (almost completely electrified). The length of highways is 71.1 thousand km (including 1638 km - autobahns). River navigation is carried out along the Rhine (45 km from Basel to Schaffhausen), as well as on 12 lakes. The main river port is Basel. The merchant fleet includes 26 ships (including 7 foreign ones). Among them: 15 dry cargo ships, 6 container ships, 4 chemical tankers. There are two pipelines in Switzerland: for pumping crude oil - 314 km, for transporting natural gas - 1506 km. 66 airports (including 41 with paved runways).

Telephone communication is automated. Domestically, there are cable and microwave radio systems. The outer part is provided through near-Earth satellite stations (Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean). The number of people connected to the phone is 4.82 million people. (1998), mobile phone owners 3.85 million people. (2002).

The tourism industry plays an important role in the economic development of the country. A century and a half ago, it was income from the hotel business that turned out to be one of the financial sources for the development of the national industry. The modern tourism development strategy is based on the concept of using two favorable natural conditions. The most prestigious tourist centers in Switzerland are located either near well-known mineral water sources (for example, San Moritz), or near mountain ranges that are landscaped for skiing (for example, Zermatt). 50 thousand km of pedestrian tourist roads have been laid in the country.

The economic and social policy of the country is primarily aimed at maximizing the potential competitive advantages of the national economy (high quality and reliability of products, specialization in the production of special-purpose products, orientation to foreign markets, etc.). Particular attention is paid to the designation and formation of new "production niches" (for example, massive support for emerging clusters of biopharmaceuticals and medical technology).

In broad terms, public finances are increasingly focused on stimulating the most effective solution to the two main economic (social) problems. First of all, it is necessary to increase the efficiency of the entire education system by integrating science and practice. The use of more qualified personnel in the economy should ensure continuous innovative progress. The second problem is the need for a significant modernization of the transport infrastructure, which will decisively ensure the profitability of the latest types of production. This will happen as a result of a large-scale entry of products to world markets and a noticeable influx of foreign entrepreneurial capital (the construction of the two largest transalpine tunnels is being carried out with budgetary funds). The declared goal of Swiss economic policy is to establish the country as one of the world's leading centers of technology and research.

The success of solving social problems is usually closely linked to an increase in economic efficiency. Modern social conditions in the country are considered among the best in the world. But recently, due to the rapid aging of the population, there has been some imbalance in the state pension system. It is known that Switzerland has huge gold reserves. They amount per capita to approx. 10 ounces, which is 10 times higher than in the US and Europe. Some political groups (especially populist radical nationalists) propose using these golden resources to strengthen the financial basis of the state pension system.

In the 1990s public finances were characterized by an increase in the budget deficit and public domestic debt. In the 21st century significant progress has been made in addressing these issues. The state budget has become balanced, i.е. the amounts of financial receipts and expenditures became equal ($30 billion in 2001). The growth of domestic debt has stopped, and the country has no external debt.

The country's monetary policy is carried out by the Swiss National Bank. It is aimed primarily at solving three main problems: ensuring monetary stability, strengthening the position of the Swiss franc, maintaining low lending rates (the country is traditionally considered such a zone).

The world market has long been a major factor in the business cycle in Switzerland. Therefore, the principle of diversification of foreign economic relations is actively used, which makes it possible to reduce the negative impact of economic downturns on the stability of the national economic situation. At the same time, the focus is on gaining strong positions in those sectors and industries that are least affected by cyclical fluctuations in production.

Switzerland is among the world's top ten capital exporters and the second ten commodity exporters. Switzerland has already shifted a significant part of its industrial production outside the country. In terms of the volume of accumulated foreign direct investment (215.2 billion dollars), Switzerland ranks 5th in Europe (2000). Switzerland is the undisputed world leader in terms of their cost per capita (27 thousand dollars) and when compared with GDP (89.2%). Swiss enterprises abroad employ 1.73 million people, i.e. 43.3% of the number of employees within the country. This figure is the highest in the world. In the field of foreign trade, Switzerland occupies a more modest position. Commodity exports amounted to 100.3 billion dollars (2002). Main export partners: EU - 61%, USA - 10%. Import of goods - 94.4 billion dollars. Main import partners: EU - 79%, USA - 5.1%.

Switzerland is among the top ten major exporters of direct investment in the Russian Federation ($0.7 billion in 2002). Some elite companies have already created powerful production units (Nestle, ABB, Holcim, etc.). But the majority continues the commercial development of the Russian market, although some are already starting to implement production projects (Novartis, Roche, Swatch Group, etc.). Leading banking and insurance companies (UBS, Credit Suisse, Zurich) are also very active. Swiss capital is preparing for a large-scale development of the promising Russian market.

Science and culture in Switzerland

There are many universities in the country, in almost every major canton, the oldest of which is located in Basel (since 1460). Switzerland has always had a reputation as a promising developer of innovative technologies, but in their development it is clearly inferior to other countries. To overcome this shortcoming, a special fund "Swiss Innovation Network" (SNI - RSI) was created.

Two well-known Federal technological higher schools were chosen as the main locomotives: in Zurich (ETH) and Lausanne (EPFL). They prepare approx. 18-20 thousand students to work at Swiss high-tech firms, as well as at the Center for Electronics and Microelectronics (CSEM), an IBM research laboratory (near Zurich).

The activities of, for example, the Federal Polytechnic Institute of Lausanne (EPFL) are based on the principle that “a breakthrough in science and technology occurs, as a rule, at the intersection of traditional disciplines”. Therefore, 12 faculties were merged into 5 larger ones, and many interdisciplinary centers arose. In this higher school, approx. 5.5 thousand listeners, incl. 800 PhD students, 400 people get a second degree. The teaching staff is 210 professors and 2.4 thousand specialists, entrepreneurs and administrators (3/4 of them receive their basic salary from external sources). Particular emphasis is placed on medical engineering, biotechnology, digital modeling, information systems and telecommunications. Switzerland has high hopes for the success of this model. In terms of the number of Nobel laureates per capita, the country ranks first in the world.

Among the outstanding personalities who lived and worked in Switzerland, one can distinguish, first of all, prominent religious figures of the Protestant direction: W. Zwingli and J. Calvin. The leading philosopher of the Enlightenment is considered to be the Genevan J.-J. Rousseau. The famous Swiss architect Jean-E. Corbusier remains a landmark figure in modern urban planning.

The first important contact between the Swiss Helvetians and the Romans took place in 107. BC. when the tribe of Tigurins joined the Cimbri and Teutons and made a raid on Southern Gaul, where on the banks of the Garonne they inflicted a heavy defeat on the Romans.

In 52, the Helvetians joined the Gauls in revolt against Rome, but were put down. Since then, the Romanization of Switzerland began, moving forward slowly and gradually, but firmly and steadily over several centuries.

From 264 to 470, the entire territory of Switzerland fell under the rule of the Burgundians and Alemanni.

Medieval Switzerland

Under Charlemagne, Switzerland was divided into ten counties. In 843, the Treaty of Verdun led to the division of Switzerland into parts: the western, together with Burgundy, and the southern, together with Italy, went to Emperor Lothair. eastern, together with all Alemannia, to King Louis the German.

In 1032 the supreme power over Burgundy passed to Emperor Conrad II; since then, for three centuries, until the strengthening of the Swiss Union, the fate of all of Switzerland depended on the German emperors

History of Switzerland

The history of Switzerland is short, relatively speaking. Although people lived here for a long time, Switzerland stood out as an independent state only in the 14th century. It is known for certain that in the third century BC. this land was inhabited by the Celts, but in 58 BC. the Romans came here. This land was part of the Roman Empire until its collapse, after which it constantly changed hands until it became part of the Frankish state.

However, towards the end of the 13th century, an event occurred that pushed Switzerland towards self-determination. In 1291, the so-called eternal union of forest cantons was formed. This formation, occupying a relatively small territory, managed to fight off all attempts to encroach on its independence. The allied cantons fought off Austria several times, and since then the Swiss military has become famous throughout Europe. Although Switzerland was officially recognized only in 1643, after the failure of the Austrian invasion, no one else risked attacking it, but the Swiss were often invited as mercenaries, knowing their unparalleled discipline and loyalty to their word. Even to this day, it is the Swiss Guard that is responsible for the safety of the Pope.

However, the French captured Switzerland in 1798, but Napoleon Bonaparte decided to restore the independence of Switzerland. In 1847, a bourgeois revolution also took place in the country, and the following year the constitution of the Swiss Confederation was adopted. In subsequent years, Switzerland managed to remain neutral, even Hitler did not attack her. As already mentioned, Switzerland occupies only a small area, in short, it is equal to half the territory of Austria, it is 41.284 thousand km, about 8 million people live here.

Modern Switzerland is the most militarized country in the world, literally every Swiss has weapons at home, and is ready at any moment to join the ranks and defend their homeland. However, this does not mean at all that the country is dangerous for visitors, on the contrary, the Swiss are very hospitable hosts and are always happy to see tourists, especially since the country is rich in old buildings and is located in perhaps the most picturesque region of Europe.

Flag of Switzerland

The flag of Switzerland deserves special attention. Its shape is different from the flags of other states. This square-shaped cloth reminds of the military past of the country. There are only two such flags in the world. The square state symbol, in addition to Switzerland, also has the Vatican. Legislatively, the shape of the flag is not approved anywhere, it just happened historically. But the colors of the flag are strictly defined. On January 1, 2007, a line appeared in the law that the red background of the flag should be a mixture of purple and yellow and correspond to the 487th Pantone number.

The flag is a red square with a white cross in the middle. It is worth noting that the ends of the cross do not reach the edges of the canvas. The size of the cross was approved by the Swiss government in a decree of 1889, which clearly states that the length of the ends of the cross should be 1/6 more than the width.

There are many opinions about the origin of the Swiss flag. The flag is said to have originated from the coat of arms of the canton of Schwyz, which participated in the creation of the Swiss Confederation. Only then did the cross extend to the edges of the flag and look like the flag of Denmark.

The color design of the flag has not changed for many years, but the shape of the state symbol has been different in different centuries. In the 15th and 16th centuries it was a triangular banner. In the 19th century, a white cross of five identical squares was placed on a red canvas. At the end of the 19th century, these five squares are transformed into a modern cross that does not reach the edges of the flag.

It is noteworthy that the symbol of the International Organization of the Red Cross is derived from the flag of Switzerland. In 1864, the Geneva Convention officially adopted a red cross on a white background as its symbol. This coloring of the symbol has become a mirror image of the colors of the national flag.

Switzerland has two flags: state and commercial. The state flag, according to the standards, is made in the form of a square, but the trade one is a rectangle.

With the advent of the rectangular merchant flag, opinions arose that the flag's rectangular shape is now standard and is in addition to the country's square flag. This was especially talked about after Switzerland joined the United Nations in 2002. In fact, this myth has no official basis. The appearance of the rectangular shape of the flag was caused by the conditions of this organization. But in the row of flags in front of the UN headquarters in New York, a square-shaped flag of Switzerland is displayed. Yes, and it cannot be otherwise. After all, the country has pledged to preserve the unique form of the national flag.

History of Bern

The city of Bern was founded in 1191 by Duke Berthold V of the Zähringen family. There is a legend that says that Berthold swore to name the city after the first animal he would kill while hunting. This animal turned out to be a bear, and the city was given the name Bern.

In 1294, the Constitution of Bern was adopted, which was in effect until 1798. In accordance with it, the Big Council, consisting of 200 members, was the representative body of power, and the Small Council was the executive. These councils were elected by all the citizens of the community. The economic development of Bern during this period was based on handicraft production. At this time, a huge number of bakers, butchers, blacksmiths, potters and tanners lived in Bern. And in 1307, a society of weavers began to flourish in the city.

Since the XIV century, Bern began to expand its territories, buying them from impoverished counts. And in the 1300s, Bern took part in two regional wars with the city of Freiburg and with the Habsburgs. In 1323, a military treaty was concluded with the Swiss Union, thanks to which Bern managed to defeat the Habsburgs at the Battle of Laupen. After that, the city in 1353 joined the Swiss Union.

And in 1405, a terrible fire broke out in the city, about 550 houses burned down and about 100 people died. Reconstruction began immediately, and by the 17th century most of the buildings had been completely restored.

In 1513, a Bernese chronicler wrote that Swiss troops had returned victorious from Northern Italy. In Navarna, among other trophies, they captured an enemy standard and a live bear. In front of the city gates, a house was built for him, surrounded by a moat, so that the bear would not escape.

Between 1528 and 1537 Protestantism spread first in Bern and then throughout the canton.

Significant changes in Bern came at the end of the 18th century in connection with the Napoleonic Wars. On March 5, 1798, the Battle of Graucholz took place, in which Bern was defeated. After the French occupied and plundered the city, and also burned most of it. In the same year, Bern was part of the Helvetic Republic, created by Napoleon. On February 19, 1803, Napoleon created a new union state in which Bern was merged into the Oberland and became an independent canton. And after the defeat of Napoleon entered the created Swiss Confederation. The aristocratic regime was restored in Bern, but 99 members from rural areas were admitted to the Great Council. And on July 31, 1846, at the request of the people's assembly, a new constitution for Bern was adopted, which made the system of elections to government bodies more democratic.

In 1848, Bern acted as the federal capital of Switzerland, hosting most of the country's federal institutions.

Sources: dic.academic.ru, antiquehistory.ru, www.votpusk.ru, states-world.ru, swiss.devisu.ru

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The number of members of the union reached 13. A decade and a half later, the Reformation began in Switzerland, and for the next three centuries, the confrontation between Catholics and Protestants continued, repeatedly resulting in bloody wars. From 1798 until Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo, Switzerland was under French rule. In subsequent years, there was a struggle between the patrician authorities of individual cantons and supporters of the transformation of Switzerland into an integral state on a democratic basis, which ended in 1848 with the victory of the latter. A constitution was adopted and a federal parliament established, and since then there has been a period of calm development of the Swiss Confederation.

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Switzerland before the union (before 1291)

prehistoric period

As numerous excavations prove, the territory that later became Switzerland was the habitat of man as far back as the Stone Age. Archaeological finds indicate that already 150-250 thousand years ago Neanderthals lived in Switzerland. Approximately 40 thousand years ago, a reasonable man settled here. The Neolithic era reached Switzerland around the 5th millennium BC. During this period, wooden dwellings began to appear on the shores of Swiss lakes. In the V-I centuries BC. e. in Central and Western Europe, the La Tène culture was widespread, named after the village of La Tène in Switzerland, a few kilometers from Neuchâtel.

Roman Switzerland

During the Roman Empire, in the period from the 5th century BC. until the 4th century AD, the territory of Switzerland was inhabited mainly by Celtic tribes, primarily the Helvetians (hence another name for Switzerland, Helvetia), and in the east by the Rhaetians, probably related to the Etruscans. Although Greek and Roman historians describe the Celts as barbarians, archeological evidence shows that they had a fairly developed culture.

The first important contact between the Swiss Helvetians and the Romans took place in 107 BC. e., when the Tigurin tribe joined the Cimbri and Teutons and made a raid on Southern Gaul, where on the banks of the Garonne they inflicted a heavy defeat on the Romans. In 58 B.C. e. another Helvetian raid on Southern Gaul was repelled by Roman troops under the command of Julius Caesar; he pushed them back into Swiss territory.

In 52, the Helvetii joined the Gauls in revolt against Rome, but were put down. Since then, the Romanization of Switzerland began, moving forward slowly and gradually, but firmly and steadily over several centuries. In 15 BC, the territory of Switzerland was annexed to the Roman Empire. Dozens of cities were founded by the Romans in Switzerland, including 4 out of 5 modern cities with a population of more than 100 thousand people: Zurich (Zurich, Roman Turicum), Basel (Basel, Roman Basilia), Geneva (Geneva, Roman Geneva) and Lausanne (Lausanne, Roman Lousonna); only Bern was founded later, in 1191. The main Roman city at that time was Aventicum (Aventicum). However, the territory of Switzerland remained sparsely populated by both the Helvetians and the Romans; the population at that time is estimated at 100-200 thousand people.

Starting from the 3rd century, the Romans began to retreat under the onslaught of the Germanic tribes. By the 5th century, the territory of Switzerland fell under the rule of the Burgundians (in the west) and the Alemanni (in the north).

Medieval Switzerland

As in the rest of Europe, a feudal system was established in Switzerland in the Middle Ages. Since the 4th century, Christianity began to penetrate into Switzerland, but in the 7th century its influence increased significantly thanks to the Irish wandering monks. One of them, Gallus, settled in eastern Switzerland, where the first monastery of St. Gallen was founded in 820 by his followers; later, the city of St. Gallen, the center of the canton of the same name, arose around the monastery.

In the IV-VIII centuries, Switzerland, like neighboring countries, was fragmented into small kingdoms. Only with the coming to power of the Franks of Charlemagne in 768 did a large empire form in Western Europe. Under him, Switzerland was divided into ten counties (Gaue). In 843, the Treaty of Verdun led to the division of Switzerland into parts: the western, together with Burgundy, and the southern, together with Italy, went to Emperor Lothar I, the eastern, along with all of Alemannia - to King Louis the German. However, around 900 the German king subjugated Burgundy and Italy, and in 962 the German king Otto I  the Great was proclaimed emperor.

In 1032, during the reign of Emperor Conrad II, Burgundy became part of the Holy Roman Empire, and since then for three centuries, until the strengthening of the Swiss Union, the fate of all of Switzerland depended on the German emperors. But at the same time, in the north of Switzerland, the centralization of power was weak, where local princes, primarily the Toggenburgs, Zähringens and Kyburgs, and later the Habsburgs, enjoyed great influence.

Swiss Union (1291-1798)

The emergence of the Swiss Union

In the 11th-13th centuries, new cities appeared in Switzerland, such as Bern, Lucerne and Friborg, and trade began to develop. New technologies for building bridges made it possible to begin the development of previously inaccessible territories of the Alps, through which trade routes from the Mediterranean to Central Europe passed. One such trade route passed through the Uri, Schwyz and Graubünden valleys and the St. Gotthard Pass. The significance of this path was so great that the German king Frederick II withdrew these valleys from the subordination of local princes. However, with the accession to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire of the Habsburgs, the population of these valleys, fearing oppression by this dynasty, concluded a military treaty. It was signed on 1 August 1291 and united Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden. The signing took place in an atmosphere of secrecy and subsequently acquired legends, the most famous of which are the legend of the Rütli oath and the folk epic about Wilhelm Tell. It is not known for certain whether this treaty was actually signed in Rütli, as well as whether William Tell existed, but the original of the treaty has been preserved, the authenticity of which was confirmed by radiocarbon analysis. The act of the treaty, drawn up in Latin, has been preserved in the archives of the city of Schwyz. Since 1891 1 August has become a Swiss national holiday.

The fears of the allies were not in vain - the Habsburgs repeatedly tried to annex their lands with the help of military force, but they invariably suffered defeats, in particular in the battles of Morgarten (1315), Sempach (1386), Nefels (1388). In the XIV century, the confederation was replenished with five new members: Lucerne (1332), Zurich (1351), Zug (1352), Bern and Glarus (1353). However, the growth in the number of cantons also led to an increase in tension between them, which resulted in the Zurich War of 1440-46. Its cause was the struggle for influence in an alliance between Zurich, supported by Austria and France on the one hand and Schwyz and other cantons on the other.

The cities that became part of the Swiss Union eventually received the status of free cities, that is, they became independent entities within the Holy Roman Empire. These cities bought up the lands of local impoverished aristocrats and gradually turned into large landowners. The cities of the Swiss Union carried on a brisk trade with other cities in Europe, such as Venice, Krakow, Antwerp and Lyon. The armed forces of the confederation were represented by voluntary detachments of young men; many of them became hired soldiers, and this was a significant income for the cantons of Switzerland.

In 1460, Sargans and Thurgau were added to the Confederation, giving Switzerland access to the Rhine. In 1474-1477, the Swiss alliance participated in the Burgundian wars on the side of the French king and against the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, an ally of the Habsburgs. The most significant battles were the Battle of Grandson (1476), the Battle of Murten (1476) and the Battle of Nancy (1477). Charles the Bold was killed at the Battle of Nancy, and as a result, the Burgundian state was divided between the King of France and the Habsburg dynasty. However, tensions arose again between the cantons when deciding on the admission of new members of the confederation. The contradictions were resolved by the Treaty of Stans (Stanser Verkommnis) of 1481, which made it possible to expand the union to 13 members by 1513. In 1481 Friborg and Solothurn were taken. In 1499, the Holy Roman Empire attempted to regain control of the Swiss territories, leading to the Swabian War. The German king Maximilian I was defeated in several battles, and as a result, the Swiss Union finally consolidated its de facto independence from the Holy Roman Empire (although nominally remained part of it) and replenished in 1501 with new members: Basel and Schaffhausen. In 1513 Appenzell was taken over. In the same year, the Swiss army took part as mercenaries in the Battle of Novara, allowing the Duke of Milan Massimiliano Sforza to repulse the siege of the city of Novara by French troops. However, in the next battle of the Cambrai League war, the Battle of Marignano, the Swiss army suffered its first serious defeat, losing about 10 thousand dead, and subsequently refrained from large-scale participation in armed conflicts, although Swiss mercenaries continued to be in great demand. The defeat at Marignano thus laid the foundation for Swiss neutrality. After the conquest of the Duchy of Milan, the French king Francis I concluded with the Swiss alliance "perpetual peace" (lasting 250 years), according to which Switzerland was obliged to supply France with mercenaries, and also received the French market for the sale of its goods (fabrics, cheeses, later books, jewelry and hours) .

Cultural life in the Swiss Union also did not stand still. In 1432, the first and until the 19th century the only Swiss university began its work in Basel (the official opening took place only in 1460). The names of the famous Swiss doctor and scientist Paracelsus, the humanist scientist Erasmus of Rotterdam, and later, in the 17th-18th centuries, Johann Bernoulli, Daniel Bernoulli, Leonard Euler are also associated with Basel.

Reformation

At the beginning of the 16th century, the Reformation began in Germany, in the years 1520-30 it spread to Switzerland, even in a more radical form. The center of the reform movement was Zurich, where the first translation of the Bible into German was compiled and printed. The translation was carried out by Ulrich Zwingli and Leo Jude, it was printed in Christoph Froschauer's printing house. In addition to Zwinglianism, another current of the Reformation, Anabaptism, also arose in Zurich. At the same time, the central part of Switzerland remained Catholic, in large part because Zwinglianism condemned the use of mercenary armies, and for the inhabitants of this region, mercenary service was the main source of income. The conflict between Protestants and Catholics twice resulted in civil wars: First Filmergen War en en 1656 and Toggenburg War en en 1712. The main battles of both wars took place near the village of Filmergen.

Not without resistance, the Reformation was introduced in Geneva. Here, the French theologian Jean-Calvin and his compatriot Guillaume Farel, expelled from Paris, became the main ideologists of the reformation of the Church. It should be noted that Protestants differed little from Catholics in relation to heretics: an illustrative example of this is the fate of the Spanish thinker and naturalist Miguel Servet, who was convicted by Catholics in Lyon and executed at the insistence of Calvin in Geneva. The reformers were not inferior in the hunt for witches - in the period from 1590 to 1600, more than 300 women were burned at the stake in the Protestant canton of Vaud alone. But in the Protestant cantons, Huguenots (supporters of the Reformation) from France, as well as from other European countries where Catholicism dominated, were willingly accepted. Most of them were in Geneva, Neuchâtel and Basel. Since many of them were jewelers, bankers and watchmakers, thanks to them western Switzerland became the center of banking and watchmaking.

Start of industrialization

Despite the confrontation between Catholics and Protestants, life in Switzerland in the XVII-XVIII centuries was quite peaceful. The lack of spending on the regular army and the royal court allowed some cities to abolish taxation. Income from the service of mercenaries made it possible to accumulate significant funds that were directed to the development of industry, primarily textile and watchmaking. By the end of the 18th century, about a quarter of the Swiss population was employed in industry, and there were more than a thousand watchmakers in Geneva alone. Significant income was also provided by lending money at interest to the warring countries, mainly France, thanks to which Geneva gradually became the financial center of Europe.

The textile industry originated in Switzerland in the 14th century, but its further development was delayed by a plague pandemic, from which a fifth of the population of the Swiss Union died. Weaving flourished in the 17th century, when, in addition to traditional woolen fabrics, the production of silk and muslin fabrics was mastered. Due to the restrictions of the city guilds, the industry mainly developed in the countryside, mostly near Zurich, Winterthur, St. Gallen, Appenzell and Glarus. The Catholic (central) cantons and the canton of Bern remained predominantly agrarian.

Switzerland in 1798-1815

In the 15th and 18th centuries, Switzerland was a rather poorly cohesive group of cantons, each of which was ruled by a small number of wealthy families. From 1650 to 1790 there were periodic peasant uprisings against such a patrician oligarchy, but they were all brutally suppressed. In the 18th century, the situation began to change, as the need for change became more and more obvious. Zurich became the center of political thought, where the Helvetic Society (Helvetische Gesellschaft) was founded in 1761, the goal of which was to create an integral state with equal rights for all its citizens.

However, the revolution in Switzerland became possible only after the French Revolution. It began in the canton of Vaud in 1795 and spread to other French-speaking cantons. In response to attempts by Bern and the German-speaking cantons to suppress the revolution, France occupied Switzerland in 1797-98. On April 12, 1798, the Helvetic Republic was proclaimed. Its constitution was very close to the French: a bicameral parliament, a Board of Directors (government) and a Supreme Court were established. Swiss federalism was abolished. The board of directors of the newly formed republic first of all signed a pact to create a military alliance with France. In 1799-1802, the Helvetic Republic (together with the south of Germany and the north of Italy) became the scene of hostilities of the second coalition war of France against Great Britain, Austria and Russia. The famous crossing of Suvorov through the Alps belongs to this time.

The Helvetic Republic did not meet with the support of the population. Immediately after the withdrawal of French troops in July 1802, the restoration of the old order began in the central cantons. In October of the same year, French troops were again brought into Switzerland, and at the beginning of 1803, Napoleon, who by that time had already taken the reins of government in France into his own hands, approved the country a new Constitution (“Mediation Act”), which returned federalism and increased the number of cantons with 13 to 19. The increase in the number of cantons was caused by the granting of cantonal status to formerly associated members of the Swiss Union: St. Gallen, Graubünden, Aargau, Thurgau, Ticino and Vaud. The new constitution was in effect until 1815. After the defeat of Napoleon, Switzerland returned to a highly federal form of government. After the return by France of the cantons annexed in 1798 (Valais, Neuchâtel and Geneva), their number reached 22. The Paris Peace Treaty of 1815 secured the status of a neutral state for Switzerland.

Switzerland under the Treaty of 1815 (1815-1848)

Switzerland under the constitutions of 1848 and 1874

The victory in the Sonderbund War allowed the Protestants and supporters of the Swiss reforms to strengthen their influence with the adoption of the Constitution in 1848. The model for this constitution was the basic law of the United States: it proclaimed basic human rights, introduced a bicameral parliament (Federal Assembly of Switzerland), a federal government (Federal Council of Switzerland) and the Supreme Court. Issues of concluding agreements with other states, customs and postal services, and coinage were transferred to the jurisdiction of the federal authorities. Since 1850, the Swiss franc has become the country's single currency, and the federal capital of Switzerland is Bern. The official name of the country is Swiss Confederation. The revision of the constitution in 1874 secured the possibility of direct democracy in the form of a referendum on the most important issues, and also increased the role of federal bodies in matters of the army and legislation in the social and economic spheres. In the very first parliamentary elections, the liberal and radical parties won a landslide victory, and held power for the rest of the 19th century and the entire 20th century; The conservative Catholic, the Swiss People's Party, and later the socialist parties were invariably in the minority. The first representative of the Conservative Catholic Party was elected to the Federal Council only in 1891 .

In 1864, on the initiative of the Swiss public figure Henri Dunant, the International Committee of the Red Cross was founded in Geneva.

The federal constitution made it possible to stabilize the situation in Switzerland, which contributed to economic development. The industrialization of Switzerland began early, already in 1801 the country began to assemble the first machines on the model of British ones, and by 1814 machines completely replaced manual labor from the textile industry. During the 19th century, especially its second half, enterprises of various industries appeared in Switzerland:

Banks such as Credit Suisse founded in 1856 and the Winterthur bank founded in 1862 (later renamed UBS) played an important role in the economic development of Switzerland.

The first railway line in Switzerland was a branch of the French line Strasbourg - Basel, which began operating in 1844. The first purely Swiss railway line connected Zurich and Baden in 1847. In 1887, the Alpine railway was built, passing through the Gotthard Railway Tunnel. In 1901, the major private railroads were nationalized to form a federal railroad network.

Beginning in 1850, tourism began to develop in Switzerland.

Switzerland during the World Wars (1914-1945)

In both the First and Second World Wars, Switzerland occupied a position of armed neutrality. With the outbreak of the First World War, on August 1, 1914, a mobilization took place in Switzerland, which brought together about 220 thousand people. However, the role of the army was limited only to guarding the borders from a possible invasion, and in subsequent years its numbers decreased markedly, to 12,500 by the end of the war. During the war, the neutral country became a haven for refugees, Russian revolutionaries, as well as artists who founded Dadaism in Switzerland. November 1918 was marked by a mass strike (about 400 thousand people) and an attempted coup d'état, suppressed with the help of the army.

On January 10, 1920, Switzerland became one of the 42 founding countries of the League of Nations, and in November the headquarters of this organization moved from London to Geneva.

In 1931, three national radio transmitters began to operate, in 1941 they were modernized for broadcasting to foreign countries in the shortwave band, and during the Second World War they became the only German-language counterbalance to Nazi propaganda.

In 1932, the Swiss branch of the NSDAP was founded, which for some time enjoyed little popular support and even received one seat in parliament (out of 187). However, later the attitude of the vast majority of the population of Switzerland towards the Nazis became sharply negative, and numerous societies began to appear in the country, united in the Spiritual Defense movement.

In 1934, the Federal Parliament passed the Banking Act (Federal Act on Banks and Savings Banks), marking the beginning of bank secrecy in Switzerland. Since then, giving out information about the owner of a Swiss bank account has been a criminal offence. Changes in this area began only after 2010 under pressure from the United States and other countries, in particular, in May 2015, an agreement was signed between Switzerland and the European Union on the exchange of information on customer accounts starting from 2018.

In 1946, under an agreement with its allies (primarily the United States), Switzerland paid compensation to the central banks of Western countries for gold stolen by the Nazis during the occupation and then sold to Switzerland. The total amount of payments was 250 million Swiss francs.

In a military sense, despite the declared policy of neutrality, the Swiss Confederation cooperated to a limited extent with Nazi Germany: under a secret agreement with the Wehrmacht, Switzerland sent several medical missions to the German-Soviet front. The purpose of the doctors was to treat the German wounded in hospitals in the occupied territories of the USSR. Already during the war, this collaboration was complicated by reports of war crimes witnessed by Swiss doctors.

Switzerland today (since 1945)

Main article: Modern history of Switzerland

Immediately after the end of World War II, in 1946, plans appeared in Switzerland to create their own nuclear weapons. The Swiss higher technical school Zurich became the development center. However, due to insufficient funding, the plans were not implemented, and in 1969 Switzerland signed and in 1977 ratified the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, although the project was completely closed only in 1988. In 1960, the country's first nuclear reactor was built.

The world's largest high-energy physics laboratory operates in Geneva and adjacent territories on the border of Switzerland and France. Initially, in 1954, it was established as the European Council for Nuclear Research (fr. Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucleaire) and continues to be known by the abbreviation of this name - CERN (CERN). In addition to significant achievements in the study of the atomic nucleus, the laboratory is also known for its computer center, in which in 1989 the World Wide Web (eng. World Wide Web (WWW)) was founded, and in 1991 the first web server, website and browser .

Since 1959, a permanent composition of the National Council (government) has been adopted: two representatives from the Liberal Party, two from the Conservative Party, two Social Democrats and one representative from the Swiss People's Party. This proportion was maintained until 2003, when the Swiss Workers' Party won the second seat in the Council.

In 1960, Switzerland became one of the founders of the European Free Trade Association and continues to be a member without joining the European Union. Switzerland also joined some other international organizations, such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank (both in 1992), the World Trade Organization (1995).

In 1979, the Canton of Jura was separated from the Canton of Bern by referendum.

In 1999, a new constitution was adopted in a federal referendum. In particular, it consolidated the division of the three cantons (before that they consisted of six half-cantons). Basel-Land and Basel-Stadt, Appenzell-Auserrhoden and Appenzell-Innerrhoden, Nidwalden and Obwalden became the new full-fledged cantons (previously they made up the canton Unterwalden, one of the three founders of the Swiss Union). The total number of cantons in Switzerland is now 26.

In 2002, Switzerland became a member of the United Nations (previously, in a referendum in 1986, three-quarters of the population voted against joining the UN).

In 2009, Switzerland joined

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During World Wars (-)
Modern history (with)

Ancient history

The first important contact between the Swiss Helvetians and the Romans (except for the Allobroges who lived in the very south, near Lake Geneva, known already from the 3rd century and partly conquered by the Romans in the 2nd century) took place in 107 BC. e., when the Tigurin tribe joined the Cimbri and Teutons and made a raid on Southern Gaul, where on the banks of the Garonne they inflicted a heavy defeat on the Romans. In 58, the Helvetii, pressed from the north by the Germans, and from the south threatened by the Romans, undertook with their whole mass a campaign, or rather a resettlement, into Gaul. Their number was determined at 265,000 souls, which were joined by 95,000 souls from other tribes. All this mass, consisting of men and women, old people and children, free and slaves, with cattle, with provisions, having burned cities and villages behind them, gathered at Lake Geneva. Caesar prevented them from crossing the Rhone, then inflicted a severe defeat on them at the city of Bibracte (now Autun, Autun) and forced them to return to Helvetia. Fearing the Germans more than the Helvetians, the Romans looked upon the latter as a buffer against the former, and therefore J. Caesar recognized them as allies (foederati) of Rome and retained their independence.

In 52, the Helvetii joined the Gauls in revolt against Rome, but were put down. Since then, the Romanization of Switzerland began, moving forward slowly and gradually, but firmly and steadily over several centuries. Caesar began, and Augustus in 15 BC. e. completed the conquest of the present Wallis; under Augustus, Tiberius and Drusus conquered Rhaetia, which constituted a special province, which included eastern Switzerland, that is, the current cantons of Graubünden, Glarus, St. Gallen, Appenzell, as well as Tyrol and part of Bavaria. Western Switzerland was at first attached to the province of Gallia Transalpine, and later formed the special province of Maxima Sequanorum or Helvetia; only Tessin and Vallis were part of Cisalpine Gaul. Within these provinces, each tribe formed a separate community (civitas), which enjoyed a very significant independence in internal affairs. The inhabitants of these civitates paid tribute to Rome; the provinces were separated from each other by customs borders; so, in Zurich there was a customs office that levied duties on goods transported. The Romans covered the country with a network of excellent roads and water pipes, revived it with trade; cities under them developed, decorated with temples and monuments; a highly developed culture was introduced into the country, and with it the Latin language and the Roman religion spread.

Even during the reign of the Romans, Christianity began to penetrate into Helvetia (Beat - a preacher in the Bernese Oberland, Lucius - in Rhaetia); monasteries arose in some places, a whole church organization appeared with its own (local) bishops. From the 3rd century after R. X., Roman dominance in Helvetia began to decline under the influence of the attacks of the Germans.

In 264 Helvetia was invaded and devastated by the Alemanni; they destroyed the Aventicum, which after that could no longer rise and lost all significance. In the 4th century, due to the loss of land on the right bank of the Rhine, Helvetia acquired special significance for Rome; they began to build new fortresses and set up camps in it, but it was all in vain. In 406-407 years. eastern Switzerland was conquered by the Alemanni; in 470 western Switzerland fell under the rule of the Burgundians. Both those and others at that time were barbarians, and the first, moreover, pagans. The Alemanni managed to almost completely destroy the traces of Roman influence (including Christianity) and completely Germanize the already Romanized areas. It is they who can most of all be considered the ancestors of the present inhabitants of German Switzerland; the admixture of Celtic and Romanesque elements is comparatively weak there. And in later times, when a significant part of Europe, including Germany, received Roman law, the law of German Switzerland was subjected to Roman influence only to a very weak degree and still has a much purer German character than the law of Germany itself. The Burgundians, to a much lesser extent, succeeded in subordinating the part of Helvetia they conquered to their influence, and therefore western Switzerland remained Romanesque. Similarly, the southeast (the present canton of Graubünden), which fell under the rule of the Ostrogoths, retained its Romansh language and partly Roman culture, as did Tessin, who in the subsequent Lombard era was even more subject to Roman influences. Thus, ethnically, or rather linguistically, Switzerland was already in the 5th century. was divided into the same three or four groups as now, and even the boundaries between them, quite accurately and clearly marked by the distribution of mountains and the course of rivers, were almost the same as now. These groups maintained their cultural ties with neighboring political entities; the development of their Celtic-Romance dialects went in parallel with the development of the languages ​​of French and Italian.

Middle Ages

In 496 the Alemanni were subjugated by Clovis, in 534 the Burgundians by his sons; after that, Rhetia was ceded by the Ostrogoths to the Franks (536), and thus all Switzerland, with the exception of the extreme south (Tessin), became part of the Frankish kingdom; this latter was conquered by the Lombards in 569 and only with the fall of their kingdom in 774 did it come under the rule of the Franks. Already under the Alemanni and Burgundians, Christianity began to spread again in Switzerland; under the Franks in the VI-VII centuries. it finally triumphed. A significant number of monasteries arose in the country, which, under the Frankish kings, received large landed property in their possession. Under the Alemanni and Burgundians, the comparatively small number of significant urban settlements began to be replaced by many small farms; the subjugated elements partly made up the serf population (Hörige and Leibeigene), the victors formed the free and noble classes. During the reign of the Franks, who subjugated yesterday's masters, feudalism made further progress.

Under Charlemagne, Switzerland, in the interests of government, was divided into ten counties (Gaue). According to the Treaty of Verdun (843), Switzerland was divided: the western one, together with Burgundy, and the southern one, together with Italy, went to Emperor Lothair, the eastern one, along with all of Alemannia - to King Louis the German. In this latter part of Switzerland, the city of Zurich began to play a prominent role. In 854, Louis the German expanded the possessions and rights of the pre-existing monastery of St. Gallen, which was an important center of education in Switzerland in the following centuries. After the death of Louis the Child (911), the Duchy of Alemannia was formed, and eastern Switzerland became part of it.

In 888 Duke Rudolf of the House of Welf established the Upper (Transjuranian) Kingdom of Burgundy, which included western Switzerland with Wallis. The collapse of the monarchy of Charlemagne weakened it; kings were not always able to defend their possessions from the raids of half-savage barbarians. In the tenth century Switzerland began to be threatened from the east by the Hungarians, from the south by the Saracens. In the city, the first plundered Basel, in the city - St. Gallen; in 936-40 Saracens devastated Hurretia (Graubünden), burned the monastery of St. Mauritius and robbed, but gradually received in flax various possessions from Lake Geneva to Aare; in addition, they were vested with the right of hereditary vogtstvo in Zurichgau (that is, in that part of it that did not depend on the Zurich monastery), and in the city they received the title of rectors (governors) of Burgundy. The secular rulers of Switzerland, especially the Zähringen, in the form of a struggle with already very strong monasteries, encouraged the development of cities and founded a number of new ones: Freiburg (1178), Bern (at the end of the 12th century), Thun, Murten and others (in the 13th century .). Near Zähringen, large estates were acquired during the 13th century. Counts Habsburgs, Kyburgs, Savoy.

In 1218 the family of the dukes of Zähringen died out; part of their possessions became imperial, part passed into other hands. When dividing the inheritance, the counts of Kyburg and the counts of Habsburg were especially lucky, and the latter in 1264 inherited the extinct Kyburg family. The city of Zurichgau passed to the emperor, who made the city of Zurich imperial, and divided other parts of the region into several small cities. The rectorship over Burgundy also returned to the hands of the emperor, but already in the middle of the 13th century. Count Pierre of Savoy forced a significant number of rulers of Burgundian Switzerland to recognize his authority; the spread of his possessions was put to an end by Count Rudolf IV of Habsburg (later Emperor Rudolf I). In the XIII century. a struggle began between the Habsburgs and the imperial power, among other things, over control of Switzerland. Already at the beginning of the XIII century. The S.-Gothard passage became known to the German emperors as a convenient road to Italy. As a result, the territories of the original cantons, especially Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, acquired a special significance for them.

The overall result of the time period from the 10th to the 13th centuries. for Switzerland it was as follows: the former political unity of Switzerland, as part of the unified monarchy of Charlemagne, was destroyed; Switzerland broke up into many small political units, some of which were directly imperial; in terms of government, they were mainly aristocratic republics in which the city ruled over rural areas completely subordinate to it; others were the possessions of secular or spiritual lords. The internal life of the country, even at the moment of the greatest strength of the monarchy, was little subject to regulation from the centers; later she became even more independent. Separate communities got used to self-government, and the beginnings of republican-democratic self-government were laid down even then. Serfdom in Switzerland has never been particularly strong. Next to the serfs who worked for the masters, in Switzerland there has always been a significant number of free settlers (hunters, fishermen, cattle breeders, farmers), who had small plots of land and sometimes made up entire villages. The population of the cities was almost always free. Thanks to the relative peace that Switzerland enjoyed after the disturbing 10th century, it was in the 11th-13th centuries. was one of the most densely populated countries in Europe and enjoyed relatively great prosperity.