Foreign policy: tasks and main directions. West and East in the foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible I. By the middle of the XVI century. Russia has become a mighty power. The reforms made it possible to start solving foreign policy problems. Two directions of foreign policy were leading: the eastern one - the struggle against Turkey and the Crimean, Astrakhan and Nogai khanates under the influence of the Ottoman Empire; Western - getting access to the Baltic Sea, the fight against the Livonian Order.

2. Second half of the 40s years passed in unsuccessful attempts by diplomatic and military

means to eliminate the center of aggression in Kazan. Two trips to Kazan also did not bring the desired result. In 1552, an army of 150,000 led by the tsar surrounded Kazan and began a siege. Powerful digs were made under the walls of the Kazan Kremlin. The city was shelled by Russian artillery. October 2, 1552 Kazan was taken. In 1557 were annexed

Astrakhan Khanate, Nogai Horde, Bashkiria, Kabarda. Now the entire Volga route belonged to Russia, crafts and trade began to develop here. The elimination of these khanates removed the threat to Russia from the East.

3. After the annexation of Kazan, the Siberian Khanate became Russia's neighbor in the East, which was of great interest to Russian feudal lords (new territories, obtaining expensive furs). The conquest of Siberia began in 1581, when the merchants Stroganovs organized a campaign of Cossacks against the Siberian Khan Kuchum, who made constant raids on their possessions.

This campaign was headed by Ermak (Yermolai) Timofeevich. In the spring of 1582, Yermak moved deep into Siberia, passed along the Irtysh and Tobol rivers and captured the Chuvash Mountain, which guarded the approaches to the capital of the Siberian Khan Kuchum. Kuchum fled, and the Cossacks occupied his capital without a fight.

Kash-lyk (Siberia). However, Kuchum continued to attack the Cossacks, inflicting sensitive blows on them. Yermak turned out to be

in a difficult situation, since his detachment was hundreds of miles away from their base. Help from the Moscow government came only two years later. Ku-Chum managed to lure Yermak's detachment into an ambush. Only two of the entire detachment were able to escape the massacre. Trying to swim to

their boats, Yermak drowned. The remnants of his detachment, suffering from a lack of food and scurvy, left Kash-lyk and returned to Russia. Yermak's campaign marked the beginning of a systematic Russian offensive in the Trans-Urals. In 1568, the Tyumen fortress was built, in 1587 - Tobolsk, which became the Russian center in Siberia. In 1598, Kuchum was finally defeated and soon died. The peoples of Siberia became part of Russia, Russian settlers began to develop the region, peasants, Cossacks, townspeople and merchants rushed there.

4. Russia has long sought to expand its territories in the Baltics, where the Livonian Confederation of States was located. Ivan IV wanted to give Russia access to the Baltic Sea, the nobles hoped to get land and peasants, merchants sought to expand trade with Europe. The reason for the Livonian War (1558-1583) was the refusal of the Livonian Order to pay tribute to Russia. In January 1558, Russian troops invaded Livonia and began to move forward rapidly. The army of the Order was defeated in 1560, and the Livonian Order itself ceased to exist. However, the death of the Order led to the fact that Lithuania joined the war on the side of Livonia,

Sweden and Denmark, which captured part of the order's lands. In 1564, the Russian army suffered a series of defeats, the failures in the war were aggravated by the betrayal of Prince A. Kurbsky, who commanded the Russian troops. In 1569, Lithuania signs the Union of Lublin (union) with Poland,

united in a new state - the Commonwealth. Russian successes in the Baltics

the second half of the 70s were short-lived. In 1579, the Swedes invaded the Novgorod land, and Stefan Batory, who had just been elected king of the Commonwealth, moved to Russia with a 40,000-strong army and took Polotsk. The following year, the troops of the Commonwealth captured several

Russian cities, besieged Velikiye Luki. In 1581, Batory, already with a 100,000th army, approached

to Pskov and laid siege to it. The siege lasted in 1581 and in 1582. The defense of Pskov exhausted the forces of the Poles. In 1582, the Yam-Zapolsky truce was concluded for 10 years. In 1583 a truce was concluded with Sweden. Russia lost the war, lost the fortresses of Narva, Yam, Koporye, Ivan-

city. Behind it, only a section of the Baltic coast with the mouth of the Neva has been preserved. The war, which lasted 25 years, costing huge victims, devastated the country, ended in vain.

14. Russia under the first Romanovs: the establishment of an autocratic-feudal system. Cathedral Code

The beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty was the heyday of the estate-representative monarchy. Under the young king Mikhail Fedorovich(1613-1645) the Boyar Duma seized power in its hands, in which the relatives of the new tsar - the Romanovs, Cherkasskys, Saltykovs - played a significant role.
However, in order to strengthen the centralized power in the state, the constant support of the nobility and the tops of the urban settlement was required. Therefore, the Zemsky Sobor from 1613 to 1619 sat almost continuously. The role and competence of Zemsky Sobors undoubtedly increased (under Tsar Mikhail, the Sobor met at least 10 times), the elective element received a numerical predominance over the official. Nevertheless, the cathedrals still did not have an independent political significance, therefore, to assert that in Russia there was a classical estate-representative monarchy of the Western model, it is hardly appropriate even in relation to the 17th century, but we can talk about the elements of estate representation: Zemsky Cathedral and Boyar Duma.
The point is that active Zemsky Sobors was due to the temporary need of the new government to overcome the consequences of the Time of Troubles. Elected at the council were ordered, as a rule, only to express their opinion on a particular issue, it was the prerogative of the supreme power to decide. The composition of the cathedral was changeable, devoid of a stable organization, so it is impossible to call it an all-estate body. Gradually by the end of the XVII century. conciliar activity ceased.
In 1619, Tsar Michael's father returns from Polish captivity Filaret (Fyodor Nikitovich Romanov), at one time had a real claim to the royal throne. In Moscow, he takes the patriarchal rank with the title of "great sovereign" and becomes the de facto ruler of the state until his death in 1633.
The new Moscow government, in which the tsar's father, Patriarch Filaret, played a primary role, was guided by the principle that everything should be old-fashioned when restoring the state after the Time of Troubles. The ideas of an electoral and limited monarchy that had matured in the era of unrest did not take deep roots. In order to calm society and overcome the devastation, a conservative policy was necessary, but the Time of Troubles brought many such changes into public life that, in fact, government policy turned out to be reformist (S. F. Platonov).
Measures are being taken to strengthen the autocracy. Huge lands and entire cities are transferred to large secular and spiritual landowners. Most of the estates of the middle nobility are transferred to the category of estates, new land allotments "complain" "for the service" of the new dynasty.
Changing shape and meaning Boyar Duma. Due to the duma nobles and clerks, its number increased from 35 people in the 30s. to 94 by the end of the century. Power is concentrated in the hands of the so-called Middle Duma, which at that time consisted of four boyars related to the tsar by family ties (I. N. Romanov, I. B. Cherkassky, M. B. Shein, B. M. Lykov). In 1625, a new state seal was introduced, the word "autocrat" was included in the royal title.
With the limitation of the powers of the Boyar Duma, the importance of orders - their number constantly grew and at times reached fifty. The most important of them were the Local, Ambassadorial, Discharge, order of the Great Treasury, etc. The practice of subordinating several orders to one government person in the state is gradually being established - in fact head of government. So, under Mikhail Fedorovich, the orders of the Great Treasury, Streletsky, Foreign and Aptekarsky, were in charge of the boyar I. B. Cherkassky, and from 1642 he was replaced by a relative of Romanov - F. I. Sheremetyev. Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, these orders were controlled first by B. I. Morozov, then by I. D. Miloslavsky, the Tsar's father-in-law.
AT local same management changes took place that testified to the strengthening of the centralization principle: the zemstvo elected bodies that appeared in the middle of the 16th century began to be gradually replaced by stricter control from the center through governor In general, a rather contradictory picture emerged: at a time when zemstvo elected officials were called from the districts to solve issues of higher administration next to the boyars and nobles of the capital, district voters were given to the power of these boyars and nobles (voivode) (V. O. Klyuchevsky).
Under Filaret, she restored her shaky position church. With a special letter, the tsar handed over to the hands of the patriarch the trial of the clergy and monastery peasants. The land holdings of the monasteries expanded. Patriarchal judicial and administrative-financial orders appeared. The patriarchal court was arranged according to the royal model.
Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov died in June 1645. The issue of succession to the throne was to be decided by the Zemsky Sobor, because in 1613 it was not the Romanov dynasty that was elected to the kingdom, but Mikhail personally. According to the old Moscow tradition, the son of Mikhail Fedorovich Alexei, who was 16 years old at that time, received the crown. Zemsky Sobor took him to the kingdom. Unlike his father, Alexei did not take on any written obligations to the boyars, and formally nothing limited his power.
Into Russian history Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov(1645-1676) entered as Agexeus the Quietest. Grigory Kotoshihln called Alexei "much quiet", and the foreigner Augustin
(continuation 14 - 2)

One of the main achievements of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich was the adoption Cathedral Code(1649). This grand for the XVII century. for a long time the Code of Laws played the role of the All-Russian Law Code. Attempts to adopt the new Code were divided under Peter I and Catherine II, but both times were unsuccessful.
Compared with its predecessor, the Sudebnik of Ivan the Terrible (1550), the Cathedral Code, in addition to criminal law, also includes state and civil law, therefore it is, therefore, not
Surprising is not only the completeness, but also the speed of adoption of the code. This entire extensive code in the project was developed by a commission specially created by the royal decree of the prince Nikita Ivanovich Odoevsky, then it was discussed at a specially convened Zemsky Sobor in 1648, corrected in many articles, and on January 29 it was already adopted. Thus, all discussion and acceptance
The code of almost 1000 articles took only a little more than six months - an unprecedentedly short period even for a modern parliament!
The reasons for such a rapid adoption of new laws were as follows.
Firstly, the very disturbing atmosphere of that time in Russian life forced the Zemsky Sobor to hurry. Popular demonstrations in 1648 in Moscow and other cities forced the government and elected officials to improve the affairs of the court and legislation.
Secondly, since the time of the Sudebnik of 1550, many private decrees have been adopted for various cases. Decrees were collected in orders, each according to its type of activity, and then recorded in Ukaznye books. These last clerks were guided along with the Sudebnik in administrative and judicial cases.
For a hundred years, a great many legal provisions have accumulated, scattered according to different orders, sometimes contradicting each other. This made it difficult for the order administration and gave rise to a lot of abuses from which petitioners suffered. It was required, according to the successful formulation of S. F. Platonov, "instead of a mass of separate laws, to have one code." Thus, the reason that stimulated legislative activity was the need to systematize and codify laws.
Thirdly, too much has changed, moved from place to place in Russian society after the Time of Troubles. Therefore, not a simple update was required, but law reform, bringing it into line with the new conditions of life.
Cathedral Code considered the public service and public life in the following main areas:

· interpreted royal power as the power of the anointed of God;

For the first time introduced the concept of "state crime". All acts directed against the king and his family were declared as such, criticism
government. The death penalty for state crimes
(the theft of the sovereign's goods was equally severely punished);

provided for punishment for crimes against the church and the patriarch;

· Regulated relations between the population and local authorities by many articles. Disobedience to the authorities was punished, but punishments were also imposed for
governor and other officials for extortion, bribes and other abuses;

attached the townspeople to the settlement; ,

· taxed the “white townsmen” - the inhabitants of the settlements that belonged to monasteries and private individuals, with a tax;

defended the interests of wealthy citizens - merchants, guests (merchants) - by the fact that severe punishments were announced for infringement on their
goodness, honor and life;

announced an "indefinite" search for peasants and their return to the estates

Thus, the last step was taken - serfdom became complete. True, the custom was still in effect - "there is no extradition from the Don." It could be
hide in Siberia, from where neither the government nor the owners had the opportunity to return the fugitive.

A legislative monument that surpassed the Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in completeness and legal elaboration - the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire in 15 volumes - appeared only in 1832 under Nicholas I. And before that, the Code had remained a code of Russian laws for almost two centuries.

(continuation 16 -2)

libraries, a theater in Moscow, and much more have been established. A characteristic feature of Russian culture under Peter I is its state character. Culture, art, education, science, Peter evaluated from the standpoint of the benefits brought to the state. Therefore, the state financed and encouraged the development of those areas of culture that were considered most necessary.

Results: Russia is a powerful state, the creation of Russian industry, the strengthening of serfdom, the decrease in the standard of living of the population, the formation of absolutism on a feudal-serf basis.

(continuation 18)

with the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. In 1745, Catherine was married to Peter Fedorovich. In 1754 their son Pavel was born. December 24, 1761 Elizaveta Petrovna died. Her nephew, under the name of Peter III, ascended the throne. In February 1762, he issued a manifesto freeing the nobility from the unconditional obligation imposed on them by Peter the Great to serve the state. On March 21, 1762, a decree appeared on the complete secularization of church lands and on the appointment of monks' salaries from the government. This measure was aimed at the complete subordination of the church to the state and caused a sharply negative reaction from the clergy. Peter III also thought about measures to increase the combat capability of the army and navy. The army was hastily rebuilt in the Prussian way, a new uniform was introduced. Both the clergy and part of the nobility were dissatisfied. Both the clergy and part of the nobility were dissatisfied. Ekaterina Alekseevna, who had long been eager for power, took advantage of this discontent. a manifesto is drawn up on Catherine's accession to the throne to save the church and state from the dangers that threatened them. On June 29, Peter III signed the act of abdication. For six months of the reign, the common people did not have time to recognize Peter III. Ekaterina Alekseevna ended up on the Russian throne, having no right to do so. Trying to justify her actions to society and history, she, with the help of the courtiers, managed to create an extremely negative image of Peter III. So, for 37 years after the death of Peter I, 6 emperors were replaced on the Russian throne. Historians are still arguing about the number of palace coups that took place during this time. What was their reason? What were their consequences? The struggle of individual figures was a reflection of the struggle between different groups of society because of class interests. The "Charter" of Peter I only made it possible to fight for the throne, to carry out palace coups, but it was not at all the reason for them. The reforms that took place during the reign of Peter I made

significant changes in the composition of the Russian nobility. The composition was distinguished by the diversity and diversity of the elements included in it. The struggle between these heterogeneous elements of the ruling class was one of the main reasons for the palace coups. There was another reason for the numerous reshuffles on and around the Russian throne. It consisted in the fact that the nobility after each new coup sought to expand their rights and privileges, as well as reduce and eliminate obligations to the state. Palace coups did not go unnoticed for Russia. Their consequences largely determined the course of the further history of the country. First of all, attention is drawn to the change in the social structure of society. Since the end of the XVIII century. life began to deal cruel blows to the ancient Russian aristocracy. Social changes also affected the peasants. Legislation more and more depersonalized the serf, erasing from him the last signs of a legally capable person. Thus, by the middle of the XVIII century. Finally, two main classes of Russian society took shape: landowning nobles and serfs.

(continuation 20 -1)

in such a way to build foreign policy relations that out of 20 years of her reign, 15 were peaceful for Russia. The time of Elizabeth is the time of Lomonosov, the heyday of Russian science and art. During her reign, such important events took place as the opening in 1755 of Moscow University, in 1760 - the Academy of Arts. The tsarina's heir was her nephew Peter III Fedorovich, grandson of Peter I in the female line and

grandson of the sister of Charles XII - male. His idol was the Prussian king Frederick II. Personality and deeds of Peter III cause controversy among historians. The most important event of his reign was the publication of the Manifesto on the "liberties of the nobility" (1762), which gave the opportunity to choose - to serve or not to serve. The secret office was liquidated. Decrees were issued to stop the search for Old Believers and to protect them from the local clergy. In June 1762, Peter III was overthrown by the guards, led by the Orlov brothers, and later killed; his wife, the future Catherine the Great (1762-1796), was enthroned.

At the end of the life of Peter I, Russia's relations with England, Denmark, Turkey became aggravated, and after his death - with France, Sweden. In the 30s of the XVIII century. The War of the Polish Succession began. The French supported the candidacy of Stanislav Leshchinsky, and the Russians and Austrians supported the candidacy of Friedrich-August (Saxony), the French fleet in Danzig was defeated, and the Russian protege August III (1733) became the Polish king. Four years went on Russian-Turkish war (1735- 1739 ). Over the years, the Russian army under the command of Minikh captured Bakhchisarai, Evpatoria, Ochakov, Azov, and Moldova. But in 1739, Austria ceased to provide military assistance to Russia and demanded to make peace. According to the Belgrade Peace Treaty, Russia returned to Turkey all the conquered cities and did not have

the right to keep ships on the Black and Azov Seas. Russia, having lost 100 thousand people, was only able to build a fortress on the Don. In 1741-1743. another war was waged with Sweden, which wanted to take revenge for the defeat in the Northern War. Russian troops under the command of General Lassi defeated the Swedes in Finland, occupied its territory, Sweden abandoned its claims. But a new war was brewing in Europe.

The main peoples of the Volga region: Mari, Mordovians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Chuvashs, Kalmyks.

The need to join the Volga region was determined both by economic reasons (fertile lands, the Volga - a trade route), and political and social (constant raids of Kazan khans and murzas on Russian lands, the desire of peoples subject to Kazan to liberation from the khan's oppression) ..

On the fragments of the Golden Horde in the Volga region, several state formations appeared: Kazan (1438), Astrakhan (1460) khanates, the Nogai Horde, as well as Bashkir nomad camps. Their existence on the eastern outskirts of the Muscovite state caused a lot of trouble with raids, although in general they did not pose a big threat. Expansion to the east was due to the need to get rid of these khanates as sources of threat (the Livonian War was coming) and obstacles to advancing to Siberia. The liquidation of the khanates corresponded to the interests of the merchants, the local peoples of the Russian Volga region, as well as the passionary inertia of the expansion of Russia.

Accession in the XV-XVI centuries. to Muscovite Rus of a vast region (with an area of ​​about 1 million km2) was an important stage in the formation of a multinational Russian state. With the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, it included a polyethnic region inhabited by a Turkic-speaking and Finno-Ugric population. The inclusion of such a huge territory with peoples of different levels of socio-economic development turned out to be a long process for the Russian administration. It began at the end of the 15th century and ended only at the beginning of the 17th century. after the Trans-Ural Bashkirs became part of Russia. The accession of the Volga region was carried out in various forms: from conquest to peaceful and voluntary recognition of dependence on Muscovite Russia.

Kazan Khanate. From 1487 to 1521 it was semi-dependent on Moscow, in 1521 Din Gireev overthrew the Moscow protege, focusing on the Crimea and Turkey. 1531-1546 - after the coup, the Moscow protege was again on the throne. In 46 he was overthrown, which was the reason for the first campaign. Only the third campaign in 1552 brought success. In August, the Sviyazhsk fortress was built, and on October 2, after the siege, Kazan was taken by storm. So the Lugovaya side of the Kazan Khanate was annexed, which ceased to exist.

The right-bank side of the Volga (the Mountainous side of the Kazan Khanate) was annexed to the Russian state in the summer of 1551 peacefully, "at the request" of its population. This was facilitated by the Chuvash and Mari (then Cheremis), who emerged from the dependence of Kazan in the mid-1540s.

The elites of the local peoples were involved in the service, the lands were kept for the estimated population, and a small yasak was appointed.

Astrakhan Khan Dervish Ali since 1554 recognized dependence on Moscow, but in 1556 he announced his withdrawal from the Russian sphere of influence. In 1558 Astrakhan was attacked, Dervish Ali fled, and Astrakhan joined without a fight.

Along the way, the Chuvash, Mordovians, part of the Bashkirs, who were part of the Kazan Khanate and the Nogai Horde, which joined in 1557, took citizenship. The Trans-Ural Bashkirs joined Russia in 1598. The flexible policy of joining new multi-ethnic regions played an important role in their entry into the subordination of Moscow.

It cannot be said that the accession was more or less peaceful. In addition to the war for Kazan, there was also an uprising ("Kazan War"), which began in 1552 and lasted until 1557. The political situation in the region did not become calm after it ended. Following this, a new uprising began in the 70-80s of the 16th century, called the "Cheremis War". However, these were only temporary obstacles to the formation of a local administration subordinate to Moscow.

Socially Mari, Chuvash, Mordovians were tributaries peasants who were directly dependent on the state. Bashkirs, Kalmyks - military service, protection of the territory of the Tatars - merchants, service people.

The main directions in integration: the resettlement of the Russian population to the annexed territories; construction of cities, roads, monasteries. However, not everywhere the policy of Ros. was well received by these peoples. AT Bashkortostan uprisings began (1662-64, 1681-84), caused by the confiscation of land for the construction of monasteries, prisons and outposts. But after that, the state stopped taking land from the Bashkirs and confirmed the patrimonial right to land. Mari population As part of the Russian state, it never experienced serfdom, the economic and legal status of the Mari peasants practically differed little from that of the Russian common people. Until the twentieth century, there was practically no Russification of the Mari. By the middle of the 18th century Chuvash they were mostly converted to Christianity, no reprisals against them, but they were not allowed to govern and did not contribute to the development of national culture. Mordva almost the same as other peoples - equal in rights. The middle of the 19th century - the opening of schools in Mordovian villages, teaching in Russian. AT Tatarstan the situation was more difficult. The Tatar people have not yet come to terms with their humiliation and have not lost hope for the restoration of their independence. Forced Christianization causes uprisings (1718, 1735, 1739), actively participated in the Pugachev region, fought for independence. From the end of the 18th to the beginning of the 19th century, a number of measures were taken - the main posts - for the Orthodox, which forced them to be baptized voluntarily, a university was opened, and the number of Orthodox missionaries increased.

The accession of these territories to Russia opened the way to Siberia, made it possible to expand trade with Iran, gave new lands for the settlement of the passionate Russian ethnos.

12. The first documents of the Soviet government and the Bolshevik party on the national question (October-November 1917): content, analysis and commentary.

After the victory in the October Revolution, the national question became an urgent problem for the Bolsheviks. The first documents of the Soviet government are devoted to this issue, that is, the Decree on Peace, the Declaration of the Rights of Peoples, the Appeal to the working Muslims of Russia and the East.

Declaration of the Rights of Peoples proclaimed:

Equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia (which meant independence in domestic and foreign policy);

· the right of the nation to self-determination up to the formation of an independent state (each nation has the right to choose its own form of government), which nullified the status of the Russian ethnos as a state-forming one;

All national and religious privileges were abolished;

The free development of national minorities and ethno-geographic groups was proclaimed, which constituted the theoretical and legal basis of the Jewish ethnos, that is, it has the right to be equated with the oppressed nations of the Russian Empire, regardless of the class division, the Jews received all rights, which meant full rights, regardless of social class accessories.

This document meant, in fact, that the Bolsheviks distanced themselves from the national policy of the Provisional Government and tsarism, it marked the beginning of falsification. (It was proclaimed that tsarism set the peoples against each other, the results of this were pogroms and massacres, the slavery of peoples, distrust was passed on the policy of the Provisional Government). Also in this document, a complimentary approach to all peoples was manifested (all are equal, all nations). The main drawback of the Declaration of the Rights of Peoples was that the Bolsheviks did not specify the form of the state, they only said "an honest and voluntary union of peoples."

Another document of the Soviet government was Peace Decree , it had 4 main provisions:

· 3-month truce;

participation of all peoples in the conclusion of peace;

· a democratic world without winners and losers, without annexations and indemnities;

Rejection of secret diplomacy.

Two principles of relations between peoples were proclaimed: equality and self-determination. The point on annexation is interesting, because this is the legal basis for the collapse of the Russian state and the entire system of international relations, since annexation was understood as any accession by a large and strong state of a weak or small nationality without its clear, precise, voluntary consent or desire, regardless of when it was done . It also meant a split in the Russian ethnos, since the Russian workers and peasants are the bearers of the idea of ​​a democratic world, and the Russian landlords wanted to expand their territories. The Decree on Peace also had an anti-Russian orientation, since secret diplomacy contributed to the expansion of the Great Russians.

Another document that appeared in the period of October-November 1917 and was of a national character is Appeal to the working Muslims of Russia and the East :

freedom of beliefs, customs and national cult institutions

secret treaties of the deposed king on the capture of Constantinople destroyed

· the agreement on the division of Turkey and the seizure of Armenia from it is torn and destroyed. As soon as hostilities cease, the Armenians will be guaranteed the right to freely determine their political destiny.

rupture of the agreement on the division of Persia, the withdrawal of troops

The main idea of ​​the document is that the October Revolution brings liberation to the peoples of the East. The falsification of the policy of tsarism continued (it was said that mosques were destroyed and so on, and the main principles of the national policy of tsarism were proclaimed as the achievements of the October Revolution); approach to the foreign policy of tsarism was critical.

Expansion of the territory of the Russian state. Accession of the Kazan, Astrakhan khanates, the territory of the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia.

The main tasks in the field of Russian foreign policy in the XVI century. were:

In the west - the need to have access to the Baltic Sea,

In the southeast and east - the struggle with the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the beginning of the development of Siberia,

In the south - the protection of the country from the raids of the Crimean Khan.

Appendix 21 to topic 3.1. Foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible.

Formed as a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates constantly threatened the Russian lands.

They held the Volga trade route in their hands.

Finally, these were areas of fertile land, which the Russian nobility had long dreamed of.

The peoples of the Volga region - Mari, Mordovians, Chuvashs - aspired to liberation.

The solution to the problem of the subordination of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates was possible in two ways.:

Either plant their proteges in these states,

Or conquer them.

After a series of unsuccessful diplomatic attempts to subjugate the Kazan Khanate in 1552, the 150,000th army of Ivan IV besieged Kazan, which at that time represented a first-class military fortress .

To facilitate the task of taking Kazan, a wooden fortress was built in the upper reaches of the Volga (near Uglich), which was disassembled and floated down the Volga to the confluence of the Sviyaga River. The city of Sviyazhsk was built here, which became the stronghold of the struggle for Kazan. The construction of this fortress was headed by a talented master, the first Russian military engineer Ivan Vyrodkov ( the portrait has not survived). He also supervised the construction of mine tunnels and siege devices.

Kazan was taken by storm October 2, 1552 As a result of the explosion of 48 barrels of gunpowder laid in the mines, part of the wall of the Kazan Kremlin was destroyed. Through gaps in the wall, Russian troops broke into the city. Khan Yadigir-Magmet was taken prisoner.

Appendix 22 to topic 3.1. Triptych "The Capture of Kazan".

Subsequently, the khan was baptized, received the name Simeon Kasaevich, became the owner of Zvenigorod and an active ally of the king.

Four years after the capture of Kazan in 1556 was attached Astrakhan . Chuvashia and most of Bashkiria voluntarily became part of Russia. Dependence on Russia was recognized by the Nogai Horde.

Thus, the new fertile lands and the entire Volga trade route became part of Russia. The Russian lands were spared from the invasions of the Khan's troops. Russia's ties with the peoples of the North Caucasus and Central Asia have expanded.

The annexation of Kazan and Astrakhan opened up the possibility of advancing to Siberia.

Wealthy merchants - industrialists Stroganovs received letters from Ivan the Terrible to own land along the Tobol River. At their own expense, they formed a detachment of 840 (according to other sources 600) people from free Cossacks, led by Ermak Timofeevich. In 1581, Yermak with his army penetrated the territory of the Siberian Khanate, and a year later defeated the troops of Khan Kuchum and took his capital Kashlyk (Isker).

Appendix 23 to topic 3.1. Portrait of Yermak.

The accession of the Volga region and Siberia was generally positive for the peoples of this region: they became part of the state, which was at a higher level of economic and cultural development.

The local ruling class eventually became part of the Russian one.

In connection with the beginning of development in the XVI century. territory of the Wild Field(fertile land south of Tula) the Russian government was faced with the task of strengthening the southern borders from the raids of the Crimean Khan.

For this purpose, Tula (from the middle of the 16th century) and Belgorodskaya (in the 30s - 40s of the 17th century) were built. notch features- defensive lines, consisting of the blockages of the forest - notches, in between which they set up wooden fortresses - prisons, which closed the passages in the notches for the Tatar cavalry.

Ivan the Terrible for 25 years (1558-1583) waged a stubborn and exhausting struggle for the mastery of the Baltic, which is known as Livonian War. However, after such powerful military states of that time as the Commonwealth and Sweden entered the war against Russia, military failures began to haunt the Russian troops. In the Livonian War, Russia was ultimately defeated. She lost access to the Gulf of Finland.

The country was devastated, the central and northwestern territories were depopulated. The negative consequences of the Livonian War to a large extent subsequently affected the emergence of such a phenomenon in Russian history as the Time of Troubles.

Nevertheless, by the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the territory of the country had increased by more than 10 times compared to the times of Ivan III and was a huge empire stretching from the shores of the White Sea to the Caspian Sea and from the Urals to the borders with the Commonwealth.

5. Dynastic crisis at the end of the XVI century. Board of Boris Godunov. "Time of Troubles": imposture, civil war, Polish-Swedish intervention. The rise of national consciousness, the restoration of Russian statehood.

The turbulent events of the beginning of the 17th century in Russia were called " Time of Troubles" or "Trouble". It was a period of general disobedience, numerous peasant and Cossack unrest and uprisings, a rapid change of kings and political orientation of people, as well as a period of foreign intervention.

The reasons for the Troubles were the aggravation of social, estate, dynastic and international relations at the end of the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible and under his successors.

In the development of the Troubles, several stages:

1. First - 1598 - 1605 −

dynastic and political crises:

The suppression of the Rurik dynasty,

Election of Boris Godunov

The struggle for power among the elite, the appearance in Poland of False Dmitry I; economic crisis:

Hunger and flight of peasants;

2. Second - 1605 - 1610 -

social crisis:

- the reign of the impostor False Dmitry I,

The reign and overthrow of Shuisky,

Peasant war led by I. Bolotnikov,

Moscow's loss of the importance of the political center and the emergence of "thieves' capitals",

The betrayal of the boyars,

Active intervention of the Poles in internal Moscow affairs;

3. Third - 1610 - 1613 −

national crisis:

The actual collapse of the state,

Open Polish-Swedish intervention and a clear threat of loss of independence,

Claims of Sigismund III to the throne of Moscow.

Appendix 24 to topic 3.1. Scheme "Time of Troubles. Causes of the Time of Troubles.

Appendix 25 to topic 3.1. Scheme "Time of Troubles".

The Livonian War (1558–1583) and the oprichnina led to the economic ruin of the country and increased exploitation of the peasants and townspeople. As a result, a mass exodus of peasants from the central regions to the Don began. This deprived landowners of workers, and the state - taxpayers.

The measures taken by the government to address this problem led to the approval serfdom in Russia.

In the XIV-XV centuries. peasants who lived on the lands of feudal lords had the right to freely transfer from one owner to another and often used this right.

At the end of the XVI century. A number of decrees were issued that limited and then abolished this right. In 1597, a royal decree was issued on a five-year period for the investigation of fugitive peasants (the so-called " school summers"). The adoption of serfdom led to an aggravation of social contradictions in the country and created the basis for mass popular uprisings in the 17th century.

At the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries, the dynastic crisis contributed to the increased instability in the country..

Dynastic crisis at the end of the XVI century. Board of Boris Godunov.

After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible in 1584, the throne passed to his son Fedor Ivanovich.

Appendix 26 to topic 3.1. Portrait of Fyodor Ivanovich.

However, he was unable to govern the state.

In fact, power was in the hands of the boyar Boris Godunov- the brother of the wife of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich.

The youngest son of Ivan IV the Terrible was only two years old. He lived in Uglich with his mother Maria Naga, who was the seventh wife of Ivan the Terrible.

Tsar Fedor was childless, and in the event of his death, Tsarevich Dmitry became the heir to the throne. However, in 1591 Tsarevich Dmitry died mysteriously. According to the official version, the child stabbed himself with a knife in an epileptic seizure.

However, many contemporaries believed that the prince was stabbed to death by assassins sent by Boris Godunov. After the death of Fyodor Ivanovich in 1598, the ruling dynasty of Rurikovich ceased to exist.

Zemsky Sobor elected tsar in 1598 Boris Godunov.

Appendix 27 to topic 3.1. Portrait of Boris Godunov.

During the reign of Boris Godunov, the difficult situation of the population worsened famine of 1601–1603 During the famine, about 1/3 of the population of the country died. People explained this disaster as the wrath of God for the sins of the illegal Tsar Boris. Rumors began to spread that Tsarevich Dmitry was alive.

"Time of Troubles": imposture, civil war, Polish-Swedish intervention.

In 1602, the first impostor. This was a man who called himself Tsarevich Dmitry and the rightful heir to the throne.

False Dmitry I, officially calling himself Tsarevich (then Tsar) Dmitry Ioannovich, in relations with foreign states - Emperor Dimitri (lat. Demetreus Imperator) (d. May 17, 1606) - Tsar of Russia from June 1, 1605 to May 17 (27), 1606, according to the established in historiography, he is an impostor who pretended to be the miraculously saved youngest son of Ivan IV the Terrible - Tsarevich Dmitry. The first of three impostors who called themselves the son of Ivan the Terrible and claimed the Russian throne.

Appendix 28 to topic 3.1. Portrait of False Dmitry I.

The identification of False Dmitry I with the fugitive monk of the Chudov Monastery, Grigory Otrepiev, was first put forward as an official version by the government of Boris Godunov in his correspondence with King Sigismund. Currently, this version has the most supporters.

Successful reforms carried out by Tsar Ivan the Terrible and the “chosen council” helped Russia win the Kazan War and annex the Middle Volga region to Russia in 1552. Conditions were created for the conquest of the Lower Volga region. The Moscow authorities intervened in the struggle between princes Yusuf and Ismail for power in the Nogai Horde. In the spring of 1554, under the pretext of helping Ismail, a ship's army was sent to the Lower Volga region, commanded by the governors of Prince. Yu.I. Pronsky-Shemyakin and M.P. Golovin. After the defeat at the Black Island by the reconnaissance detachment of Prince. A. Vyazemsky advanced detachment of the Astrakhans, protege of the Nogai prince. Yusuf Astrakhan Khan Yamgurchey fled from Astrakhan to Azov. The tsarist troops occupied the capital of the Astrakhan Khanate, vassal from the Nogai Horde, without a fight. Dervish-Ali was proclaimed the new khan, who, unlike the previous khans, recognized vassal dependence on Russia, and not on the Nogai Horde. A small Russian garrison of 500 servicemen, led by Ambassador P. Turgenev, was left in the city. In 1555, Khan Yamgurchi with Crimeans, Turks and Nogays unsuccessfully tried to recapture Astrakhan from the Russians. Khan Dervish-Ali entered into an agreement with Kazy-Murza, who was in the army of Yamgurchey, and the children of Prince. Yusuf, who killed the former Astrakhan Khan. It soon became clear that the conspirators were pursuing their own goals, about which Ambassador P. Turgenev did not fail to inform the tsar. However, Ivan the Terrible took the side of Dervish-Ali and replaced the former ambassador with L. Mansurov. In the winter of 1555-1556, Dervish Ali and his henchmen treacherously attacked the Russian garrison in Astrakhan and killed several dozen people. Ambassador L. Mansurov escaped from Astrakhan with 350 servicemen and took refuge with free Cossacks on Perevoloka in the town of Zimyevo. In the spring of 1556, I. the Terrible sent a new ship's army to Astrakhan, commanded by the archery heads I. Cheremisinov and T. Teterin. However, even before the arrival of the royal heads, Astrakhan was captured by a detachment of free Cossacks, led by ataman Lyapun Filimonov. The tsarist governors occupied the city without a fight and took urgent measures to strengthen it. Then they inflicted a crushing defeat on Dervish-Ali and the Nogai Murzas and Crimeans who came to his aid. At the same time, Ataman L. Filimonov and his detachment ravaged the uluses of Dervish-Ali's adherents. The last Astrakhan Khan was forced to flee to Azov. The Astrakhan Khanate was liquidated. The Lower Volga region became part of Russia.

History of the name Tsaritsyn

From the founding of the city of Tsaritsyn to the present, centuries have passed. However, there is still no consensus in explaining the origin of the name Tsaritsyn. At first glance, it seems simple: Tsaritsyn means "city of the queen", and the river that crosses our city and flows into the Volga is also called the Tsaritsa. But the names of rivers appeared earlier than the names of cities and villages. Consequently, the city is named after the river. The name Tsaritsa arose before the appearance of the Russians on the banks of the river. One of the legends tells about the Tatar queen, who loved to walk along the banks of this river and gave her her name.
However, most of all, the truth, apparently, is that the name of the river and the city is of Tatar or, possibly, Bulgarian (in some chronicles about the Volga region, the Bulgarian city of Saritson is named) origin. The Tatar word "Sary-su" means yellow water. And the water in the Tsaritsa has been yellow since time immemorial: along the way, it receives rain streams into its bosom. Or else: the city began on a sandy island, in Tatar "Sara-chin" - a yellow island. The “Yellow” river, as researchers believe, carried its muddy waters to the Volga and washed up a small island at the mouth (the name of the city of Saratov is also associated with the word SARY - yellow and TAU - mountain, that is, “yellow mountain”).
A small settlement first grew on this island, and then a wooden fortress. In 1589, the city of Tsaritsyn was founded on the basis of the fortress. At the end of the 90s of the XVI century. from the island, the city was moved to the right bank of the Volga and became known as the "New City", and then Tsaritsyn. According to other sources, after the conquest of the Middle Volga, the Russians moved the settlement from the island and gave it the name Tsaritsyn, slightly changing the name SARY-CHIN (and according to Nikonov's dictionary from SARYGSHIN, which means "yellowish", or SARY-SU).
There is also a version that the name of the city of Tsaritsyn comes from Ivan the Terrible, who built a fortress on the Volga in 1556 in honor of his wife Anastasia.
So, the final name of the city was established - Tsaritsyn. It is interpreted in Russian as “the city of the queen”, and the word “tsaritsa” was formed from “tsar” (in the Old Russian language “ruler, sovereign”, as well as the title of the Tatar Khan). "Tsar" goes back to the all-Slavic TsSAR (as a designation of the Byzantine emperor - XI century), also related: Julius Caesar (in Italy), tsesarevich, tsesarevna (in Russia).

Tsaritsyn in the Time of Troubles

The Time of Troubles is a period in the history of our country, the beginning of the 17th century, when internal contradictions that took on the character of a civil war and foreign intervention called into question the existence of the Russian state itself. All segments of the population and regions of the country were put in opposition. These events did not pass and Tsaritsyn.

The fate of the voivode during the turmoil (1598-1613)

According to the "Discharge records for the Time of Troubles" it is known that in the first half of 1605 the governor in Tsaritsyn was Pyotr Petrovich Golovin-Menshoy. And from the second half of 1605 to the beginning of 1606 - Fedor Petrovich Akinfiev, which, during the uprising of the archers and gunners of the Tsaritsyno garrison, was tied up and delivered by the rebels to Astrakhan, along with the tsarist ambassador, Prince Romodanovsky, who was coming from Persia. Both of them were executed there for refusing to swear allegiance to the impostor False Dmitry I. Until 1615, information about the governors of Tsaritsyn and Saratov has not been found in any sources to date.

Events of unrest

And the time in Russia was alarming. The greatest danger was the Polish-Lithuanian intervention; in July 1606, the anti-feudal uprising of Ivan Isaevich Bolotnikov thundered like thunder. Moreover, judging by some of the surviving archival documents relating to the Time of Troubles, unrest in the Lower Volga region and on the Don broke out even before the start of this uprising.

The class contradictions in our region became especially aggravated after the death in April 1605 of Boris Godunov and his son Tsarevich Fyodor; the influence of False Dmitry I increased (hopes were associated with him to alleviate his position).

Astrakhan governor M. B. Saburov, under these conditions, does not dare to oppose False Dmitry, fearing to lose his post in Astrakhan. Waiting. However, he still had to yield his post to Prince Khvorostinin, one of the boyars devoted to the impostor, sent by False Dmitry I.

In autumn, Ilya Gorchakov (Ileyka Muromets) appeared on the Lower Volga, he declared himself "Tsarevich Peter", the son of Tsar Fedor.

Ileyka's detachment sowed panic among the boyars, landlords, and merchants; The rebels seized merchant ships and plundered cities. Then they announced a campaign up the Volga to their "uncle" False Dmitry I in Moscow. Ten versts away, before reaching the city of Sviyazhsk, Muromets learns that his "Dmitry" was killed by the boyars in the Kremlin (May 17, 1606), turns his army back to the Lower Volga region. The Cossacks of Muromets participated in the battles against the troops of Tsar Vasily Shuisky. After the defeat of the rebels, he was captured by the tsarist governors and executed.

Shortly before his death, False Dmitry I decides to appoint the boyar Sheremetyev as the new governor of Astrakhan; with a large detachment Sheremetyev goes to the Lower Volga. Vasily Shuisky, who ascended the throne, upheld the decision to replace the Astrakhan governor, sending Sheremetyev a letter outlining new instructions.

Meanwhile, another self-proclaimed pretender to the royal throne appeared on the Lower Volga - Ivashka-Aigust, a typical representative of the low freemen. With a large detachment of Cossacks, he went to Astrakhan, where he was received. Voivode Khvorostinin, who refused to obey the tsar's will, also cheered up; on June 17, 1606, he announced the deposition of Astrakhan from Moscow. Sheremetyev received Shuisky's diploma only on June 25, 1606.

During the Astrakhan events, the Tsaritsyn garrison was still on the side of the Shuisky government. But soon a rumor spread in the city that "Tsarevich Dmitry" was alive, and an uprising broke out. The Tsaritsyns tied up their voivode Fyodor Petrovich Akinfov and, together with the tsar's ambassador, Prince Romodanovsky, sent him to Astrakhan, where they were executed.

Witnesses of unrest in Tsaritsyn unwillingly turned out to be Carmelites - English monks heading to Persia. They patiently waited for Sheremetyev to liberate Astrakhan. And time went on and on ... In July 1607, a detachment of Ivashka-Aigust entered Tsaritsyn, and in early August they arrived in Astrakhan. They were kindly received by Khvorostinin.

In the difficult period of the Polish intervention for Russia, in the militia units created at the call of Minin and Pozharsky, thousands of representatives of the Volga freemen and the slanderous Cossacks of the Don defended the independence of the Motherland. The adventurer Zarutsky, who made his way to Astrakhan with Marina Mnishek, tried to carry out his plan - to transfer Astrakhan and the Lower Volga region under the rule of the Persian Shah Abbas. However, the Astrakhan garrison and the entire population of the city on April 15, 1614 unanimously opposed Zarutsky. The traitor was forced to flee with Marina Mnishek and a handful of his followers to Yaik (Ural), where he fell into the hands of the Yaik Cossacks; On May 27, 1614, the governor of Missyur Solovtsov brought him to Tsaritsyn.

The government troops managed to gain a foothold in Astrakhan and other cities of the Volga region. Nevertheless, only towards the end of 1614 did the anti-feudal uprisings begin to wane, although the boyars and landlords failed to eradicate the age-old dream of freedom from the minds of the oppressed masses.

The government of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645) was faced with the urgent task of restoring cities and fortresses in the Volga region. There is little money in the royal treasury. I had to focus on the most important military-strategic facilities. In the Lower Volga region, the choice fell on Tsaritsyn, which is quite natural. The voivode Missyura Solovtsov, who was well acquainted with the Lower Volga region and the practice of building fortresses, was entrusted with reviving the city. In 1607, he was with Sheremetyev as an envoy to the Nogai princes and murzas, in 1609, with a detachment of archers and craftsmen, Solovtsov did an excellent job. For the quick construction of the city and the prison of Tsaritsyn, six masters of carpentry were awarded the royal award.

9. Don Cossacks: discussions about the origin in the fatherland literature
The origin of the ethnonym "Cossack" is not fully understood. Versions of its etymology are based either on its ethnicity (Cossack is a derivative of the name of the descendants of Kasogs or Torks and Berendeys, Cherkas or Brodniks), or on social content (the word Cossack is of Turkic origin, they were called either a free, free, independent person, or a military guard on the border). At various stages of the existence of the Cossacks, it included Russians, Ukrainians, representatives of some steppe nomads, the peoples of the North Caucasus, Siberia, Central Asia, and the Far East. By the beginning of the XX century. the Cossacks were completely dominated by the East Slavic ethnic basis. So, the Cossacks are a sub-ethnos of the Great Russian ethnos.
There are many scientific theories of the origin of the Cossacks.
All theories of the origin of the Cossacks are divided into two large groups: the theories of the fugitive and migratory, that is, alien, and autochthonous.
· According to autochthonous theories, the ancestors of the Cossacks lived in Kabarda, were the descendants of the Caucasian Circassians, a conglomerate of Kasags, Circassians, Pechenegs, Torks, Berendeys, and Brodniks.
· According to migration theories, the ancestors of the Cossacks are freedom-loving Russian people who fled beyond the borders of the Russian and Polish-Lithuanian states either due to natural historical reasons (the provisions of the theory of colonization) or under social influence (the provisions of the theory of class struggle).
· The history of the Don Cossacks is traced back to the Christian population of the Khazar Khaganate (jasses and kasogs, which for their Caucasian origin were called Cherkasy, and for hats - black hoods). Back to the slopes and to the conquest in 1462 by the Russians of the limits of the Horde, Azov and “Metorian” (methorischen) in the history of the Don Cossacks, Karl von Plotho also considered it necessary to turn, in his book published in Berlin in 1811. It was they who after the Tatar-Mongol invasion became parishioners of the Golden Horde Sarai diocese.
In the pre-Mongolian period, they were also called wanderers, the Cossacks as a separate army or sub-ethnos did not yet exist. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Don divided the steppe into the western (Crimean) and eastern (Nogai) sides. The resulting vacuum led to the appearance of the Cossacks in the steppe.
· The second version proceeds from the idea of ​​the complete depopulation of the Don land in the era of the Tatar-Mongol invasion (that is, the complete disappearance of the pre-Mongolian Christian population of the Don) and the settlement of it by Russian fugitives from a “clean slate”. The main flow of fugitive peasants was directed from the Ryazan principality, where the Cossacks have been known since 1444. The seafaring and pirate traditions of the Cossacks are apparently associated with settlers from the Novgorod region.
Ø Cossacks lived in the Don, the North Caucasus, the Urals, the Far East, in Siberia.
Ø Cossack communities were part of a specific Cossack army.
Ø The language of the Cossacks is Russian. In the Cossack environment, a number of dialects are noted: Don, Kuban, Ural, Orenburg and others.
Ø The Cossacks used Russian writing.
Ø By 1917, there were 4 million 434 thousand Cossacks of both sexes.

The Cossacks united in special state-political, socio-economic and ethno-cultural formations - Cossack communities, later moving into large structures - troops that received names on a territorial basis. The supreme body of self-government was the general meeting of the male population (circle, council). All the important affairs of the army were decided on it, the military chieftain, the military government were elected. In the field of civil and military organization, internal administration, courts, and external relations, the Cossacks were completely independent.

10. The Don Army in the 16-17 centuries: a socio-political organization, occupations of the Don Cossacks. The relationship between the Don Cossacks and the Moscow government.
In the 16th century, communities of free Cossack people appeared on the Don and the Lower Volga. According to one theory, the Cossacks are considered the descendants of the pre-Mongolian population of the Don and Volga steppes - either Sarmatians and Khazars, or Slavs who came from Russia. The Cossacks arose only in the 16th century and consisted of people who fled from Russia due to ruin and increased exploitation. Most historians believe that the Cossacks originally arose during the collapse of the Golden Horde, when the Tatar warriors left without a livelihood went to the steppe and began to lead an independent life.

The very word "Cossack" is of Turkic origin and means "a lonely non-family person who does not have a home." Then in the middle of the 16th century. a stream of fugitives from the Russian government poured into the Don and Volga. These were ruined service people - nobles and archers.
in the 2nd quarter of the 16th century they were united into one organization - the Don Army, constantly fortified settlements appeared - small towns. The Cossacks were engaged in hunting and fishing, but the main occupation for them was the robbery of merchant caravans on rivers and overland roads, as well as sea raids on the Turkish and Crimean coasts.
An important source of income was the service to the Moscow Tsar. The Cossacks participated in the capture of Kazan and Astrakhan by Russian troops, participated in the Livonian War. Cossacks were also attracted by the Russian government to guard the trade route along the Volga, for which they received a salary. The first of the known royal letters to the Cossacks dates back to 1570. Addressing it "to the Don in the Lower and Upper Yurts to the Atamans and Cossacks," Ivan the Terrible instructed them to accompany the Russian ambassadors who were going to the Tatars.

The Don Cossacks occupied modern Rostov, as well as parts of the Volgograd, Voronezh, Lugansk regions and Kalmykia. The Don Cossacks were the most numerous among the groups of Russian Cossacks. During the wars, the Cossacks chose a marching ataman with unlimited power. The army was divided into hundreds and fifty, led by centurions, Pentecostals and cornets.
In order to capture military booty, the Don people organized raids on Turkish possessions along the coasts of the Azov and Black Seas, as well as on the coast of the Caspian Sea. In the course of social stratification, two groups of Cossacks emerged: homely (or old-timers), mostly grassroots, and golutvennye (golytba), mainly from fugitive peasants who accumulated in the upper reaches of the Don, who did not acquire a household and easily joined raids and uprisings. Golytba was one of the main driving forces behind the uprising led by Stepan Razin.
From the 17th century, the Russian government used the Don Cossacks not only to protect the southern borders, but also in wars with Turkey and Poland. For service, salaries were given in money, gunpowder, lead, cloth and bread. The affairs of the Don Cossack army were in charge of the Posolsky order, with which it was sent by sending "light" and more long-term "winter villages". In 1637, the Don Cossacks captured Azov from the Turks and, having withstood a three and a half month siege, held it until 1642. The Don Cossack army also participated in the Azov campaigns (1695-1696).

Violation of the autonomous rights of the Don Cossacks, prohibiting them from accepting fugitive peasants, caused the Bulavin uprising (1707-1709), after the suppression of which the Don Cossack army was subordinated to the Military Collegium. In 1718, the election of chieftains was actually abolished, and from 1754 - and of the military foreman. After the suppression of the Bulavinsky uprising, up to two thousand Cossack families, led by ataman I. Nekrasov, fled to the Kuban, and then to Turkey. Some of their descendants returned to Russia at the beginning of the 19th century.
In 1763 compulsory lifelong military service for the Cossacks was introduced in Russia. During the Peasant War (1773-1775), under the leadership of the Don Cossack E.I. Pugachev, the Don was occupied by units of the regular army and finally lost its independence.

Relations between the Don and Moscow troops in the 17th century were characterized by a number of significant signs of suzerainty-vassalage established between the Russian sovereign and the Don Cossacks: the existence of a mutual agreement - on the service of the Cossacks, on the one hand, and on salaries and benefits to the Cossacks from the government, on the other; patronage of Russia over the Don; the presence on the Don of the royal banner.

The vassal was the Don army, which was formed as an association of the entire Don Cossacks after the Time of Troubles. Suzerainty-vassalage allowed him at the same time to maintain close relations with the Russian government, using its support, and to have freedom unheard of anywhere else on Russian soil, with the exception of the Cossack communities on other rivers - the Terek and Yaik.

However, already in the 20s of the 17th century, the government felt how seriously the independence of the Don army was contrary to its political interests. While conducting active hostilities on land and at sea against Azov, the Crimea and Turkey, the Cossacks were not at all inclined to take into account either the nature of the Russian-Crimean and Russian-Turkish relations of that time, or the tasks that were set by the Russian authorities in the international arena. No measures of influence on the Don army helped: neither exhortations in royal letters with a reminder of how bad it was for the Cossacks "under the former sovereigns of Moscow, and especially under Tsar Boris", nor the threat of excommunication from the church, nor even the arrest in 1625 in Moscow ataman of the winter village Alexei Stary and five Cossacks and their exile to Beloozero.

Cossack attacks on Turkey and the Crimea continued throughout the 1920s. They seriously complicated Russia's relations with these states and created certain obstacles on the way to solving the main foreign policy problem facing Russia after the Time of Troubles - the return of Smolensk and the western lands, torn away in 1618 by the Commonwealth.

Relations between Moscow and the Don army began to escalate especially sharply from 1629, on the eve of the war between Russia and Poland. In the royal letter to the Don of October 6, the Cossacks are even named as “villains, enemies of the cross of Christ” and an unprecedented demand was put forward for the extradition of the Cossacks participating in the campaign against the Crimea. This predetermined the crisis in the relationship between the army and the Russian government in 1630-1632, which was relatively quickly overcome, since both sides quickly became convinced of the mutual disadvantage of breaking existing ties. The restored benevolent attitude of the central government towards the army was one of the important factors that contributed to the capture of Azov by the Cossacks in 1637 and the siege sitting in it until 1642, which again revealed contradictions in the relationship between the central government and the army. After the refusal of the Moscow authorities to accept the Azov conquered by the Cossacks and the abandonment of the fortress, the Don people found themselves in a very difficult situation. Returning, the Turks began to do everything possible to “knock down” them from the Lower Don. In addition, the army was weakened after the epic of Azov. In order to prevent the consolidation of the Turks on the Lower Don, the Moscow government made attempts to strengthen the Don army.

At the same time, Moscow made efforts to change the nature of relations with the army. From the middle of the 17th century, the situation on the Don began to change, and a new crisis arose in relations between the troops and Moscow, which coincided with the beginning of the Razin movement. The defeat of the Razintsy led to the first violation by the military foreman of the rule of non-extradition of people from the Don: the Razin brothers, Stepan and Frol, were extradited to the government. This was followed by the oath of the Don army to the Russian sovereign and a change in the nature of his relationship with Moscow. The content of these changes was that there was a gradual transformation of the Don from a vassal republic into an integral part of Russia, which enjoyed wide autonomy. At the same time, most of the Cossacks sought to preserve the old liberties and rights, as well as the independence of the Cossack republic. Since the last third of the 17th century, contradictions have constantly accumulated in relations between the Cossacks and the tsarist government, which manifested themselves in the performance of the Don Old Believers in 1686-1689, and in the conflict over the salt pans at Bakhmut, and in the uprising led by K. Bulavin.

The efforts of the Moscow authorities to change the nature of relations with the Don army were associated with the weakening of the Cossack organization after the Azov siege and the measures that the Russian government took to increase its numbers in the 1640s.

First of all, in Moscow they tried to change the procedure for receiving the tsar's envoy to the Don. If earlier it was allowed for him to go to the Military Circle, now in the Ambassadorial Order they began to demand that the Cossacks themselves go to the camp to the envoy, accept the royal salary there and thereby recognize him as a higher party than the highest authority on the Don - Military circle. However, the Cossacks, for their part, resolutely refused to go to the embassy camp.

Since both sides stood their ground, and the government did not yet have the opportunity to force the Cossacks to act in accordance with its requirements, a mutually acceptable solution was found. The transfer of salaries took place in a neutral place - at the chapel in Cherkasy town.

After the Crimean Party, hostile to Russia, came to power in the Kazan Khanate in 1521 and the resumption of raids on the Russian border lands, one of the main foreign policy tasks of the Moscow government became the military defeat of this Tatar state. The start of campaigns against Kazan was somewhat delayed by a period of internal instability in the Russian state, which came after the death of Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya. The first campaign began in 1545. The Moscow ship's army of Prince S.I. Mikulinsky, I.B. Sheremetev and Prince D.I. its surroundings and returned back. Acting separately from the main forces, the Perm militia of the governor V. Lvov was surrounded by the Tatars and defeated.

At the end of 1547, a new campaign against Kazan took place. When the Moscow army, in December speaking to Vladimir, where it was joined by regiments that came from other Russian lands, was Tsar Ivan IV. Due to the unusually warm winter, the army reached Nizhny Novgorod only at the end of January and moved to the borders of the Kazan Khanate. Part of the "wall-toting outfit" (siege artillery) drowned in the Volga, while crossing the river. While waiting for the end of the campaign, Ivan IV returned to Moscow. The chief governor, Prince D.F. Belsky, was able to reach Kazan and defeated the troops of Khan Safa-Girey in the battle on the Arsk field, however, having lost many people during the siege, he left the city to the Russian border.

The campaign of 1549–1550 was also unsuccessful. It became inevitable after Moscow received on March 25, 1549, the news of the death of Khaia Safa Giray. Kazanians tried to get a new "king" from the Crimea, but their ambassadors failed in their mission. As a result, the two-year-old son of Safa-Girey, Utemysh-Girey, was proclaimed the new khan, in whose name his mother, khansha Syuyun-Bike, began to rule. The Russian government decided to take advantage of the dynastic crisis in Kazan and deliver a powerful blow to the Tatar Khanate. Metropolitan Macarius and Bishop Sava of Krutitsa, who had specially arrived in Vladimir, saw off the army on the campaign. The metropolitan's message contains an extremely important call addressed to governors and boyar children: to go on a campaign "without places." Having received the blessing of the metropolitan, the tsar, at the head of the assembled regiments, set out "for his own cause and for the zemstvo" to Nizhny Novgorod, from where on January 23, 1550, the Russian army headed down the Volga to the Tatar land.

The regiments arrived near Kazan on February 12 and began to prepare for the siege of a well-fortified fortress. However, weather conditions were again not on their side. According to the chroniclers, “at that time ... sputum was immeasurable; and it’s not powerful to shoot from cannons and squeakers, and it’s impossible to approach the city for sputum. and warmth and sputum are great; small rivers have been spoiled, and many others have passed, but it is not desirable to approach the city for sputum. On February 25, 1550, the siege was lifted and the Russian army left for their cities.

The main reason for the failure of these campaigns was the inability to establish the correct supply of troops. To remedy the situation, in 1551, at the mouth of the Sviyash River (20 versts from Kazan), the Russian fortress Sviyazhsk was built, which became a Russian outpost in the Kazan Khanate. It was built in just four weeks, despite the miscalculation of the builders, who incorrectly determined the length of the walls of the future city. This is clearly stated in the annals: "The city, which was brought from above, became half of that mountain, and the other half of the governor and the children of the boyars immediately made their own people."

The main set of walls and towers, as well as living quarters and two temples of the future stronghold in the winter of 1550-1551. prepared on the Upper Volga in the Uglitsky district, in the patrimony of the Ushatykh princes. The sovereign clerk I. G. Vyrodkov supervised its construction, who was to not only build a fortress, but then deliver it disassembled to the mouth of the Sviyaga. This complex engineering operation was accompanied by a number of measures designed to change the course of hostilities against the Volga Tatars.

The main role in the action of covering the fortification work on the Round Mountain was assigned to the raid of Prince PS Serebryany, who received the order in the spring of 1551 to go with the regiments "we will expel them to the Kazan settlement." At the same time, the Vyatka army of B. Zyuzin and the Volga Cossacks were to occupy all the transportation along the main transport arteries of the khanate: the Volga, Kama and Vyatka. To help Zyuzin, 2.5 thousand foot Cossacks were sent from Meshchera, led by atamans Severga and Elka. They had to go through the "Field" to the Volga and "do the courts and go up the Volga to fight the Kazan places." The further chronicle of this war mentions Ataman Severga in connection with his actions in Vyatka as part of the army of the governor Zyuzin, which indicates the successful completion of the Cossack campaign from Meshchera to the Volga. Other detachments of service Cossacks operated in the Lower Volga region. Nuradin (the title of the heir to the ruler of the Nogai Horde) Ishmael complained about them to Tsar Ivan IV, who wrote that his Cossacks "took away both banks from the Volga and took away our will and our uluses are fighting."

The army of Prince Serebryany set out from Nizhny Novgorod to Kazan on May 16, 1551, and already on May 18 was under the walls of the city. The attack came as a complete surprise to the Tatars. Russian soldiers managed to break into the settlement and, using the surprise of their attack, inflict significant damage on the enemy. However, Kazan managed to seize the initiative from the attackers, pushing them back to the ships. During the counterattack, 50 archers were surrounded and captured along with the archer centurion A. Skoblev.

Having retreated from Kazan, the army of Prince Serebryany camped on the Sviyaga River, waiting for the arrival of Shah Ali's army and the delivery of the main structures of the future fortress. A huge river caravan set off in April, and approached the Round Mountain only at the end of May 1551.

In April, the army of voivode M. I. Voronoi and G. I. Filippov-Naumov moved from Ryazan “on the Field”. They were tasked with interrupting communication between Kazan and the Crimea.

The activity of the Russian troops stunned the Kazanians and diverted their attention from the large construction work begun on May 24 at the mouth of the Sviyaga.

The fortress walls of Sviyazhsk stretched for 1200 fathoms. Pryasla (sections of the wall between the towers) consisted of 420 gorodens; in the fortress there were 11 towers, 4 archers and 6 gates, the walls and towers had 2 tiers of loopholes designed for artillery and rifle fire.

The construction of a strong fortress in the very heart of the Tatar state demonstrated the strength of Moscow and contributed to the beginning of the transition to the Russian side of a number of Volga peoples - the Chuvash and Cheremis-Mari. The complete blockade of the waterways of the khanate by Moscow detachments aggravated the difficult situation.

The new government, headed by Otlai Khuday-Kul and Prince Nur-Ali Shirin, was forced to negotiate with the Russian authorities. On August 11, 1551, the Kazan ambassadors Prince Bibars Rastov, Mullah Kasim and Khoja Ali-Merden agreed to extradite Khan Utemysh and the "Queen" Syuyun-Bike, recognize the accession to Russia of the Mountainous (Western) side of the Volga, prohibit Christian slavery and accept as Khan the Shah pleasing to Moscow - Ali. On August 14, 1551, a kurultai took place on a field at the mouth of the Kazanka River (7 km from Kazan), on which the Tatar nobility and the clergy approved the concluded agreement. On August 16, the solemn entry of the new khan into Kazan took place. Together with him, "for the full and others for administrative affairs," Russian representatives arrived: the boyar I. I. Khabarov and the clerk I. G. Vyrodkov, to whom 2,700 of the most prominent Russian prisoners were handed over the next day.

The reign of the new Kazan "tsar" did not last long. Shah Ali could protect himself and his few supporters in only one way: by replenishing the Kazan garrison at the expense of Russian troops. But, despite the precariousness of the situation, the khan agreed to bring into Kazan only 300 Kasimov princes, murzas and Cossacks and 200 Russian archers. Meanwhile, the forced consent of Shah Ali to fulfill a number of demands of the Moscow tsar, including the extradition of 60,000 Russian prisoners, finally undermined the authority of the Kazan government. Moscow's refusal to Shah-Ali's request for the return of the inhabitants of the "mountainous" half of the khanate who swore allegiance to Russia to Russia caused even greater discontent of the Tatars. Khan tried to suppress the opposition by force, but the repressions that had begun only aggravated the situation.

In this regard, in Moscow, where they closely followed the development of events in Kazan, they began to be inclined to accept the proposal made by the supporters of the Russian tsar from among the Kazan nobility: to remove Shah Ali and replace him with a Russian governor. The unexpected actions of the khan, who learned about the upcoming transfer of power to the direct representative of Moscow and decided to leave the throne without waiting for official notification, confused the cards of supporters of such a reshuffle. On March 6, 1552, Shah Ali left Kazan under the pretext of going fishing. Having taken as hostages the princes and murzas accompanying him (a total of 84 people), he went under Russian protection to Sviyazhsk. Shortly thereafter, Moscow governors were sent to Kazan, but they failed to enter the city. On March 9, 1552, the townspeople, incited by princes Islam and Kebek and Murza Alikey Parykov, revolted. During the coup, a party of supporters of the resumption of the war with Russia, led by Prince Chapkun Otuchev, came to power. The Astrakhan prince Yediger became the new khan, whose troops began military operations against the Russian detachments, trying to clear the Mountainous half of the khanate from them.

In Moscow, preparations immediately begin for a new campaign against Kazan. The blockade by Russian detachments-outposts of the Kazan river routes was resumed. At the end of March - April 1552, siege artillery, ammunition and food were sent to Sviyazhsk from Nizhny Novgorod. In May, a large army (150 thousand people) was assembled in Moscow to be sent to Kazan. However, it went on a campaign only on June 3, 1552, after some of the assembled troops, advancing to Tula, repulsed the attack of the Crimean Tatars by Khan Devlet Giray. Passing an average of 25 miles a day, the Russian army approached the capital of the Kazan Khanate on August 13. During the siege of the fortress, its bombardment was carried out, powder bombs were laid under the walls, a mobile 13-meter siege tower was built, which rose "higher than the city of Kazan." It was equipped with 10 large and 50 small guns - one-and-a-half and squeakers (fortress large-caliber guns). When everything was ready for a general assault on Kazan, which was surrounded on all sides, on October 1, 1552, the Russian command sent an envoy to the city - Murza Kamai with the last offer to surrender. It was rejected - Kazan decided to defend themselves to the end.

The very next day, October 2, 1552, Russian troops immediately launched an attack on the city fortifications from seven sides. The signal for the assault was the explosions of mine galleries brought under the walls of the fortress, in which 48 barrels of gunpowder were laid. Ivan the Terrible himself, who was at the solemn liturgy in his field church, having heard terrible explosions in Kazan, left the tent and saw the remnants of fortifications flying in different directions. Parts of the walls between the Atalykov Gates and the Nameless Tower and between the Tsar's and Ar Gates were blown up. The fortifications encircling the city from the side of the Arsky field were almost completely destroyed, and the Russian detachments were able to break into the fortress without hindrance.

The main battle broke out on the crooked streets of the Tatar capital. Kazantsy refused to surrender and fought to the death. One of the most stubborn centers of defense was the main Kazan mosque on the Tezitsky ravine. All those who defended her, including Imam Kul-Sherif, perished. The last battle took place on the square in front of the Khan's palace. Khan Yediger was taken prisoner. Together with him, Prince Zeniet and two foster brothers of the khan were captured. Only a few warriors from those defenders of the city who rushed from the walls and fled to the Arsky forest escaped death, leaving the chase for the shallow river Kazanka.

Thus, as a result of a month and a half siege and a bloody assault on October 2, 1552, Kazan fell, turning into the center of Russian rule in the Middle Volga region. After the suppression of several Tatar and Mari uprisings, the territory of the Kazan Khanate became part of the Muscovite state.

Next to the Kazan Khanate, in the lower reaches of the Volga, there was another Tatar state - the Astrakhan Khanate. It arose at the beginning of the 16th century. after the final defeat of the Great Horde by the army of the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey (1502). The capital of the khanate was the city of Khadzhi-Tarkhan (Astrakhan). Taking advantage of the exceptionally favorable position of their possessions in the Volga delta, the Astrakhan khans controlled the trade of Russia and Kazan with the countries of the East. Until the conquest

Russia maintained slavery and the slave trade here. Astrakhan Tatars participated more than once in the campaigns of the Crimean and other Tatar hordes against Russian lands, they sold captured slaves in the markets of Hadji-Tarkhan. However, relations with Bakhchisaray were difficult. The Gireys repeatedly tried to capture the Lower Volga region, the Astrakhans participated in the Nogai raids for Perekop.

After the construction of the fortress of Sviyazhsk and the forced consent of the Kazan beks to accept vassalage from the Muscovite state, the desire of the new Astrakhan Khan Yamgurchi to strengthen the alliance and friendship with Ivan IV was strengthened, but not for long. Already in the next 1552 (apparently, after the expulsion of Shah-Ali from Kazan), Yamgurchi, violating the agreement with Russia, insulted the Russian ambassador Sevastyan Avraamov, sent him to the Caspian islands and robbed the Russian embassy. Crimean Khan Devlet Giray becomes a new ally of the Astrakhan Khan. In the same 1552, he sent 13 cannons to Yamgurchi. Alarmed by this alliance, the Nogai Mirzas send their ambassadors to Moscow. They proposed to overthrow Yamgurchi and install "king" Dervish-Ali (Derbysh) on the khan's throne, in 1537–1539 and in 1549–1550. who already occupied the throne of Astrakhan. The new applicant was the sister of the Nogai Mirza Ismail. Dervish-Ali was urgently summoned to Moscow, where he was informed of his appointment as the new khan.

In the early spring of 1554, the 30,000-strong Russian army of the governor of the prince set out on a campaign against Astrakhan Yuri Ivanovich Pronsky-Shemyakia. On June 2, 1554, it occupied Hadji Tarkhan without a fight. Dervish-Ali became the new khan. His power was initially recognized by 500 princes and murzas and 7,000 "black people" who remained on their pastures. But soon the noble Tatar Yenguvat-azei returned, "and with him many malls and Azeis and all sorts of 3000 people, and they committed the truth to the king and grand duke and king Derbysh." The new Khan complied with Moscow's demand by releasing the Russian captives. He also pledged to pay tribute to the Muscovite Tsar every year: 40,000 altyns (1,200 rubles in silver) and 3,000 "sturgeons per sazhen".

A month later, the Russian regiments left Astrakhan, leaving a detachment in the city under the command of the voivode Pyotr Dmitrievich Turgenev, who became governor under Dervish-Ali.

In the spring of 1555, the former Khan Yamgurchi, having enlisted the support of the Crimea and Turkey, made an attempt to regain the throne by attacking Astrakhan twice. In his army were not only Astrakhan and Nogai Murzas, but also Turkish Janissaries. In April 1555, during the first attack, Russian archers and Cossacks managed to repel the attack, putting the enemy to flight. In May there was a new attack by Yamgurchi. Detailed information about him was preserved in the message to Moscow of the governor Turgenev. This time, events took an unexpected turn. Dervish-Ali was able to negotiate with the Nogai Mirzas, the sons of Yusuf, who were in the enemy army, who helped him defeat the Yamgurchi detachments. In gratitude for this help, Dsrvish-Ali transported the rebellious Nogais across the Volga, where they began military operations against Moscow's ally, the Nogai biy (prince) Ishmael. To help Pyotr Turgenev, a detachment of the archer head Grigory Kaftyrev and the Cossack chieftain Fyodor Pavlov was sent from Moscow. However, they met the Astrakhan governor on the Volga, on the way to Moscow. Turgenev informed Kaftyrev that Dervish-Ali had "let go" of him and was seeking support from the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey. Hurrying to Astrakhan, Kaftyrev found the city abandoned by the inhabitants. He managed to send a message to Dervish-Ali about his readiness to restore good neighborly relations between Moscow and Astrakhan and partial satisfaction of his requests by the Moscow Tsar. The Astrakhans returned to the city, but in March of the following year, 1556, the Nogai prince Izmail informed the Russian government that Dervish-Ali had finally betrayed Russia.

Indeed, instigated by new allies from among the Nogai "Yusuf children" and Astrakhan advisers, Dervish-Ali attacked the Russian detachment of Leonty Mansurov stationed in Astrakhan and forced him to leave the territory of the khanate. The town where L. Mansurov was kept was set on fire with the help of oil delivered. It was not possible to leave on the ships - they were "cut through" by the legs. Nevertheless, Mansurov managed to escape on a raft to the Upper prison, where the main forces of his detachment were, with only seven people remaining with him.

Fearing retaliatory actions from the Moscow government, he then turned for help to the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray, who hastened to send a small detachment (700 Crimean Tatars, 300 Janissaries) to Hadji Tarkhan. These forces were not enough to successfully resist the Russian army, which included the archery orders of Ivan Cheremesinov and Timofey Pukhov-Teterin, the Vyatka army of the governor Fyodor Pisemsky and the Cossack detachments of Mikhail Kolupaev and the Volga ataman Lyapun Filimonov. The Cossack detachment of Filimonov, sent on a campaign back in winter on skis, was the first to approach Hadzhi-Tarkhan, although he had only 500 Cossacks, Filimonov managed to break into the city and inflicted a heavy defeat on the Astrakhan army. Dervish-Ali retreated, counting on the support of his allied Nogai Murzas. But "Yusuf's children" agreed with Uncle Ishmael and, having obeyed the Russian governors, attacked Dervish-Ali. In battle, he lost all the Crimean guns. August 26, 1556 Astrakhan and the entire Khanate became part of the Russian state.

With the remnants of the defeated army, the last Astrakhan Khan fled to Azov. The outcome of the war that ended was summed up by S. M. Solovyov: "Thus, the mouth of the Volga was finally assigned to Moscow." In 1557, Nogai biy Izmail recognized vassal dependence on Moscow.

The annexation of the Kazan land (1552), the Astrakhan Khanate (1556) and the Nogai Horde (1557) to the Moscow state did not mean the complete conquest of the Middle and Lower Volga regions. Rebellions in this then still turbulent region continued throughout the second half of the 16th century, diverting the Russian armed forces, which were badly needed on other frontiers.

• The gorodnya is a separate, closed frame, filled with sand or earth with stones. The gorodny placed together formed "spinnings" - the walls of the fortresses.
• The Kazan Khanate was divided by the Volga River into Gornaya (left bank) and Lugovaya (right bank) parts.
• Sestrin (obsolete) - nephew, sister's son.
• Solovyov S. M. Works. M.: Thought, 1989. Book. III. S. 473.