The role of Peter 1 in Russian history. Peter contributed to the strengthening of the economic and political position of the nobility

In order to reveal the topic of the Reforms of Peter 1 and their role in modernization, it is necessary, first of all, to turn to the formation of the personality of Peter 1 himself, to look at the historical background, which contains the prerequisites for subsequent reforms of such a bright and great figure in history of the Russian Empire.

Peter 1 was born on May 30, 1672. His birth is surrounded by a swarm of legends. With the birth of Peter, the enmity between the relatives of the tsar by his first wife, Marya Ilinichnaya Miloslavskaya, and the Naryshkin family, from a narrow family, develops into a political struggle of parties.

As king, Peter at the same time was under disgrace and had to live with his mother in amusing villages. Such a sad situation deprived Peter of the opportunity to receive a decent education, but freed him from court etiquette and gave him great freedom. He spent his time exclusively on military fun. Without hindrance, he created amusing troops. Then Peter was fascinated by the art of navigation, which became his passion. In 1688, dissatisfied with the fact that there was nowhere to swim near Moscow, he transferred his fun to Lake Pereyaslav. His mother expected that her son, who had reached the age of majority, would pay attention to state affairs and eliminate the hated Miloslavskys from them, but Peter was not interested in this and did not think of giving up his teaching and fun for politics.

In the autumn of 1689 Sophia's reign ended. The kings began to rule without guardianship, or, more precisely, under the sick and feeble-minded Ivan, only Peter and his relatives ruled. With the fall of Sophia, Tsarina Natalya and Patriarch Joachim became the main persons in the government. Peter himself continued not to experience the taste of power.

In a relatively short period of time, Peter the Great managed to bring the Russian state out of the shadows thanks to his reforms, Russia became one of the leading powers in the arena of world life. This happened after the introduction of changes that affected almost all aspects of life.

The reforms of Peter the Great primarily concerned the transformation of the central administration. As a result, the Boyar Duma was abolished and replaced by the Near Office, which in 1708 was renamed the Council of Ministers.

The next item on the list of reforms was the creation of the Governing Senate, which became the highest government institution. He took part in legislative, administrative and judicial cases.

Reforms of Peter the Great in 1718-1720s. cumbersome and clumsy laws were abolished and boards were introduced - initially there were 11 of them: the Board of Foreign Affairs, which was in charge of foreign policy affairs; the Military Collegium, which controlled all the land forces of the country; the Admiralty Board, which disposed of the navy; The Berg Collegium was engaged in the mining industry; The College of Justice subjugated the civil and criminal courts, and so on.

Also important was the Decree on single inheritance, which was signed in 1714 by Peter the Great. The reforms were as follows: according to this document, the estates of the nobles were henceforth equal to the boyar estates, and the introduction of this decree was aimed at destroying the boundaries between the tribal and noble nobility. Moreover, now there was no difference between boyar and noble land. A little later, in 1722, Peter adopted the Table of Ranks, which finally erased the boundaries between the new and old aristocracy and completely equalized them.

In 1708, in order to strengthen the apparatus of power and increase its influence, the Regional Reform was introduced: the country was divided into eight provinces. Its logical conclusion was the reform of urban management: more and more cities appeared, and, accordingly, the population of the country grew. And the composition of the urban population was complex: the main part were small artisans, townspeople, merchants and entrepreneurs.

Under Peter the Great, the process of transforming the church was completely completed - the reforms of Peter the Great turned it into an important state institution, subordinate to the organs of the highest secular power. After the death of Patriarch Adrian, the tsar forbade the election of a new patriarch, referring to the unexpected outbreak of the Northern War. Stefan Yavorsky was appointed head of the patriarchal throne. After the Northern War, Peter abolished the patriarchate altogether. The management of all church affairs and issues was entrusted to the Theological College, after which it was renamed the Most Holy Government Synod, which completely turned the church into a powerful support for Russian absolutism.

But the great transformations and reforms of Peter the Great brought with them many problems, the main of which were the tightening of serfdom and the development of bureaucracy.

The historical significance of the reforms of Peter 1

The main result of the totality of Peter's reforms was the establishment of an absolutist regime in Russia, the crowning achievement of which was the change in 1721 of the title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was going for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy that had an impact on international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to bring this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals.

Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and the reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion.

The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated. No matter how one relates to the methods and style of carrying out transformations, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.

In conclusion, we can cite the words of a contemporary of Peter - Nartov:

And although Peter the Great is no longer with us, his spirit lives in our souls, and we, who had the happiness of being with this monarch, will die faithful to him and bury our ardent love for the earthly god with us. We proclaim our father without fear, because we learned noble fearlessness and truth from him.

The role of Peter 1 in the history of Russia

In his reforming activities, Peter 1 relied on European experience, but acted on the basis of
practical needs, without having a strict system and program of transformations.
All state activity of Peter can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1695-1715 and 1715-1725. The peculiarity of the first stage was the haste and not always thoughtful nature, which
explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the conduct of the Northern War, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage
changes in the cultural way of life. In the second period, the reforms were more systematic and aimed at the internal arrangement of the state.

In general, Peter's reforms were aimed at strengthening the Russian state and familiarizing the ruling stratum with European culture while strengthening the absolute monarchy. By the end of the reign of Peter the Great, a powerful Russian Empire was created, headed by
there was an emperor who had absolute power. In the course of the reforms, Russia's technical and economic lag behind European states was overcome, access to the Baltic Sea was won, and transformations were carried out in all spheres of life in Russian society. At the same time, the people's forces were extremely exhausted, the bureaucratic apparatus grew, the prerequisites for a crisis of supreme power were created, which led to the era of "palace coups".

The most important result of Peter's reforms was to overcome the crisis of traditionalism by modernizing the country. Russia became a full-fledged participant in international relations, pursuing an active foreign policy. Significantly increased the authority of Russia in the world, and Peter himself became for many a model of the sovereign-reformer. Under Peter, the foundations of Russian national culture were laid. The tsar also created a system of administration and administrative-territorial division of the country, which was preserved for a long time. At the same time, violence was the main tool for carrying out reforms. Not only did Peter's reforms fail to rid the country of the previously established system of social relations embodied in serfdom, but, on the contrary, conserved and strengthened its institutions. This was the main contradiction of the Petrine reforms, the prerequisites for a future new crisis.

Sources: www.bankreferatov.ru, fb.ru, otvet.mail.ru, hamac.ru, 900igr.net

Wooden Temple of Truth in Pattaya

We are accustomed to the fact that the construction of wooden temples took place mainly in the northern latitudes of our planet. However...

Theurstas, nicolas, murioshe and the spirit of death Anku

The peasants of Morlaix are terribly afraid of the creatures they call theursts. They are big, scary and black, they look like...

Peter I Alekseevich (1682-1725) really came to power, having come to his twentieth birthday. Peter the Great as a statesman was distinguished by his versatility in talents. He was a talented commander, an excellent diplomat, an outstanding legislator and a gifted publicist, etc. Peter's reforms left a deep mark on the history of the country, as they affected almost all spheres of life.

In the early 1690s. the course of the first Peter's reforms began to take shape spontaneously. At that time, they were forced measures, consistent operational measures aimed at strengthening the Russian army and navy and creating a military industry, achieving victory in the Northern War (1700–1721).

The following characteristic features of most of Peter's transformations can be noted: 1) the desire for universal regulation, unification (bringing to a single model) of political and social institutions;

2) formation of a multi-stage unified system of police supervision and control;

3) the widespread use of Western European experience as a model for change.

In the political sphere, the following reforms are distinguished:

1) after the victory in the Northern War, Peter I assumed the title of emperor, Russia from that time began to be called an empire, which should have emphasized its new foreign policy status as a world power;

2) instead of the Boyar Duma, which ceased to exist, the Senate became the highest deliberative body under Emperor Peter I (since 1711). It was a state body, which was formed from senior officials who enjoyed the greatest confidence in the emperor. The main task of the Senate was to control and audit the activities of lower bodies, for which the Senate had a special staff of fiscals. Although in the future the Senate itself was the object of constant supervision by a specially organized prosecutor's office (since 1722);

3) central governing bodies, colleges were formed (since 1719). At the same time, separate orders continued to exist and worked until the middle of the 18th century. The main colleges were: Military, Admiralty and the Collegium of "Foreign Affairs". In addition, 3 commercial and industrial, 3 financial colleges were created, the College of Justice (controlled the local court), the Patronage College (in charge of land ownership), the City Magistrate (controlled city government);

4) the old county-volost structure of the country was abolished. Russia was divided into 8 provinces (in 1708–1710). The provinces, in turn, were subdivided into provinces, and the provinces into districts. The provinces were headed by governors who were appointed by Peter the Great from among his most trusted comrades-in-arms;

5) the Orthodox Church under Peter I was transformed into a state institution headed by the Synod. The Synod was headed by the chief prosecutor, who was a secular person, while the patriarchate was liquidated. From that time on, priests were considered as civil servants and were obliged to make reports on the trustworthiness of the parishioners. Peter I inflicted great damage on the monasteries, which he considered the havens of parasites. Significance of administrative transformations. As a result of the administrative reforms of Peter I in Russia, the formation of an absolute monarchy was completed.

Reforms of Peter I and their significance

In the transformative activity of Peter I, four main directions can be distinguished.

Reforms of the state apparatus - administrative and military.
Economic and social reforms.
Church reforms and transformations in cultural life.
Reforms related to raising the international status of Russia.

The repeated increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Attaching every Russian to a place of residence and a place of service reduced the space of freedom, which expanded at that time in Europe. All were built into the system, like cogs in a clockwork. Carrying out the reform of public administration, Peter I was guided by the introduction of a bureaucratic principle. In Russia, a cult of institutions has developed, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster.

A feature of the administrative reform was the creation of a system of state control over the activities of the administrative apparatus. This led to a kind of “bureaucratic revolution”, the consequence of which was the dependence of everyone on the state apparatus.

The economic policy during the reign of Peter I was of a mercantilist nature, combined with protectionism in relation to domestic industry. The policy of mercantilism implied the encouragement of the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. The encouragement of "useful and necessary" types of production from the point of view of the state was combined with the prohibition or restriction of the production of "unnecessary" goods. The development of industry was dictated by the needs of warfare. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. Copper-smelting, silver-smelting, and ironworks appeared. The Arsenal and the Admiralty shipyard grew in the capital, from the stocks of which during the life of Peter I 59 large and 200 small ships left. By 1725, the country had 25 textile enterprises, rope and gunpowder manufactories. For the first time, paper, cement, sugar factories, as well as a wallpaper factory were built. The growth of industrial production was based on the intensification of feudal exploitation. Forced labor was widely used at manufactories - the labor of serfs, bought (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black) peasantry, which was attributed to the plant as a constant source of labor, was used.

Transformations also took place in small-scale production. In 1711, craft schools were established at the manufactories. And by decrees of 1722, a shop device was introduced in the cities. This testified to the patronage of the authorities to the development of crafts.

Agriculture continued to develop in an extensive way. New crops were introduced - medicinal plants, fruit trees, tobacco, etc.

In the field of domestic and foreign trade, the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods played an important role, which significantly replenished the treasury. By the end of Peter's reign, exports of Russian goods were twice as high as imports, and high customs tariffs reliably protected the domestic market.

The main results of the military reforms of Peter the Great are as follows

Creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight and defeat its main opponents;

The emergence of a whole galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fedor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.);

Creation of a powerful navy; - a gigantic increase in military spending and covering them through the most severe squeezing of funds from the people.

Peter's church policy, as well as his policy in other areas of public life, was aimed, first of all, at the most efficient use of the church for the needs of the state, and more specifically, at squeezing money from the church for state programs, primarily for the construction of the fleet. After Peter's journey as part of the Great Embassy, he is also occupied with the problem of the complete subordination of the church to his authority. As a result of the church reform, the church lost a huge part of its influence and turned into a part of the state apparatus, strictly controlled and managed by secular authorities.

23. Regular state" of Peter I.

Although the public administration reforms carried out by Peter I were not systematic and strict, it is easy to notice two tasks that always remained a priority and indisputable for him, namely: 1) unification of public administration bodies and the entire system of administration; 2) carrying out a collegiate principle through the entire administration, which, together with a system of public (prosecutor) and secret (fiscality) control, was supposed, according to the king, to ensure legality in administration.

Peter I was captivated by the idea of creating a state of perfect regularity in Russia, in which each person would have a precisely designated place and strictly obey the regulations. His model of an ideal (regular, lawful) state was based on the conviction that the state can function effectively only on the basis of laws and rules established from above and only with the help of a properly organized system of state bureaucracy, placed under the strict control of the supreme power and free from the arbitrariness of officials.

Building a rationally managed state through reforms and legislative regulation was the conscious goal of Peter. He dreamed of creating, in his words, a “regular” state, in the creation, in his words, of a “regular” state, in which well-thought-out laws would be used to ensure the smooth functioning of the entire mechanism of government and protect the population from the arbitrariness of officials. But in the absence of any institutions of social control, the state was not bound by anything during the implementation of the reforms. And the reforms began to take on the character of coercive measures. No initiative coming from society and even from the closest environment was no longer needed. Peter needed only capable organizers and performers.

From the point of view of practical implementation, the model of a regular state has found its embodiment in the legislative regulation of all aspects of public life, active state intervention in public relations, state protectionism (active state support for priority sectors of the national economy) up to the introduction of a state monopoly in a number of sectors of the then young national industry . This is also connected with the desire of Peter I to create an effective system for the fight against corruption and bureaucratic red tape.

The main principle of the state policy of Peter I was the principle of benefit, state benefit. In the new system of values approved by him, state, sovereign interests prevailed over ideological postulates and dogmas. The state, which in the era of Peter I became the subject of a new cult, was perceived as a self-sufficient entity and, ultimately, as a new basis for Russian identity. Religious values were also placed at the service of the state. Such state maximalism was bound to come into conflict with the Christian idea of the spiritual sovereignty of the individual. As a consistent pragmatist, Peter I could not perceive the moral abstractions of Christianity. We can say that it was from Peter I that politics in Russia was deprived of any moral content.

The main task of the state reforms of Peter I was a radical restructuring of the state apparatus, since the traditionally organized power and administration that had formed in the Moscow period could not ensure the mobilization of all resources - economic, military, technological in the conditions of the beginning of the modernization of society. The modernization of the state apparatus assumed completely new principles for its construction. The main ones are usually distinguished:

1) institutionalization of management, which found its expression in the creation of a new system of institutions;

2) increasing the efficiency of management, achieved through unification (uniformity), centralization, differentiation of the administrative apparatus and its militarization;

3) changing the principles of staffing the apparatus of new institutions (colleges, provinces).

21. Reforms of Peter the Great and their significance for Russian history: opinions of historians.

Foreign policy of Peter I. The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the victory of the Russians in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and the victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.

On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.

In commemoration of what was achieved in the Great Northern War, on October 20, 1721, the Senate and the Synod awarded the tsar with the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.

In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

Simultaneously with the conduct of hostilities, the vigorous activity of Peter I was also aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, and strengthen the power and international position of Russia. A lot has been done by the great tsar, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.

Reform of public administration of Peter I

Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of the provinces, numerous Orders ceased their activity, they were replaced by Collegia, which were subordinate to the Senate. The secret police also operated in the management system - the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were under the jurisdiction of the emperor himself.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I

The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed by with zemstvo commissars.

Urban reform (1699-1720)

To manage the city, the Burmister Chamber in Moscow was created, renamed in November 1699 into the City Hall, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). The members of the City Hall and the magistrates were elected through elections.

Estate reforms

The main goal of the estate reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and obligations of each estate - the nobility, the peasantry and the urban population.

Nobility.

Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.

Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.

Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance only to one of his sons.

Table of Ranks (1721): the service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - the army, the state and the court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a man of the lower class to curry favor with the nobility.

Peasantry

Most of the peasants were serfs. Kholops could sign up as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.

Among the free peasants were:

state, with personal freedom, but limited in the right to move (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);

palace, which belonged personally to the king;

sessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.

urban estate

Urban people were divided into "regular" and "irregular". The regular ones were divided into guilds: the 1st guild - the richest, the 2nd guild - small merchants and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or "mean people", made up the majority of the urban population.

In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of one craft.

Judicial reform of Peter I

The functions of the Supreme Court were carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. Courts of appeal and provincial courts headed by governors operated in the provinces. The provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the Zemstvo or city judge alone.

Church reform of Peter I

Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the post of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegiate supreme administrative church body - the Holy Synod.

Financial reforms of Peter I

The first stage of the financial reform of Peter I was reduced to collecting money for the maintenance of the army and the conduct of wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, indirect taxes (bath, horse, beard, etc.) were introduced.

In 1704, a monetary reform, according to which the penny became the main monetary unit. The fiat ruble was abolished.

Tax reform of Peter I consisted in the transition from the household taxation to the poll tax. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.

Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single monetary tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers increased.

Social reforms of Peter I

Education reform of Peter I

In the period from 1700 to 1721. many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. Among them are the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools for free education of children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.

Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and under it the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.

Reforms of Peter I in culture

Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated literacy and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.

The tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying special attention to the beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study "arts". Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.

Socio-economic reforms of Peter I

To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged the domestic industrialist and merchant. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated on the territory of Russia.

Reforms of Peter I in the army

Peter I introduced annual recruitment sets of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were issued, outlining the service, rights and duties of the military.

As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy was created.

The reform activities of Peter had the support of a wide circle of the nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and the clergy, because. transformations entailed the loss of their leading role in public administration. Among the opponents of the reforms of Peter I was his son Alexei.

The results of the reforms of Peter I

The regime of absolutism is established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced system of government, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.

Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.

The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.

Enormous progress has been made in science and culture. A task of national importance was set - the creation of Russian medical education, and the beginning of Russian surgery was laid.

Features of the reforms of Peter I

The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.

Lack of reform system.

The reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.

Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.

Reasons for the reforms of Peter I

By the 18th century, Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of industrial output, level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which was at the head of the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. The Russian army, which consisted of archers and the noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.

The main result of the totality of the Petrine reforms was the establishment in Russia of the regime of absolutism, the crown of which was the change in 1721. The title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country became

be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was going for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy that had an impact on international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to bring this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals. Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and the reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion. The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had great historical significance, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by the feudal lords, using feudal methods, and were aimed at strengthening their dominance. Therefore, the progressive transformations of the time of Peter the Great from the very beginning carried conservative features, which, in the course of the further development of the country, became stronger and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's transformations, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where the dominance of feudal-serf relations was preserved, but it could not catch up with those countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development. , laws, foundations and way of life and way of life. The family of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. No matter how you relate to the methods and style of his reforms, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.

The historical significance of the reforms of Peter I is as follows.

First, the result of the reforms and transformations was the strengthening of Russia's sovereign power, the strengthening of its economic potential and military might. Peter I completed the state building of the Russian Empire, begun by the Romanov dynasty. Thanks to his efforts, the former Muscovy turned into a strong European state with a regular army and navy, with a powerful and efficient state apparatus, with a clear system of state administration.

Secondly, the legislative activity of the time of Peter the Great strengthened the basis of the absolute monarchy in Russia, in no way limiting the power of the emperor. During the reign of Peter I, more than 3,000 legal acts were adopted regarding changes in public administration and other important areas of the state. Peter the Great legislated his reforms so that there would be no return to the old, so that the Russians would learn to live according to the law, in a new way, in a European way. Under this monarch, the law completely supplants the countless customs and traditions inherent in princely Russia. Ignoring, non-enforcement of the law began to be regarded as a crime. In addition, Peter I is the author ofmany regulations, tables, articles and other regulatory legal acts issued during the reform period. Suffice it to say that the General Regulations, which determined the rights and duties of officials, were subjected to royal editing twelve times.

Thirdly, the restructuring of Peter I changed many areas of Russian life. Thanks to his reforms, Russia has become on a par with the developed European countries.

Questions for self-control.

What are the prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I?

How did Peter I begin his reign?

Why did the first Azov campaign fail?

How did Peter I manage to take the Azov fortress?

Why did Peter I start the Northern War?

How did the tsar begin the reform of public administration and why?

Why did Peter I conduct military, tax, church and other

How did Peter I fight corruption?

What is the historical significance of the transformations of Peter I?

What titles were awarded to Peter I?

Chapter 6. The Russian Empire in the 18th century

6.1. Palace revolutions.

Russia after Peter the Great. After the death of Peter I, Russia enters a long period of palace coups. Palace coups were the only way to resolve the contradictions that arose in the political elites of that time.

By the end of the reign of Peter I, the tension between the autocratic power, the ruling elite and the ruling class reached a critical level. This was caused, on the one hand, by a decrease in benefits for the nobility, and on the other hand, by the strengthening of autocratic power, the imperial form of government, which was distinguished under Peter the Great by sharp pressure on the nobility. This led to the undermining of the social support of the autocracy, the open discontent of the elite, which testified to the lack of unity within the ruling camp.

Already on the eve of the death of Peter I, on January 25-26, 1725, a split arose among the highest ranks of the empire. One group (President of the College of Justice P. M. Apraksin, President of the College of Commerce D. M. Golitsyn, President of the Military College N. I. Repnin, Senator V. L. Dolgoruky, President of the State Offices College I. A. Musin -Pushkin and Chancellor G.I. Golovkin) advocated the enthronement of the grandson of Peter I - Tsarevich Peter Alekseevich and the establishment of a regency system - the reign of Peter I's wife Ekaterina Alekseevna together with the Senate. Another group (His Serene Highness Prince A. D. Menshikov, Prosecutor General of the Senate P. I. Yaguzhinsky, General I. I. Buturlin, diplomat and head of the Secret Chancellery P. A. Tolstoy, Vice-President of the Synod F. Prokopovich, etc.) defended the candidacy of Catherine as an autocratic empress.

The dispute went far, but assertiveness, skillful agitation and, most importantly, reliance on the guards (Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky) regiments at a critical moment ensured the enthronement of Ekaterina Alekseevna after the death of Peter the Great on January 28, 1725.

Empress Catherine I(1725-1727), the daughter of a Lithuanian peasant, Marta Skavronskaya, in 1702 was among the captives taken by Peter's army in Marienburg. Her marriage to Peter I in 1712 elevated her to the pinnacle of power. Nevertheless, neither in her outlook nor in her business qualities was she suitable for the role of Peter's successor. The empress, incapable of independent activity, in essence, transferred her powers to elected dignitaries. By decree of February 8, 1726, a new supreme body was formed - Supreme Privy Council. It included A. D. Menshikov (in whose hands the real power was concentrated), F. M. Apraksin, G. I. Golovkin, D. M. Golitsyn, A. I. Osterman and P. A. Tolstoy. Despite the representative composition and extensive competence, the Council was not a body that limited the autocracy, but was a bureaucratic institution placed under the control of the empress.

Rejection of Peter's reforms. The policy of the Supreme Privy Council was characterized by the rejection of the broad reform program of Peter I, which was recognized as too expensive for the state. Certain principles of the organization of state administration were revised, the taxation system was changed, and the institutions of the time of Peter the Great were dismantled. Some colleges were abolished, while others were merged, magistrates were liquidated. All judicial and administrative power in the provinces was transferred to the governors, and in the provinces and districts - to the governors. The role of the Petrine Senate was also belittled.

"Verkhovniki" reduced the size of the poll tax by 4 kopecks. and withdrew military teams from the provinces, which, under Peter, were a power parallel to the local administration with broad police functions. However, the expectation that provincial and district officials would cope with the collection of taxes and arrears turned out to be untenable. Therefore, from 1728, the regular dispatch of military teams to the counties to collect tax payments from the population resumed.

Peter II. In May 1727 Catherine I died. According to her will, the eleven-year-old grandson of her emperor, Peter II, became the successor on the throne, and the Supreme Privy Council was appointed the collective regent until the young sovereign came of age. This political combination was thought out and brilliantly carried out by Menshikov, who hoped to marry his daughter to the young emperor and thus finally establish himself as a real ruler under the heirs of Peter the Great.

Peter II ruled for a short time, only three years from 1727 to 1730 . He showed no diligence or inclination for any other occupation than hunting, so it seemed that he should become a toy in the hands of a regent or guardian.

The first time after the accession of Peter II, everything went according to the will of Menshikov: he managed to establish petty guardianship over the tsar, to achieve the betrothal of his daughter Mary to him, and for himself - the title of generalissimo. However, already in the summer of 1727, when Menshikov lost his former activity due to illness, a sudden turning point occurred: the emperor almost defiantly avoided communication with his former mentor and did not hide the change in favor - Dolgoruky's father and son became new favorites. At a difficult moment, Menshikov did not have any friends or intercessors, and a conspiracy against him was organized by his own nominee, Vice-Chancellor A. I. Osterman. In September 1727, Menshikov was arrested and exiled with his family to the Siberian village of Berezov, near the Arctic Circle. The untold wealth of the Menshikov family was confiscated, moreover, part of it was spent on preparing the coronation of Peter II. After the experience, the generalissimo died two years later.

The fall of Generalissimo Menshikov led to a regrouping of forces within the Supreme Privy Council: two Dolgoruky were among its members. To strengthen their influence at court, they decided to repeat Menshikov's move - to marry Peter II with Ekaterina Alekseevna Dolgoruky. The wedding was scheduled for January 19, but on the night before the celebration, Peter II died, having lived less than fifteen years.

« Conditions» «supreme leaders». At an emergency meeting of the Council on the day of the death of Peter II, Prince D. M. Golitsyn took the initiative. He nominated the niece of Peter I - Duchess Anna Ivanovna. The idea of the political elite was that the new contender for the throne should be in the capacity of a reigning, but not an autocratic empress. This choice was dictated by the far-reaching plans of the "supreme leaders" - to limit the power of the empress. After the unanimous approval of this intention, V. L. Dolgoruky was sent to Anna in Mitava with the text « Conditions ”- the conditions under which she had to take power.

« Conditions” contained the following requirements: without the consent of the Supreme Privy Council, do not declare war or make peace; not to approve the budget and not to introduce new taxes; do not promote to the ranks above the colonel; do not favor anyone with fiefdoms; do not appoint to court positions; not to deprive representatives of the nobility without trial of life, honor and property. The conditions of the political elite, in essence, led to the establishment of oligarchic rule - they also obliged the empress to maintain the Supreme Privy Council of 8 people and transfer the army and guards to its complete subordination.

Having received the consent of Anna Ivanovna, on February 2, at an expanded meeting of the council with the participation of the highest officials of the state, the "supervisors" announced the draft state structure, but it aroused distrust and even protest among those present. Then the "supervisors" allowed the nobility to take part in the discussion of the forthcoming form of government and express their views. Seven counter projects developed by noble circles showed, on the one hand, non-resistance to the very idea of \u200b\u200blimiting autocracy, and on the other, hostility to the Supreme Privy Council, which seeks to establish itself in power.

At the same time, the defenders of the absolutist system, and first of all F. Prokopovich and A. I. Osterman, who secretly sent detailed reports and advice to Anna, developed a vigorous activity. Their active actions allowed Anna to easily master the situation. Relying on the support of the guards and the growing ranks of her supporters, on February 25 in the Kremlin Palace, she publicly tore up the text of the conditions and proclaimed herself an autocratic empress.

Board of Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740). Anna, poorly educated and narrow-minded, who preferred rude amusements to public affairs, like shooting birds from the windows of the palace, and enjoying the brawls of jesters, handed over the reins of power to her inner circle.

The Empress and a narrow circle of her close associates controlled all official movements in the guards, rendered all kinds of signs of attention to the guards. In addition to the old guards regiments (and partly in opposition to them), new ones were formed: Izmailovsky and Horse Guards.

In 1731, to investigate political crimes, the Office of Secret Investigations was established, equated to a collegium and removed from the control of the Senate. Under Anna Ivanovna, the Chancellery became a tool for suppressing those who were dissatisfied with her rule. It is characteristic that a significant part of the cases considered in it, with the use of the so-called interrogation with partiality and torture in the dungeon, fell on representatives of the upper classes.

Cabinet of Ministers. In 1731, “for the best and most decent administration of all state affairs,” the Cabinet of Ministers was formed from three people: Chancellor G.I. Golovkin, Vice-Chancellor A.I. Osterman and real Privy Councilor Prince A.M. Cherkassky. After Golovkin's death, P. I. Yaguzhinsky, A. P. Volynsky, and A. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin successively took his place. Having crushed the Senate, the Synod, collegiums, the Cabinet always reserved the last word in matters of national importance. Since the mid 30s. three signatures of cabinet ministers were recognized as equivalent signatures of the empress. A prominent role in making managerial decisions at that time was played by the favorite of the Empress, Chief Chamberlain E. Biron, a minor Courland nobleman, who later received the title of Duke of Courland from the Empress. His policy at the royal court went down in history as "Bironism".

Nobles received significant concessions. In 1730, those paragraphs of the decree on single inheritance of 1714 were canceled, which established the principle of inheritance of the estate by one son and thereby limited the right to dispose of landed property. In 1731, the land gentry corps of cadets was established, after which the offspring of the nobility got the opportunity to serve in officer ranks. Since 1736, the terms of military service of the nobles were reduced to 25 years.

However, things in the state went in such a way that they aroused condemnation even among those who were near the throne. Thus, Field Marshal B. Kh. Munnich, the president of the Military Collegium, valued by the Empress, was forced to admit that “the Cabinet and, in general, the whole form of government under Anna Ivanovna were imperfect and even harmful to the state.” Arrears have been chronically rising throughout the decade. Temporary workers, both foreigners and Russians, emptied the treasury with impunity. Due to the constant budget deficit, the government was forced to pay salaries to civil officials for some years in Siberian and Chinese goods of poor quality.

At the same time, colossal sums were spent on the maintenance of the court, where magnificent festivities were held endlessly. Discontent covered all sections of society. A reflection of this phenomenon was the case of Artemy Petrovich Volynsky.

CONSPIRACY. In the “General Project for the Correction of Internal State Affairs” drawn up by the conspirators, it was proposed to clear the state apparatus of foreigners and give wide access to representatives of the Russian nobility, restore the leading role of the Senate among government agencies, improve the legal system in the country by codifying laws, establish a university in order to spread education and academies for the clergy. In many ways, the proposals of Volynsky and his comrades anticipated the real policy of enlightened absolutism and were progressive for their time. It is possible that in order to implement his plans, Volynsky provided for the possibility of enthroning the daughter of Peter I, Princess Elizabeth. However, all these intentions were suppressed by Biron and Osterman, who no longer wanted to put up with the zealous cabinet minister. In 1740 Volynsky was arrested and executed. Other members of the seditious circle were also severely punished.

The end of Bironovshchina. In October 1740 Anna Ivanovna died. According to the will, Anna's great-nephew, two-month-old baby Ivan Antonovich, was proclaimed emperor, and E. I. Biron was proclaimed regent. The baby's parents were removed from power. The height to which Biron ascended predetermined his fall. The power-hungry duke of Courland did not suit not only the Russians, but also the Germans. On November 8, 1740, relying on a detachment of 80 guards, Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich overthrew Biron. The German Anna Leopoldovna of Braunschweig, the mother of the proclaimed child-emperor, temporarily became the ruler. Field Marshal Minich himself was soon retired. The leading role in the government passed to Vice-Chancellor Osterman.

The authority of government power, which had become a plaything in the hands of political adventurers, mostly foreigners, fell ever lower. Under these conditions, memories of the great transforming tsar became almost nostalgic.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761). Hopes for the revival of the glorious traditions of Peter I were increasingly associated with the name of his daughter Elizabeth Petrovna. On the night of November 25, 1741, the grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, led by the princess, entered the palace. Representatives of the Braunschweig family were arrested. Elizabeth came to the throne. The palace coup of 1741 was anti-Western in nature; Elizabeth was supported mainly by the lower guards.

Elizaveta Petrovna, from her youth passionately fond of dresses, dances, masquerades, and in her mature years - seriously ill and infirm, was not capable of systematic studies and control over state affairs. Nevertheless, she was not alien to a sound understanding of state interests and practical wisdom, manifested in the ability to find and bring capable and knowledgeable people closer.

The new government immediately had to face difficult problems: upset finances, confusion in the field of legislation and administration, mass escapes of peasants. The government tried to defuse the situation - by a decree of 1741, all arrears for 17 years were forgiven, the size of the poll tax was temporarily reduced by 10 kopecks. In subsequent years, the government tried, without raising the poll tax, to increase state revenues by raising the price of salt and wine. This method of reorienting budget revenues from direct to indirect taxation, practiced in many European countries, contributed to the development of commodity-money relations. For the same purposes, the government took some other measures: the destruction in 1754 of internal customs, the restoration of magistrates. In 1754-1762. A special Legislative Commission worked on the drafting of a new code of law. An important aspect of its activities was the revision of part of the legislative material from the point of view of the interests of the merchants, the promotion of commercial and industrial entrepreneurship in the country.

At the origins of most of the useful undertakings of the Elizabethan reign was a prominent statesman P. I. Shuvalov. He sought to direct the attention of government circles to the needs and requirements of the merchants. However, the figure of Shuvalov, a large landowner, breeder, tax-farmer and life-breaker, sometimes evoked a hostile attitude even in the palace, which undoubtedly complicated the position of Shuvalov the reformer. The main center for the preparation of the main bills, as well as all any significant events of 1741-1761, was the Senate, restored by Elizabeth in the significance that it had under Peter I.

Conference at Elizabeth Petrovna. At the same time, Elizaveta Petrovna did not abandon the practice of imperial advice. Since 1741, the so-called meeting of ministers and generals of 11 people was periodically convened. In 1756, a new supreme body was created - the Conference at the Imperial Court. At the forefront of her work were the development and implementation of countermeasures against Prussia, which Russia faced in the Seven Years' War. The activities of the Conference during the war years covered a wide variety of areas: army leadership, finances, personnel issues, as well as matters that exceeded the competence of the Senate. The influence of the Conference was also due to the fact that it included key figures of state administration: the heads of the Foreign Ministry M. I. Vorontsov and A. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Prosecutor General of the Senate N. Yu. I. Shuvalov and the head of the Secret Chancellery A. I. Shuvalov.

Domestic policy under the auspices of the favorites of Elizabeth A. G. Razumovsky and I. I. Shuvalov, it was characterized by a significant expansion of noble privileges, especially in the 50s. 18th century At this time, noble loan banks were established, providing landowners with cheap credit for household and other needs. The nobility received a monopoly on the production of wine. In addition, the general land surveying, carried out by the central government, resulted in a significant increase in noble land ownership. In total, the area of noble land ownership in Russia increased by 50 million acres. Finally, in 1760, a decree was issued allowing landowners to exile serfs to Siberia for "impudent" deeds, with the subsequent reading of the exiled as a recruit handed over to the state.

The first university in Russia. But simultaneously with pro-noble and pro-serf tendencies, the policy of the supreme power showed features characteristic of enlightened absolutism. The most striking act of this kind was the foundation in 1755 in Moscow, according to the project of M. V. Lomonosov, of the first university in Russia. The favorite of Elizaveta Petrovna, the enlightened nobleman and philanthropist I. I. Shuvalov, was appointed its curator.

Peter's reign III(December 25, 1761 - June 28 1762). December 25, 1761 Elizaveta Petrovna died. She was succeeded by her nephew Pyotr Fedorovich, the son of Anna Petrovna's elder sister and the Duke of Holstein Karl Friedrich, who ascended the Russian throne under the name of Peter III.

Pyotr Fedorovich, who had been declared heir to the Russian throne at the end of 1741 and brought up at the court of his aunt, was nevertheless ill-prepared for his new role. Superficial education and a poor understanding of Russia, combined with natural impulsiveness, a particular propensity for military drill, undermined the position of the tsar and prevented the implementation of his good intentions.

The short reign of Peter III was marked by the intensification of all forms of government activity. In less than half a year, a number of decrees were issued, reflecting the urgent need to change the system of power and expand its guardianship functions. Among them were: the destruction of the Secret Chancellery and the cessation of the persecution of schismatics, the abolition of trade monopolies that hampered the development of entrepreneurship, the proclamation of freedom of foreign trade, the transfer of monastic and church estates to the jurisdiction of a special College of Economy.

By a manifesto of February 18, 1762, the nobility was exempted from compulsory public service. This event caused mass rejoicing of the nobles. However, this measure was not enough to ensure the stability of power. The position of Peter III was undermined by his harsh treatment of the highest imperial bureaucracy, associated with the desire to restore loose discipline in the central government, as well as attempts to restore order in the guard, which he compared with the army of the Turkish Janissaries.

Impulsive lawmaking and the desire to personally delve into all matters, which did not always correspond to the practical possibilities and abilities of the emperor himself, significantly complicated his position. These shortcomings could be balanced by a collegiate supreme body of state administration. However, such a body - the Imperial Council of 9 people was created only at the end of the reign of Peter III, in May 1762, and was no longer able to radically change the situation. By that time, a hostile political group had formed behind the back of the emperor, which overthrew him from the throne. June 28, 1762 The conspiracy was led by the wife of Peter III, Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna, nee Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, her favorite G. G. Orlov and his brothers, Field Marshal K. G. Razumovsky, N. I. Panin, tutor of the young Grand Duke Paul, and about 40 guards officers. On July 6, the deposed monarch was killed by his wife's henchmen in Ropsha Castle. Another empress appeared on the Russian throne.

In the period from 1725 to 1762, 6 emperors and empresses were replaced on the Russian throne. The intensity of state reforms during this period slows down. Political instability, due to the frequent change of power and the composition of the political elite, did not allow to concentrate on solving the problems facing Russia.

Public administration, economy and finances were not in the best condition. The most important state problems were not solved for years. The luxury of the imperial court contrasted sharply with the beggarly condition of the overwhelming majority of Russians. A typical example: even half of what was officially spent on the maintenance of the imperial stable was not allocated for the development of education in the country.

However, the state mechanism, launched by the first emperor Peter the Great, continued to work properly. He allowed women to run the empire. Five women, including those of foreign origin, ruled Russia in the 18th century for 70 years. If it were not for the brightest figure of Peter I, the 18th century could rightly be called the female age.

Having taken the royal throne with the help of guardsmen and favorites, the women rulers of Russia created a special institution of supreme power and control - favoritism. It consisted in the possibility of a favorite, that is, a favorite of a high-ranking person, in this case the empress, to decisively influence the adoption of state decisions, the implementation or curtailment of state reforms. This left a certain imprint on the political system of the state. Contemporaries noted the haphazard decision-making, often contradicting each other, mediocrity and laziness of the bureaucracy. This is described in detail in the work of Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, which is called "On the damage to morals in Russia."

Anna Ivanovna's favorite, groom Biron, by the grace of the empress, becomes a count, chief chamberlain, and then takes a direct part in government. Another empress, Elizaveta Petrovna, showered honors on her favorite A.G. Razumovsky. The former court chorister began to own huge estates with 100,000 serf souls. Not possessing military and diplomatic talents, he gladly accepted the title of count and the rank of field marshal, granted by the empress. At the same time, Alexei Grigorievich was almost not involved in state affairs.

Six palace coups, carried out in 1725-1762, served as clear evidence of the increased capabilities of the court-bureaucratic opposition and the guard - its strike force. The threat of palace coups put the supreme power in front of the need to take into account the class requirements of the nobility as fully as possible, and also forced them to look for ways to solve state problems that would not be rejected by its most active groups.

22. Transformations of Peter I and their significance for the Russian Empire.

In the history of the Petrine reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715. At the first stage, the reforms were mostly chaotic and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state associated with the conduct of the Northern War, were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active state intervention in economic affairs. Many reforms were ill-conceived, hasty in nature, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power. At the second stage, when hostilities had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. There was a further strengthening of the apparatus of power, manufactories not only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy was somewhat weakened, merchants and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action. Basically, the reforms were subordinated not to the interests of individual estates, but to the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and familiarization with Western European civilization. The goal of the reforms was to acquire the role of Russia as one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. The main instrument of reform was deliberately applied violence.

Military reform

The main content of the military reform was the creation of a regular Russian army and Russian navy, recruited on the basis of recruitment. Previously existing troops were gradually abolished, and their personnel were used for new formations. The army and navy began to be maintained at the expense of the state. To control the armed forces, instead of orders, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium were established; the post of commander-in-chief (for wartime) was introduced. A unified training system was established in the army and navy, and military educational institutions (navigation, artillery, and engineering schools) were opened. The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served for the training of officers. The organization of the armed forces, the main issues of training, methods of warfare were legally enshrined in the Military Charter (1716), the Marine Charter Book (1720). In general, the military reforms of Peter I contributed to the development of military art, were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and fleet in the Northern War.

Reforms in the economy covered agriculture, large and small production, craft, trade and financial policy. Agriculture under Peter I developed slowly, mainly in an extensive way. In the economic sphere, the concept of mercantilism dominated - encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. The development of industry was dictated solely by the needs of warfare and was a special concern of Peter. During the first quarter of the 18th century 200 manufactories were created. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. The growth of industrial production was accompanied by the intensification of feudal exploitation, the widespread use of forced labor in manufactories: the use of serfs, bought (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-eared) peasantry, which was attributed to the plant as a permanent source of labor. In 1711, craft schools were established at the manufactories. By decrees of 1722, a shop device was introduced in the cities. The creation of workshops testified to the patronage of the authorities to the development of crafts and their regulation. In the field of domestic and foreign trade, a large role was played by the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, hemp, furs, lard, caviar, bread, etc.), which significantly replenished the treasury. The creation of merchant "kuppanstvo" and the expansion of trade relations with foreign countries were encouraged in every possible way. The government of Peter paid great attention to the development of waterways - the main mode of transport at that time. Active construction of canals was carried out: the Volga-Don, Vyshnevolotsky, Ladoga, work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.

financial policy state during the reign of Peter I was characterized by unprecedented tax oppression. The growth of the state budget, necessary for the conduct of the war, an active domestic and foreign policy, was achieved by expanding indirect and increasing direct taxes. Special "profit-makers" headed by A. Kurbatov sought out new sources of income: bath, fish, honey, horse and other taxes were introduced, up to the tax on beards. In total, by 1724 there were up to 40 types of indirect collections. Along with the specified fees, direct taxes were also introduced: recruitment, dragoon, ship and special "fees". Significant incomes were brought by the minting of coins of lesser weight and a decrease in the content of silver in it. The search for new sources of income led to a radical reform of the entire tax system - the introduction of a poll tax, which replaced household taxation. As a result of this, firstly, the amount of tax revenues from peasants almost doubled. Secondly, the tax reform became an important stage in serfdom in Russia, extending it to those sections of the population that were previously free (“walking people”), or could gain freedom after the death of the master (bonded serfs). Thirdly, the passport system was introduced. Every peasant who went to work more than 30 versts from his place of residence had to have a passport indicating the date of return.

Reorganization of public administration.

The strengthening of the absolute monarchy required a radical restructuring and extreme centralization of the entire system of state administration, its higher, central and local bodies. The king was at the head of the state. In 1721, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant a further strengthening of the power of the king himself. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council (Council) of Ministers that replaced it since 1701, the Senate was established. It included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I. The Senate was instructed to develop new laws, monitor the country's finances, and control the activities of the administration. In 1722, the leadership of the work of the senators was entrusted to the prosecutor general, whom Peter I called "the sovereign's eye." In 1718 - 1721, the cumbersome and intricate system of command administration of the country was transformed. Instead of fifty orders, whose functions often coincided and did not have clear boundaries, 11 colleges were established. Each collegium was in charge of a strictly defined branch of government. Collegium of Foreign Affairs - foreign relations, Military - ground armed forces, Admiralty - fleet, Chamber Collegium - revenue collection, Staff Collegium - state expenditures, Votchinnaya - noble land ownership, Manufactory Collegium - industry, except for the metallurgical, which was in charge of the Berg Collegium . In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate who was in charge of Russian cities. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Survey Office were operating. Along with the strengthening of the central administrative apparatus, the reform of local institutions. Instead of the voivodship administration in 1708 - 1715, the provincial system of government was introduced. Initially, the country was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kiev, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberia. They were headed by governors who were in charge of the troops and administration of subordinate territories. Each province occupied a vast territory and was therefore divided into provinces. There were 50 of them (the governor was at the head). Provinces, in turn, were divided into counties. Thus, a single centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of government was formed for the whole country, in which the monarch, who relied on the nobility, played a decisive role. The number of officials has increased significantly. The cost of maintaining the administrative apparatus has also increased. The General Regulations of 1720 introduced a single system of office work in the state apparatus for the whole country.

The Church and the liquidation of the patriarchate.

After the death in 1700 of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I decided not to appoint a new patriarch. Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan was temporarily placed at the head of the clergy, although he was not vested with patriarchal powers. In 1721, Peter approved the "Spiritual Regulations" developed by his supporter, Bishop Feofan Prokopovich of Pskov. According to the new law, a radical church reform was carried out, which eliminated the autonomy of the church and completely subordinated it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Theological College was established to manage the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Governing Synod to give greater authority. He was in charge of purely church affairs: the interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, the management of educational institutions and the removal of church officials, etc. The synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. All the property and finances of the church, the lands assigned to it and the peasants were under the jurisdiction of the Monastic order, subordinate to the Synod. Thus, it meant the subordination of the church to the state.

Social politics.

In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equalized in rights with the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two estates of feudal lords. Since that time, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles. The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of estates and estates to one of the sons. The rest of the nobles had to carry out compulsory service in the army, navy or in public authorities. In 1722, the publication of the “Table of Ranks” followed, dividing the military, civil and court services. All positions (both civil and military) were divided into 14 ranks. It was possible to occupy each next rank only by passing all the previous ones. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor), or an officer received hereditary nobility (until the middle of the 19th century). The rest of the population, excluding the nobility and the clergy, was obliged to pay tax to the state.

Under Peter I, a new structure of society developed, in which the principle of regulation by state legislation is clearly traced. Reforms in the field of education and culture. The policy of the state was aimed at educating society, reorganizing the education system. Enlightenment at the same time acted as a special value, partly opposed to religious values. Theological subjects at school gave way to natural science and technical subjects: mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, fortification, and engineering. The Navigation and Artillery schools (1701), the Engineering School (1712), and the Medical School (1707) were the first to appear. To simplify the learning process, the complex Church Slavonic script was replaced with a civil one. The publishing business was developed, printing houses were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. The foundations for the development of Russian science were laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was established in St. Petersburg. A great deal of work has begun to study the history, geography and natural resources of Russia. The promotion of scientific knowledge was carried out by the Kunstkamera, opened in 1719, the first national museum of natural history. On January 1, 1700, a new chronology according to the Julian calendar was introduced in Russia. As a result of the calendar reform, Russia began to live in the same time as Europe. There was a radical break in all traditional ideas about the everyday way of life in Russian society. The tsar, by order of the order, introduced fermentation, European clothes, and the obligatory wearing of uniforms for military and civil officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms set forth in the translated book “Youth Honest Mirror”. In 1718, a Decree appeared on holding assemblies with the obligatory presence of women. Assemblies were held not only for fun and entertainment, but also for business meetings. Peter's transformations in the sphere of culture, life and customs were often introduced by violent methods and were of a pronounced political nature. The main thing in these reforms was the observance of the interests of the state.

Significance of reforms: 1. The reforms of Peter I marked the formation of an absolute monarchy, unlike the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, balancing the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.

2. The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. 3. Based on some trends emerging in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also brought it to a qualitatively higher level in a minimal historical period of time, turning Russia into a powerful state.

The payment for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations, and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population. The repeated increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social actions - the rebellion of the archers in Astrakhan (1705 - 1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region - were directed not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.

The historical significance of the reforms of Peter 1. Guys, 2-3 sentences are all you need)

Elena anufrieva

In conclusion, we can cite the words of a contemporary of Peter - Nartov:

"... and although Peter the Great is no longer with us, his spirit lives in our souls, and we, who had the happiness of being with this monarch, will die faithful to him and bury our ardent love for the earthly god with us. We proclaim without fear about our father in order that noble fearlessness and truth were learned from him.

STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

SARATOV REGION

"BALASHOV TECHNICIUM OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION"

ESSAY

ON THE HISTORY ON THE TOPIC:

"ROLE OF THE PERSONALITY OF PETER I. IN THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA"

PREPARED:

BORODKIN S. GROUP E-11

SUPERVISOR:

LABODINA SVETLANA VIKTOROVNA

BALASHOV 2014

Introduction

The role of the historical personality of this particular person is an accident. The need for this advancement is determined by the historically established need of society for a person of this kind to take the leading place. N.M. Karamzin said this about Peter the Great: “The people gathered on a campaign, waited for the leader, and the leader appeared!” The fact that this particular person is born in this country, at a certain time, is pure coincidence. But if we eliminate this person, then there is a demand for his replacement, and such a replacement will be found.

Peter I has been described by many historians as an outstanding political figure, a bright personality, a fair and democratic tsar, whose reign was so eventful and contradictory that it was the reason for the existence of a mass of scientific, popular science and fiction on this topic.

In historical science and in public opinion from the end of the 17th century to the present, there are diametrically opposed assessments of both the personality of Peter I and his role in the history of Russia. In the official Russian historiography, Peter was considered to be one of the most prominent statesmen who determined the direction of Russia's development in the 18th century. However, many historians, including N.M. Karamzin, V.O. Klyuchevsky and others expressed sharply critical assessments.

Chapter 1

Personality is a set of social and cultural properties of a person, which depend on his inclusion in the system of social relations through his activities and communication. The concept of "personality" helps to characterize in a person the social beginning of his life, those properties and qualities that a person realizes in social relations, social institutions, culture, i.e. in social life, in the process of interaction with other people. The concept of "personality" characterizes the social position, place and role of the individual in the system of social relations.

Social roles are forms of manifestation and development of the individual, occupying a certain status in society. The role of the most outstanding person is always a fusion of previous development, a mass of random and non-random events, and her own characteristics. Depending on a variety of conditions and circumstances, taking into account the characteristics of the place under study, time and individual personality traits, its historical role can range from the most inconspicuous to the most enormous. Sometimes personality plays a decisive role.

At the moment, we are interested in prominent historical figures. What is their role?

An outstanding personality solves the tasks set in the queue by the previous course of the intellectual development of society, he indicates the new social needs created by the previous development of social relations, and takes the initiative to satisfy these needs. This is the strength and destiny of a great man, and the power is colossal.Of course, an outstanding personality must have more than ordinary abilities for a particular type or series of activities. But this is not enough. It is necessary that in the course of its development society put on the agenda tasks for the solution of which a person with precisely such (military, political, etc.) abilities was needed.

World-historical personalities are not only practical and political figures, but also thinking people, spiritual leaders who understand what is needed and what is timely, and lead others, the masses. These people, albeit intuitively, but feel, understand the historical necessity and therefore, it would seem, should be free in this sense in their actions and deeds.

Throughout the history of mankind, a huge number of events have occurred, and they have always been directed by individuals who are different in their moral character and mind. The unity of the people, however, requires an obvious spiritual and volitional embodiment - a single center, a person, an outstanding person in mind and experience, expressing the legal will and state spirit of the people. The people need a wise leader, like dry land needs good rain.

Chapter 2

The early childhood of the prince passed in a European home and its unique atmosphere, which later helped Peter to be among foreigners without prejudice and gain useful experience from them.However, when it was necessary to move from games to compulsory education for Moscow princes, Peter was less fortunate. The teacher of Russian literature was Nikita Moiseevich Zotov, not very literate, but patient and affectionate clerk of the Great Parish.

The prince studied everything willingly, and subsequently wrote fluently in Old Church Slavonic, albeit with numerous errors. On the other hand, his natural tenacious memory, until his death, allowed him to quote the Book of Hours and the verses of the Psalter and even sing in church "on hooks", which replaced Russian musical signs. And although, having become emperor, Peter I repeatedly stated that there was nothing instructive in Russian antiquity, his historical knowledge was diverse and deep. And he knew so many folk proverbs, sayings and sayings and always used them to the point with such wit that he did not get tired of astonishing all European monarchs.

At the age of three, he already gave orders to the Butyrsky Reiter Regiment of the "new system" at the royal review, which pleasantly surprised Alexei Mikhailovich and aroused the enmity of his brother Fyodor Miloslavsky and his sister, Princess Sophia.

Shortly after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, Tsarina Natalya and her son were expelled from the Kremlin by the new Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, who hated his stepmother and her uncle "Anglican". Nikita Zotov was going to voluntarily follow the pupil into the wilderness near Moscow, but he was ordered to be caught and executed. The disgraced podyachem had to flee from Moscow to the Crimea and hide for many years. Now Peter had no one to study with, and the Moscow outskirts became his school.

So Peter grew up - strong and hardy, not afraid of any physical work. Palace intrigues developed in him secrecy and the ability to hide his true feelings and intentions. He now had to study in secret. Knowing the Kremlin mores, Peter so lulled the vigilance of all his enemies in the Kremlin. Subsequently, this helped him become an outstanding diplomat.

When, on April 28, 1682, the ten-year-old Peter was solemnly crowned king, foreign diplomats unanimously noted that he produced the impression of a 16-year-old youth in speech, education, and posture. Tsarevna Sophia immediately intuitively felt threatened by her brother and, with the help of Prince Khovansky, raised the archers to a rebellion, which received the ominous name "Khovanshchina" among the people. The day of May 25, when before his eyes the beloved uncle Matveev was raised to the peaks by archers, became the most terrible impression of Peter's childhood, and the red color irritated him.

If Peter did not have any specific plans for transforming the country, after the "Khovanshchina" they certainly appeared. It was possible to break the main support of Sophia - the archers, only by opposing them with a military force capable of defeating them.

In 1686, 14-year-old Peter started artillery with his "amusing" ones. The gunsmith Fyodor Sommer showed the tsar grenade and firearms. 16 guns were delivered from the Pushkar Order. To control heavy guns, the tsar took adult servants eager for military affairs from the Stable Order. The amusing regiment began to be called Preobrazhensky, in the place of its quartering - the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow.

In 1688 he founded the first shipyard for the construction of ships.There were already two "amusing" regiments: Semyonovsky, located in the village of Semyonovskoye, was added to Preobrazhensky. Preshburg already looked like a real fortress. Knowledgeable and experienced people were needed to command regiments and study military science. But among the Russian courtiers there were none. So Peter appeared in the German settlement.

Peter's activity greatly disturbed Princess Sophia, who understood that with the coming of age of her half-brother, she would have to give up power.

And in 1689, Peter married Evdokia Lopukhina, considering him to be of age, he did not need guardianship. In the same year, on August 27, a letter from Tsar Peter came - to go to all regiments to the Trinity. Most of the troops obeyed the legitimate king, and Princess Sophia had to admit defeat. She herself went to the Trinity Monastery, but in the village of Vozdvizhenskoye she was met by Peter's envoys with orders to return to Moscow. Soon Sophia was imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent under strict supervision. Princess Sophia was tonsured a nun under the name of Susanna and sent to the Novodevichy Convent, where she spent the rest of her life. The same fate befell Peter's unloved wife, Evdokia Lopukhina, who was forcibly sent to the Suzdal Monastery even against the will of the clergy.

The priority of Peter I in the first years of autocracy was the continuation of the war with the Ottoman Empire and the Crimea. Instead of campaigns against the Crimea, undertaken during the reign of Princess Sophia, Peter I decided to strike at the Turkish fortress of Azov, located at the confluence of the Don River into the Sea of Azov.In the winter and spring of 1695, transport ships were built on the Don. And in the spring, the Russian army won two fortresses from the Turks, and at the end of June besieged Azov (a fortress at the mouth of the Don).The preparation of campaigns clearly showed Peter's organizational and strategic abilities. For the first time, such important qualities as his ability to draw conclusions from failures and gather strength for a second strike appeared. In addition to negotiations, Peter devoted a lot of time to the study of shipbuilding, military affairs and other sciences. Peter worked as a carpenter at the shipyards of the East India Company, with the participation of the king, the ship "Peter and Paul" was built.

During the 15 months of his stay abroad, Peter saw a lot and learned a lot. After the return of the tsar on August 25, 1698, his reforming activity began, initially aimed at changing the external signs that distinguish the Old Slavonic way of life from the Western European. In the Transfiguration Palace, Peter suddenly began to cut the beards of the nobles, and already on August 29, 1698, the famous decree “On wearing a German dress, on shaving beards and mustaches, on walking schismatics in the attire indicated for them” was issued, which banned from September 1 wearing beards. The new 7208th year according to the Russian-Byzantine calendar (“from the creation of the world”) became the 1700th year according to the Julian calendar. Peter also introduced the celebration of January 1 of the New Year, and not on the day of the autumn equinox, as was celebrated earlier.

In order for the development of trade in Russia to be in full swing, our country needed access to the Baltic Sea. Realizing this, Peter 1 began to conduct military operations with Sweden - this became a new stage in his reign. Then he makes peace with Turkey, and after the capture of the Noteburg fortress, he begins the construction of the city of St. Petersburg.

All internal state activity of Peter can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1695-1715 and 1715-1725.The peculiarity of the first stage was the haste and not always thoughtful nature, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for warfare, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage in order to modernize the way of life. In the second period, the reforms were more systematic.

Peter was clearly aware of the need for enlightenment, and took a number of drastic measures to this end.New printers were createdthere were changes in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. He by special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) forbade forced marriage and marriage.

The battle of Poltava in June 1709 puts a victorious point in the war with Sweden. After the death of the king of this country, a peace treaty was concluded between Russia and Sweden. The Russians received the desired access to the Baltic Sea, as well as new lands.

In 1721, a decree followed, which stated that although previously "merchant people" were forbidden to buy villages, now many of them wished to start various manufactories both in companies and one by one.After this decree, all factories quickly acquired serf workers, and the factory owners liked it so much that they began to seek assignment to the factories and free workers who worked for them in free employment.

The title of emperor was awarded to Peter 1 in 1721. But in the last years of his reign, Peter was very ill, as a result of which he died. His personality, without a doubt, was one of the most powerful and significant in world history. He wanted to change both people and the state itself, and he succeeded in this to the fullest.

Conclusion

Peter 1 is perhaps the most famous of all the rulers of Russia. He was blunt, rude and did not like the observance of etiquette. (An example of his rudeness: one of the associates annoyed Peter so much that he drew his sword and began to wave it in all directions, as a result he chopped off his fingers, and hit the other’s head)

In my opinion, his manner of communicating with people has no justification. “He was aware that he is an absolute monarch, and everything that he does and says is not subject to human judgment; only God will ask him for everything, both good and bad ...” “Everything trembled, everything silently obeyed,” summed up A. WITH. Pushkin is the essence of the nature of Peter I as a sovereign and a person.

However, in spite of all this, he made a big push for Russia forward. Peter's policy was aimed at elevating the nobility. First, he founded the Russian fleet (1696), and showed the achievements (of the fleet) in the Northern War of 1700-1721. Peter1 personally participated in many battles: the battle of Narva (personally led the siege), the defeat of the Swedish ships near Arkhangelsk (sea battle). The reforms of Peter the Great (tax reform, the Guberzhskaya reform, the omnipresence of which governors-general appeared) also acquired considerable importance.

In terms of the scale of interests and the ability to see the main thing in the problem, it is difficult for Peter I to find an equal in Russian history. Woven from contradictions, the emperor was a match for his huge power, which he, like a giant ship, led out of a quiet harbor into the oceans, pushing aside mud and stumps and chopping off growths on board.

Such was Peter I. This is how history left him to us. You can admire him, you can condemn him, but it cannot be denied that without Peter, this truly strong personality, Russia would be completely different - whether it is better or worse, we will never know.

Literature

http://www.e-biblio.ru/
http://otherreferats.allbest.ru/
Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G. Russian history. Part II. End of the 16th - 18th century: A textbook for grades 6 - 7 of the basic school. - 2nd ed., corrected. And extra. - M.: TsGO, 2000. - 255 p.: ill. – (Humanitarian education in Russia).
Kapitsa F.S., Grigoriev V.A., Novikova E.P., Dolgova G.P.. Schoolchildren's Handbook. The history of homeland. M.: 1996
Dolutsky I.I. National history. XX century: Textbook for grades 10-11 of educational institutions / I.I. Dolutsky. - M.: Mnemosyne, 2001.
Pavlenko N.I. “Peter I and his time”, M., Publishing house “Enlightenment”, 1989.
Solovyov S.M. “Readings and stories on the history of Russia”, M., Pravda Publishing House, 1989.
Yurganov A.L., Katsva L.A. History of Russia in the 16th - 18th centuries: A textbook for the 8th grade of secondary educational institutions. M.: - MIROS, VENTANA-GRAF, 1995. - 424 p.: ill.
http://xreferat.ru/
http://revolution.allbest.ru/

Theme "The role of Peter 1 in Russia"

Peter I

Introduction……………………………………………………………..… 3

Chapter 1 Peter I - a man of history………………………….5

1.1 Portrait of Peter I…………………………………………………..5

1.2 Biography of Peter I……………………………………….…..7

1.3 The role of Peter I in the history of Russia…………………………8

Chapter 2 Policy of Peter I………………………………….….11

2.1 Coming to power…………………………………………….… 11

2.2 What was Peter I based on in his reign?…….…………………………………………………….. 14

2.3 Reforms of Peter and the special path of Russia………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Chapter 3 Legal Status of the Estates……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

1. Nobles ………………………………..…………………………….…….…17

2. Service class …………………………………………….19

Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………21

INTRODUCTION

Changes in all sectors and spheres of the socio-economic and political life of the country, which gradually accumulated and matured in the 17th century, developed into a qualitative leap in the first quarter of the 18th century. Muscovite Rus turned into the Russian Empire. In its economy, the level and form of development of productive forces, the political system, the structure and functions of government, administration and courts, the organization of the army, the class and estate structure of the population, the culture of the country and the way of life of the people have undergone tremendous changes. The place and role of Russia in the international relations of that time changed radically.

Tsar Peter I played a huge role in Russian history.

The personality of Peter and his era excited the imagination of writers,

artists, composers of many generations. From Lomonosov to the present day, the theme of Peter does not leave the pages of fiction. Pushkin, Nekrasov, L. Tolstoy, Blok and others addressed her.

True, it should be noted that not all historians evaluated and evaluate Peter I in the same way. Some, admiring him, overshadow his shortcomings and failures, while others, on the contrary, seek to put all his vices in the first place, accuse Peter of making the wrong choice and criminal acts.

Considering the life and work of Peter, we must not forget what he did in the conditions of internal and external struggle: external - constant hostilities, internal - this is opposition. The dissatisfied boyars formed opposition circles, and later Tsarevich Alexei joined them. It was difficult for Peter's contemporaries to understand him: the tsar was a carpenter, the tsar was a blacksmith, the tsar was a soldier who sought to delve into all the little things

the work he does. The image of the "anointed of God" - the king-father, reigning in the minds of people, constantly came into conflict with the real figure of the new king.

It is not surprising that many did not understand Peter, his style of thinking, his ideas, which often lived in a different political space.

Of course, even after Peter's death, Russia's forward movement, with all the zigzags and temporary setbacks, continued. And in this an important role, the role of an accelerator, was played by powerful impulses given to this movement in the era of the first Russian emperor, by the deeds of himself, the associates of the carpenter tsar and, of course, millions of ordinary workers of Russia.

The purpose of this thesis is to study in detail the legal reforms of Peter I, the prerequisites, features and role in the history of Russia.

This work widely covers the life of Peter, his manners, habits, character, which helps to draw many conclusions and understand some of his actions. The character of Peter was very complex, besides, Peter was a very versatile, extraordinary personality, so it is impossible to describe him in a nutshell. But having understood his character and thinking, it is much easier to understand him as a whole, to understand the motives of many of his actions, even at first glance inexplicable. And Peter had plenty of such incomprehensible actions. That is why most of this thesis is devoted to the very personality of Peter I, his life, the process of coming to power.

This thesis work consists of chapters, each of which fully reveals one or another issue on the topic under consideration.

In my work, I fully consider not only civil, family and other branches of law under Peter I, but also pay sufficient attention to the reforms regarding the legal status of estates, the establishment of the police, as well as many other issues that somehow relate to this topic.

In general, it should be noted that the reforms of Peter I turned Russia upside down, introduced a lot of new things into its fate, put it on a new path. Law after the Petrine reforms changed a lot, in many ways for the better.

Most of the work is devoted to the litigation. I consider him not only under Peter, but also before him. This, in my opinion, is the most interesting part of his reforms (this is partly why I paid so much attention to this issue).

This work contains many of my personal inputs and opinions, since I analyzed a lot of literature, as well as the opinions of various authors, and did not agree with everyone.

At the end of the work, in conclusion, I sum up the results of the work done, draw conclusions, and express my own opinion.

CHAPTER 1

Portrait of Peter I

Peter the Great, in his spiritual make-up, was one of those simple people whom it is enough to look at in order to understand them.

Peter was a giant, almost three arshins tall, a whole head taller than any crowd among which he had ever had to stand.

By nature he was a strong man; constant handling of an ax and a hammer further developed his muscular strength and dexterity. He could not only roll a silver plate into a tube, but also cut a piece of cloth with a knife on the fly.

Peter was born into his mother and especially resembled one of her brothers, Fedor. He was the fourteenth child of the many-family Tsar Alexei and the first child from his second marriage - with Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. In the Naryshkins, liveliness of nerves and briskness of thought were family traits. Subsequently, a number of wits emerged from their midst, and one successfully played the role of a jester in the salon of Catherine the Second. Very early, already in his twentieth year, his head began to shake, and in moments of reflection or strong inner excitement, convulsions appeared on his handsome face that disfigured him. All this, together with a mole on his right cheek and the habit of waving his arms widely on the move, made his figure noticeable everywhere.

His usual gait, especially with the understandable size of his step, was such that his companion could hardly keep up with him. It was difficult for him to sit still for a long time: at long feasts, he often jumped up from his chair and ran out into another room to stretch himself. This mobility made him a great dancer at a young age.

If Peter didn't sleep, didn't drive, didn't feast, or didn't inspect something, he was sure to build something. His hands were always at work, and calluses never left them. He took up manual labor whenever the opportunity presented itself. In his youth, when he still did not know much, inspecting a factory or plant, he constantly grabbed at the observed case. It was difficult for him to remain a mere spectator of someone else's work, especially new to him. He wanted to work on his own. Over the years, he acquired an immense mass of technical knowledge. Already on his first trip abroad, the German princesses concluded from a conversation with him that he knew perfectly up to 14 crafts.

Kind by nature as a man, Peter was rude as a king, not accustomed to respect a person either in himself or in others; the environment in which he grew up could not instill this respect in him. Natural mind, years, acquired position later covered this gap of youth; but sometimes it shone through even in later years. Favorite Aleksashka Menshikov in his youth more than once experienced the power of Peter's fist on his face. Until the end, he could not understand either the historical logic or the physiology of folk life. All his transformative activity was guided by the thought of the necessity and omnipotence of imperious coercion; he hoped only by force to impose on the people the blessings he lacked, and consequently he believed in the possibility of diverting people's life from its historical channel and driving it into new shores. Therefore, caring for the people, he strained their labor to the extreme, wasting human resources and lives without calculation, without any frugality.

Peter was an honest and sincere man, strict and demanding of himself, fair and kind to others; but in the direction of his activity, he was more accustomed to communicating with things, with working tools, than with people, and therefore he treated people as with working tools, knew how to use them, quickly guessed who was good for what, but did not know how and did not like to enter into their situation, to save their strength, did not differ in the moral responsiveness of his father. Peter knew people, but did not know how or did not always want to understand them. These features of his character were sadly reflected in his family relationships. A great connoisseur and organizer of his state, Peter did not know well one corner of it, his own house, his family, where he was a guest. He did not get along with his first wife, had reason to complain about his second, and did not get along with his son at all, did not save him from hostile influences, which led to the death of the prince and endangered the very existence of the dynasty.

So Peter came out unlike his predecessors. Peter was a great master, who understood economic interests best of all, most sensitive to the sources of state wealth. His predecessors, the kings of the old and new dynasty, were similar masters; but those were Sidney masters, white-handed women, accustomed to managing with the hands of others, and from Peter came the master-laborer, self-taught, tsar-craftsman.

According to Klyuchevsky's description, Peter I "was kind by nature as a person, but rude as a tsar, not accustomed to respecting a person either in himself or in others." With all his mind, curiosity and diligence, Peter did not have a good upbringing, did not know how to behave in society, as befits a member of the royal family.

The rudeness of expressions characteristic of Peter was always associated with the shortcomings of his upbringing. But that doesn't explain anything. Ruler by dynastic right, Peter sincerely considered himself sent down to Russia by Divine Providence, the ultimate truth, incapable of error. Measuring Russia by his own yardstick, he felt that it was necessary to begin the transformation by breaking the old Testament customs.

1.2 Biography of Peter 1

On May 30 (June 9, according to the new style), 1672, Moscow resounded with bells, which were interspersed with cannon volleys from the Kremlin towers - Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Tsarina Natalia Kirillovna, nee Naryshkina, had a son, Peter. The boyars cautiously examined the baby and, marveling at his long body, breathed a sigh of relief: the child looked healthy and cheerful. This was especially striking after looking at his half-brothers Fyodor and Ivan, the sons of the tsar and the first wife of Maria Miloslavskaya, who suffered from severe congenital ailments from childhood. Finally, the Romanov dynasty could count on a healthy and energetic heir to the throne.

Like everyone else, the character of Peter I was laid down in childhood. The tsar-father, faithful to the precepts of Domostroy, did not single out his youngest son in any way. All worries about the child fell on the shoulders of the mother. The future queen Natalia Kirillovna was brought up in the house of Artamon Matveev, who was an ardent supporter of reforms and encouraged all sorts of innovations in everyday life.

The early childhood of the prince passed in a European home and its unique atmosphere, which later helped Peter to be among foreigners without prejudice and gain useful experience from them.

At the request of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, not very literate, but patient and affectionate clerk of the Great Parish, Nikita Moiseevich Zotov, who not only did not seek to suppress the natural wit and restlessness of the royal offspring, was appointed to Peter as a teacher in Russian literature and the law of God, but managed to become a friend of Peter . It was he who instilled in Peter the habit of filling his leisure hours with various "handicrafts", which remained with him for the rest of his life.

At the age of three, Peter already gave orders to the Butyrsky Reiter Regiment of the "new system" at the royal review, which pleasantly surprised Alexei Mikhailovich and aroused the enmity of his brother Fyodor Miloslavsky and his sister, Princess Sophia.

So Peter grew up - strong and hardy, not afraid of any physical work. Palace intrigues developed in him secrecy and the ability to hide his true feelings and intentions. Forgotten by everyone, except for a few relatives who occasionally visited, he gradually turned into a child of an abandoned boyar estate, surrounded by burdocks and rickety townsmen's huts. For days on end he would disappear anywhere, resorting only to Mass. He now had to study in secret. Knowing the suspiciousness of the Miloslavskys, when meeting with the patriarch, who brought small sums of money to the disgraced queen, he pretended that he had not been taught to read, write and count. Bishop Joachim always lamented over this in his conversations with the boyars, who, in turn, gossiped about the ignorance of the abandoned prince in the Kremlin. Knowing the Kremlin mores, Peter so lulled the vigilance of all his enemies in the Kremlin. Subsequently, this helped him become an outstanding diplomat.

Acquaintance "with Europe" in early youth for Peter largely predetermined the whole worldview of further reforms: he will equip Russia as a huge German settlement, borrowing entirely something from Sweden, something from England, something from Brandenburg.

Peter's engineering interests gave him the opportunity to invent new principles of weapons and tactical innovations. To Gordon's surprise, in 1680 he opened a special "rocket plant" in Preobrazhensky, in which he made first "artistic lights", and later - lighting shells, which remained in the Russian army until 1874. The knowledge of ballistics led Peter to the idea of a fundamentally new type of open artillery position - redoubts, brilliantly tested in the Battle of Poltava. The Narva disaster forced the tsar to take a critical look at the weapons of the soldiers: and he finds the simplest solution for screwing a three-sided bayonet to the barrel of an infantryman's gun, making the attack of the Russian infantry long before Suvorov the main tactic. He himself examined naval officers who arrived from Holland in navigation and cannon fire control.

Peter I was an outstanding diplomat. In his arsenal of means were all the classic tricks that Peter easily forgot at the right time and reincarnated as a mysterious eastern king, who suddenly began kissing the forehead of a stunned interlocutor, pouring folk proverbs that baffled translators, or suddenly stop the audience, like the Persian Shah, citing that his wife is waiting for him! Outwardly sincere and benevolent, Peter, according to European diplomats, never revealed his true intentions and therefore invariably achieved what he wanted.

The role of Peter I in the history of Russia

Not a single name in Russian history has acquired such a huge number of legends and myths, which are based on historical lies, like the name of Peter. You read writings about Peter, and his characteristics, by outstanding Russian historians, and you are amazed at the contradiction between the facts they report about the state of Muscovite Russia on the eve of Peter's accession to the throne, Peter's activities and the conclusions they draw on the basis of these facts. The first biographer of Peter Krekshin addressed Peter: "Our Father, Peter the Great! You made us from non-existence to non-existence." Peter's orderly Nartov called Peter an earthly God. Neplyuev argued: "Whatever you look at in Russia, everything has its beginning." For some reason, the flattery of court sycophants to Peter was put by historians as the basis for characterizing his activities. I. Solonevich shows completely legitimate surprise that "All historians, citing "particulars", list blatant examples of carelessness, mismanagement, ruthlessness, great ruin and very modest successes, and as a result of the addition of endless minuses, dirt and blood, a portrait of a sort of "national genius" is obtained I think that there has never been such a strange arithmetic operation in the entire world literature. " Yes, it is very difficult to find another such biased historical conclusion. The question is - should we, witnesses of the most terrible period in the history of Russia - Bolshevism, engage in clarifying the question of whether or not Peter the Great was a brilliant reformer of the Russian state? Are there really no other, more important and significant topics for a modern thinker and historian at a time when Russians need to establish a correct historical view of how they came to Bolshevism. This question must be answered with all decisiveness, that the question of the historical role of Peter I is the most important question. The myth about Peter as a brilliant reformer who "saved" the Russian state from inevitable death is connected with the myth that Muscovite Russia was on the edge of the abyss. These false myths of historians who belonged to the camp of the Russian intelligentsia completely distort the historical perspective. In the light of these myths, the history of pre-Petrine Russia, as well as the history of the so-called Petersburg period, looks like an absurd interweaving of absurd events. Adhering to these two myths, it is absolutely impossible to detect a historical pattern in the development of Russian history after Peter I. But this historical legitimacy of the reason for the ugly development of Russian life after Peter I is easily revealed, one has only to understand that Peter was not a reformer, but a revolutionary ("Robespierre on the throne ", - according to Pushkin's apt assessment). Then a causal relationship is easily established between the anti-national activities of the "genius" Peter, the destructive activities of Freemasonry and the latter's spiritual brainchild - the Russian intelligentsia during the so-called Petersburg period of Russian history, and the appearance at the end of this period of the "genius" Lenin and Stalin. These are all links of the same chain, the first links of which were forged by Peter the Great. Anyone who does not understand that Peter I is the “Alpha” and Lenin is the “Omega” of one and the same natural historical process will never have a correct idea of the real reasons for the emergence of Bolshevism in a country that has always dreamed of becoming Holy Russia.

In Boris Bashilov’s book Robispierre on the Throne, one can read the following words: “Peter the Great, as we can see from the description of the main features of his personality by Klyuchevsky, could not and did not have a harmonious worldview. And people who do not have a definite worldview easily fall under the influence of other people, whom they recognize as authorities for themselves. Such authorities for Peter, as we see, were Patrick Gordon and Lefort, whose influence on Peter, as all contemporaries admit, was exceptional. Peter did not independently come up with the idea to send everything Moscow to hell and remake Russia into Europe. He only blindly followed the plans suggested to him by Patrick Gordon and Lefort before going abroad and by various European politicians he met in Europe. The politicians of the West, supporting Peter's intentions to plant European culture in Russia, did so, of course, not out of a disinterested desire to turn Russia into a cultural state. They, of course, understood that a cultured Russia would become even more dangerous for Europe. They were interested in Peter becoming imbued with hatred for Russian traditions and culture. They also understood that Peter's attempts to forcibly turn Russia into Europe were doomed to failure in advance and that, apart from weakening Russia, they would give nothing. But this is exactly what the foreigners needed. Therefore, they tried to confirm Peter's intention to carry out reforms as quickly as possible and in the most decisive way.

But I cannot fully agree with this. It is possible that Peter really did learn from Western politicians, but he could not be accused of hatred of the people. Perhaps he was somewhat too rude, but no more than because of his lack of education and simply natural rudeness, if you can call it that. Yes, there really were mistakes in his reign, but he is a man, and it is human to err. Moreover, Russia, and other countries, up to the present day does not know a single ruler who would not make a single mistake, who would please everyone. After all, it's impossible to please everyone! Peter had a bright personality, he was a very temperamental person in everything, and really rude and harsh, but this did not make him a bad ruler, did not beg for his services to Russia. And until now, people speak with respect about the Great Peter.

CHAPTER 2

Rise to power

“ Peter came to power after several years of struggle for the throne, which was waged by two factions led by the Miloslavskys and the Naryshkins. “1 Sagittarius, led by Sophia, tried to arrange a new coup with the aim of overthrowing Peter. Thus, very soon, Peter felt the emptiness on which his authority was based. This situation was realized not only by Peter, but also by his predecessors, and they tried to find a way out of it. They drew up a program of transformations that aimed only at correcting the existing foundations of society, but not replacing them. The transformations were to touch

reorganization of the armed forces, finance, economy and trade. The need for closer contact with European countries and appeal to them for help was recognized. The plans also included changes in the social sphere: the provision of self-government to the urban population and even the partial abolition of serfdom.

Let us now return to Peter and see what he did. Peter accepted the already existing program, slightly changing it and expanding it, added a reform of morals, changes in the way of behavior, following the example established in Europe, but left inviolable the main problem of the social sphere - serfdom.

The protracted war, which lasted 20 years, led the adoption of many decisions, the consequence of this was the acceleration of the course of transformations and, at times, the inconsistency of the decisions made and the activities carried out. “Constantly irritated by the war, carried away by its wave, Peter did not have the opportunity to systematize his plans; he swept like a whirlwind over his power and his people. He invented, created and terrified.”2

Peter's reforming activity began immediately upon the return of the Great Embassy from Europe. The official goal of the Embassy was to confirm Russia's friendly relations with European countries and to search for allies against Turkey, but the real task for Peter was to learn about the political and cultural life of Europe, the state structure, the education system, the structure and equipment of the army, about the fleet - Peter was interested in absolutely everything. As for the diplomatic purposes of the trip, it should be noted that the countries of Europe received the Russian embassy, to put it mildly, coolly: not only did Russia not find allies against Turkey, but it also turned out that elements of an anti-Russian bloc began to form in Europe. It was not possible to achieve bright successes in the diplomatic field. But this trip gave a lot to Peter: he saw and solved for himself a lot of questions that interested him.

“ Returning from a trip to Europe in August 1699. , the king appeared to his subjects in the attire of a Westerner, in which he had not yet been seen. A few days later, on August 29, 1699. , a decree was issued according to which it was ordered to shave beards and dress in a foreign dress, Hungarian or French cut, samples of the established dress were pasted around the streets. The poor were allowed to wear old clothes, but from 1705 everyone had to wear new clothes under pain of a fine or more severe punishment.”1 The beard has long been considered an inviolable decoration, a sign of honor, generosity, a subject of pride, so this decree aroused resistance, but Peter decided this problem in an economic way: wearing a beard was subject to a special tax, the amount of which was determined by the wealth of the owner of this decoration. For schismatics and wealthy merchants, a beard cost 100 rubles a year, and upon payment of the tax, a plaque was issued with the inscription “a beard is an extra burden.” Quite an amazing beginning of transformation, but if we think more deeply about this issue, turn to research in the field of psychology, we will see that in this way the psychological barrier between Russia and the West was partially broken, and even, to some extent, it prepared people's minds for the perception of further changes.

The main step of Peter in the first years of his reign was the destruction of the archers, who from the very childhood of the king stood in his way. After Peter announced his intention to reform the armed forces and form a new army in a European way, he seemed to make it clear that the time when the archers were the most combat-ready force had passed. Thus, the archers were condemned to destruction. Streltsy regiments were now sent to the dirtiest work, away from Moscow - the archers fell into disgrace. In March 1698 they revolted, at which time Peter was in England. Streltsy sent a deputation from Azov to Moscow outlining their complaints. The deputation returned empty-handed, but brought with them disturbing news that Peter had surrendered himself to foreigners in body and soul, and Princess Sophia, imprisoned in the Maiden Monastery, calls on her former supporters to defend the throne and the altar from the rebellious and impious tsar. and moved to Moscow. General Shein spoke to meet them, they met on June 17, 1698. near the Resurrection Monastery. The army of General Shein was superior both in numbers and in equipment, so the victory was on the side of government troops. Several people were killed and the rest were taken prisoner. Peter, having learned about this, was in a hurry to return and, taking advantage of the situation, decided that this was a good pretext for delivering a final blow to the archery formations. Arriving in Moscow, Peter immediately announced a search, which was hastily carried out by General Shein and Romodanovsky, but this was not enough and the search was resumed several times. The captured archers were either killed or sent to the dungeons. Torture was carried out in order to obtain clear evidence of the participation of Princess Sophia in a conspiracy against Peter. The search was accompanied by mass executions. Peter set out to get rid of the archers once and for all and did everything to achieve this goal. The shooters are gone. There were no more archers, but there were no troops either. “A few months later, the tsar realized his haste, because he was forced to “bring the dead back to life” and in 1700, archery regiments took part in the battle near Narva - these are provincial archers, who, by decree of September 11, 1698, were deprived of their name and organization, and by decree of January 29, 1699. both were returned to them. “1 The final decision to exterminate the archers was made in 1705 after the Arkhangelsk rebellion, in which the remnants of undisciplined hordes took part.

After the destruction of the archers, another problem arose before the tsar: Russia did not have an army that could offer serious resistance. Under the walls of Azov, Peter tested the value of his army and discovered that the armed force that he hoped to find in them did not exist. . It is no secret that many old boyars did not understand Peter, and, therefore, did not welcome his undertakings. Unwillingness to change anything, conservatism of thinking and a hostile attitude towards everything foreign, new, turned against the tsar part of the boyars. And Peter had to deal with that. Perhaps it was this factor that prevented Peter from going further and deeper in his transformations. The opposition often played an inhibitory role in the promotion of reforms. A big blow for Peter was that his son Alexei entered the opposition circles. Peter repeatedly tried to involve Alexei in his affairs and concerns, but the prince showed complete indifference to this. “Finally, on October 27, 1715, Peter put his son before a choice: either he would come to his senses and, together with his father, take up the matter, or renounce the succession to the throne. his father's demand to determine his place in life, Alexei replied that he agreed to be tonsured a monk. “1 But in reality, Alexei had no desire to lead a monastic life. Alexey saw a way out for himself in flight abroad. The prince fled to Austria, where he was secretly granted asylum. After a short time, he was found and on January 31, 1718 brought to Moscow. Having received his father's forgiveness, he signed a pre-prepared manifesto on abdication. After that, the prince revealed all his accomplices who were convicted, executed or exiled to Siberia. After these events in March 1718, the royal court moved to St. Petersburg. “Fear for his life muddied Alexei’s mind. During interrogations, he lied, slandered others in order to belittle his guilt. But the Petersburg stage of the search established his indisputable guilt. On June 14, 1718, Alexei was taken into custody and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress. The court, which consisted of 127 important ranks, unanimously declared the prince worthy of death. On June 24, 1718, Alexei was sentenced to death for high treason.”2

To the question What is the role of Peter 1 in history? given by the author VALERY NOX the best answer is This is, first of all, the creation of a state with a harmonious
management system, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy,
influencing international politics. As a result of Petrovsky
reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any
means to achieve their goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal
state structure - to a warship, where everything and everything is subordinated
the will of one person - the captain. Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state,
the central role in which belonged to the nobility. However,
Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and reforms were carried out in
mainly due to the most severe exploitation and coercion. The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated. No matter how
relate to the methods and style of his transformations, one cannot but
admit - Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in the world
stories.
Source: Our History Don't you know?
Weak military force, backwardness in the economy, lack of education, etc.

Answer from Neurologist[guru]
A truly great man. After all, it was he who created the modern bureaucratic system, from which we still suffer. It was he who finally enslaved the lower classes, the consequences of this slavery are still felt. It was he who destroyed many people for the sake of building a city in the swamps. Although it was possible to equip the same Revel for example.
Although I still like St. Petersburg

Answer from get bored[newbie]
Peter 1 opened a window to Europe, founded the City of St. Petersburg, built a fleet.

Answer from User deleted[active]
Russian is European! This is the same. And the Golden Horde turned us into semi-Asians, but Peter pulled us out of this shit! Made me remember that we are Europeans! Whoever did not understand this forever remained an Asian - a slave of the Mongol-Tatars! My condolences!

Answer from Sandals[guru]
Now you can talk as much as you want. All are smart. . Have read. . all sorts of rubbish. And the fact that he was an extraordinary person, being the first emperor of Russia, is an indisputable thing and went down in history forever. It is not known what fate Russia would have had if there had been someone else in power. Apparently it was God's will and there is no need to disturb history. She is what she is - she is. Thanks to. That's all I wanted to say.

Answer from User deleted[guru]
He killed his citizens to surprise Western Europeans with architecture, in general, history repeats itself

Answer from Pavel Vasiliev[guru]
Peter the Great is a man with a capital letter (“there was an eternal worker on the throne”, the Tsar is a carpenter), a Hero, he jumped overboard and saved drowning sailors, right here in Lakhta, 2 km from me. And remember, Yeltsin was walking (someone hit him on the head with a dusty bag) and fell off the bridge. Peter is a university, the Russian Academy of Sciences, the service nobility, these are Russian victories! Glory to Russia! photo by Pavel Vasiliev

Answer from Manana tsitsihwili[guru]
Peter 1 was the first to create a navy, brought a lot of equipment to Russia, improved education, culture, he himself was the first to carry this knowledge on his shoulders and then teach others, not being lazy in physical or mental labor. People did not know the elementary lathe ... As for culture, at all times different peoples took from each other what they like. Isn't our youth now growing up on foreign songs, ideals, fashion...

Portal for the student. Self-training