The biological diversity of the planet includes the genetic intraspecific, species and diversity of ecosystems. Genetic diversity is due to the diversity of traits and properties in individuals of the same species, an example is the many varieties of herbaceous bluebell - more than 300 species and subspecies of woodpecker - about 210 (Fig. 1).
Fig.1 Genetic diversity of bluebell and woodpecker
Species diversity is the variety of species of animals, plants, fungi, lichens and bacteria. According to the results of research by biologists published in the journal PLoS Biology for 2011, the number of described living organisms on the planet is approximately 1.7 million, and the total number of species is estimated at approximately 8.7 million. It is noted that 86% have yet to be discovered. land dwellers and 91% of ocean dwellers. Biologists estimate that a full description of unknown species will require at least 480 years of enhanced research. Thus, the total number of species on the planet will not be known for a long time. The biological diversity of ecosystems depends on natural and climatic conditions, ecosystems are distinguished by structure and functions, in scale from microbiogeocenosis to the biosphere (Fig. 2).
Fig.2 Biological diversity of natural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
Biological diversity is the main natural resource of the planet, which provides an opportunity for sustainable development and is of great ecological, social, aesthetic and economic importance. Our planet can be represented as a complex multicellular organism that, through biological diversity, supports the self-organization of the biosphere, which is expressed in its restoration, resistance to negative natural and anthropogenic influences. Biodiversity allows you to regulate water flows, control erosion, form soils, perform climate-forming functions, and much more.
The genetic intraspecific, species and diversity of ecosystems are interconnected. Genetic diversity ensures species diversity, the diversity of natural ecosystems and landscapes creates conditions for the formation of new species, and an increase in species diversity increases the overall gene pool of the planet's biosphere. Therefore, each specific species contributes to biological diversity and cannot be without (with) beneficial or harmful. Each individual species will perform certain functions in any ecological system, and the loss of any animal or plant leads to an imbalance in the ecosystem. And the more species die out for a non-natural reason, the greater the imbalance. In confirmation of this, we can cite the words of the domestic scientist Nikolai Viktorovich Levashov, that "... the ecological system is nothing more than a balance between all forms and types of living organisms and their habitat ...". One cannot but agree with these words.
The distribution of species over the surface of the planet is uneven, and their biological diversity in natural ecosystems is greatest in tropical rainforests, which occupy 7% of the planet's surface and contain up to 70-80% of all animals and plants known to science. This is not surprising, since tropical forests are rich in plants, which provide a huge number of ecological niches and, as a result, high species diversity. At the initial stages of the formation of the ecological system of the planet and up to the present day, a natural process of the emergence and disappearance of species has taken place and is taking place. The extinction of some species was compensated by the emergence of new species. This process was carried out without human intervention for a very long time. This fact is confirmed by the fact that in different geological epochs there was a process of extinction and emergence of species, which we can judge from the found fossils, imprints and traces of life activity (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Fossils of ammonites and shells of bivalve mollusks that lived on the planet about 150 million years ago, in the Jurassic period
However, at present, under the influence of human factors, there is a reduction in biological diversity. This became especially noticeable in the 20th century, when, under the influence of human activity, the rate of extinction of species exceeded the natural rate, which led to the destruction of the genetic potential of the biosphere of our planet. The main reasons for the reduction of the biodiversity of the planet can be considered hunting and fishing, forest fires (up to 90% of fires happen due to human fault), destruction and change of habitats (construction of roads, power lines, dishonest construction of residential complexes, deforestation, etc.) , pollution of natural components with chemicals, the introduction of alien species into unusual ecosystems, the selective use of natural resources, the introduction of GMO crops in agriculture (when pollinated by insects, genetically modified plants spread, which leads to the displacement of natural plant species from the ecosystem) and many other reasons . In confirmation of the above reasons, we can cite some facts of violations of natural ecosystems, which, unfortunately, are a huge number. So, on April 20, 2010, the largest man-made disaster occurred in the Gulf of Mexico, caused by an explosion on the Deepwater Horizon oil platform at the Macondo field (USA). As a result of this accident, about 5 million barrels of oil spilled into the Gulf of Mexico in 152 days, resulting in an oil slick with a total area of 75 thousand square kilometers (Fig. 4) . This is, according to the most conservative estimates, how much actually spilled out is unknown.
The environmental consequences for the ecosystem of the bay and coastal areas are difficult to assess, since oil pollution disrupts natural processes, changes the habitats of all types of living organisms, and accumulates in biomass. Petroleum products have a long decay period and rather quickly cover the surface of the waters with a layer of oil film, which prevents the access of air and light. As of November 2, 2010, 6814 dead animals were collected as a result of the accident. But these are only the first losses, how many animals and plant organisms have died and will die when toxic substances enter the food chain is unknown. It is also unknown how such a man-made disaster will affect other regions of the planet. The natural ecosystem of the Gulf of Mexico and its coasts is capable of self-restoration, but this process can drag on for many years.
Another reason for the reduction of biological diversity is deforestation for the construction of roads, housing, agricultural land, etc. As a confirming fact, we can cite the construction of a high-speed highway Moscow - St. Petersburg through the Khimki forest. The Khimki forest was the largest undivided natural complex, which was part of the forest-park protective belt of Moscow and the Moscow region, and made it possible to maintain high biological diversity (Fig. 5). In addition, it served as the most important regulator of atmospheric air purity, a recreational natural complex for more than half a million residents of nearby settlements, capable of providing a favorable environment for living.
Fig. 5 Khimki forest before the construction of a high-speed highway
As a result of the construction of the high-speed highway, the Khimki forest park suffered irreparable environmental damage, which is expressed in the destruction of the only corridor that runs along the floodplain of the river. Klyazma and connecting the Khimki forest with neighboring forests (Fig. 6).
Rice. 6 Construction of a high-speed road through the Khimki forest
The migration routes of such animals as elk, wild boar, badger and other organisms have been disrupted, which will eventually lead to their disappearance from the Khimki forest. The construction of the road further led to the fragmentation of the forest, which will further increase the adverse edge effects on natural ecosystems (chemical pollution, the impact of acoustic noise, the collapse of forest walls adjacent to the highway, etc.) (Fig. 7). Unfortunately, there are a huge number of such examples throughout the country and around the world, and all together this causes irreparable environmental damage to biological diversity.
The fact of biodiversity reduction is also confirmed by (c) studies, which can be found in the works and. According to a report by the World Wildlife Fund, the total biodiversity of the planet has declined by approximately 28% since 1970. Considering that a huge number of living organisms have not yet been described and the fact that only known species were taken into account in the assessment of biodiversity, it can be assumed that biodiversity loss is mainly occurring at the regional level. However, if a person continues to develop in a technocratic and consumer way and does not take real actions to change the situation, then there is a real threat to global biodiversity, and, as a result, the possible death of civilization. The decrease in the diversity of life leads to a decrease in the maintenance of the functions of the biosphere in its natural state. Ignorance and denial of the laws of nature often leads to the misconception that the loss of one species of animal or plant in nature is interchangeable. Yes, this is so, if it is caused by the natural course of the evolution of living matter. However, today "intelligent" human activity has begun to predominate. I would like to recall one of the laws of ecology of the American ecologist Barry Commoner: "Everything is connected with everything." The law shows the integrity of the ecological system from the living organisms that form it and the environment. I would like to finish my little reflection with the words of the Bulgarian aphorist Veselin Georgiev: “Take care of nature in yourself, and not yourself in nature.”
Biodiversity- short for "biological diversity" - means the diversity of living organisms in all its manifestations: from genes to the biosphere. The issues of study, use and conservation of biodiversity began to receive much attention after the signing by many states of the Convention on Biological Diversity (UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992).
There are three main type of biodiversity:
- genetic diversity, reflecting intraspecific diversity and due to the variability of individuals;
- species diversity, reflecting the diversity of living organisms (plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms). Currently, about 1.7 million species have been described, although their total number, according to some estimates, is up to 50 million;
- diversity of ecosystems covers differences between ecosystem types, habitat diversity and ecological processes. They note the diversity of ecosystems not only in terms of structural and functional components, but also in terms of scale - from microbiogeocenosis to the biosphere;
All types of biological diversity interconnected: Genetic diversity ensures species diversity. The diversity of ecosystems and landscapes creates conditions for the formation of new species. An increase in species diversity increases the overall genetic potential of the living organisms of the Biosphere. Each species contributes to diversity - from this point of view, there are no useless and harmful species.
Distribution species on the surface of the planet unevenly. Species diversity in natural habitats is highest in the tropical zone and decreases with increasing latitude. The richest ecosystems in species diversity are tropical rainforests, which occupy about 7% of the planet's surface and contain more than 90% of all species.
In the geological history of the Earth in the biosphere, there has been a constant emergence and extinction of species All species have a finite lifetime. The extinction was compensated by the emergence of new species, and as a result, the total number of species in the biosphere increased. The extinction of species is a natural process of evolution that occurs without human intervention.
Currently, under the influence of anthropogenic factors, there is reduction biological diversity due to the elimination (extinction, destruction) of species. In the last century, under the influence of human activity, the rate of extinction of species has exceeded the natural rate by many times (according to some estimates, 40,000 times). There is an irreversible and uncompensated destruction of the unique gene pool of the planet.
Elimination of species as a result of human activities can occur in two directions- direct extermination (hunting, fishing) and indirect (habitat destruction, disturbance of trophic interactions). Overfishing is the most obvious direct cause of the direct decline of species, but it has a much lesser impact on extinction than indirect causes of habitat change (eg, chemical pollution of a river or deforestation).
Diversity of biotic cover, or biodiversity, is one of the factors for the optimal functioning of ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole. Biodiversity ensures the resilience of ecosystems to external stresses and maintains a dynamic balance in them. The living from the non-living, first of all, differs by several orders of magnitude in its great diversity and the ability not only to preserve this diversity, but also to significantly increase it in the course of evolution. In general, the evolution of life on Earth can be considered as a process of structuring the biosphere, a process of increasing the diversity of living organisms, forms and levels of their organization, a process of the emergence of mechanisms that ensure the stability of living systems and ecosystems in the constantly changing conditions of our planet. It is the ability of ecosystems to maintain balance, using the hereditary information of living organisms for this, that makes the biosphere as a whole and local ecosystems material-energy systems in the full sense.
In this photo we see many types of plants growing together in a meadow in the floodplain of the river. Budyumkan in the southeast of the Chita region. Why did nature need so many species in one meadow? This is what this lecture is about.
Russian geobotanist L.G. Ramensky in 1910 he formulated the principle of ecological individuality of species - a principle that is the key to understanding the role of biodiversity in the biosphere. We see that many species live together in each ecosystem at the same time, but we rarely think about the ecological meaning of this. Ecological individuality plant species living in the same plant community in the same ecosystem allows the community to quickly rebuild when external conditions change. For example, in a dry summer in this ecosystem, the main role in ensuring the biological cycle is played by individuals of species A, which are more adapted to life with a moisture deficit. In a wet year, individuals of species A are not at their optimum and cannot ensure the biological cycle in the changed conditions. In this year, individuals of species B begin to play the main role in ensuring the biological cycle in this ecosystem. The third year turned out to be cooler; under these conditions, neither species A nor species B can ensure the full use of the ecological potential of this ecosystem. But the ecosystem is rapidly rebuilding, as it contains individuals of species B, which do not need warm weather and photosynthesize well at low temperatures.
Each species of living organisms can exist in a certain range of values of external factors. Outside these values, individuals of the species die. In the diagram, we see the limits of endurance (limits of tolerance) of the species according to one of the factors. Within these limits, thereoptimum zone, the most favorable for the species, and two zones of oppression. Rule L.G. Ramensky on the ecological individuality of species argues that the limits of endurance and optimum zones in different species living together do not coincide.
In nature, we find a lot of factors or mechanisms that provide and maintain a high species diversity of local ecosystems. First of all, such factors include excessive reproduction and overproduction of seeds and fruits. In nature, seeds and fruits are produced hundreds and thousands of times more than is necessary to make up for the natural loss due to premature death and dying of old age.
Thanks to adaptations for distributing fruits and seeds over long distances, the rudiments of new plants fall not only on those areas that are favorable for their growth now, but also on those areas whose conditions are unfavorable for the growth and development of individuals of these species. Nevertheless, these seeds germinate here, exist in a depressed state for some time and die. This happens as long as environmental conditions are stable. But if the conditions change, then the seedlings of species that were previously doomed to death begin to grow and develop here, going through a full cycle of their ontogenetic (individual) development. Ecologists say that in nature there is powerful pressure of diversity of life to all local ecosystems.
General land cover gene pool- its flora-local ecosystems of this region are used most fully due to the pressure of biodiversity. At the same time, local ecosystems in terms of species become richer. During their formation and rearrangement, the ecological selection of suitable components is carried out from a larger number of applicants whose diagerms have found their way into a given habitat. Thus, the probability of forming an ecologically optimal plant community increases.
Thus, the stability factor of a local ecosystem is not only the diversity of species living in this local ecosystem, but also the diversity of species in neighboring ecosystems, from which the introduction of diagerms (seeds and spores) is possible. This applies not only to plants that lead an attached lifestyle, but even more so to animals that can move from one local ecosystem to another. Many animal individuals, not belonging specifically to any of the local ecosystems (biogeocenoses), nevertheless play an important ecological role and participate in ensuring the biological cycle in several ecosystems at once. Moreover, they can alienate biomass in one local ecosystem, and throw out excrement in another, stimulating the growth and development of plants in this second local ecosystem. Sometimes such a transfer of matter and energy from one ecosystem to another can be extremely powerful. This flow connects completely different ecosystems.
Diversity of species and diversity of life forms or ecobiomorph are not the same thing. I will demonstrate this with an example. In the meadow, species, genera and families of plants can live 2-3 times more than in the dark coniferous forest. However, in terms of ecobiomorphs and synusia, it turns out that the biodiversity of the dark coniferous forest as an ecosystem is much higher than the biodiversity of the meadow as an ecosystem. In the meadow, we have 2-3 classes of ecobiomorphs, and in the dark coniferous forest, 8-10 classes. There are many species in the meadow, but all of them belong either to the class of ecobiomorphs, perennial mesophytic summer-green grasses, or to the class of annual grasses, or to the class of green mosses. In the forest, different classes of ecobiomorphs are: dark coniferous trees, deciduous trees, deciduous shrubs, deciduous shrubs, perennial mesophytic summer green grasses, green mosses, epigeic lichens, epiphytic lichens.
The biodiversity of organisms in the biosphere is not limited to the diversity of taxa and the diversity of ecobiomorphs of living organisms. For example, we can get into an area that is entirely occupied by one local elemental ecosystem - a raised swamp, or a damp alder forest at the mouth of a large river. In another area on the same territory, we will meet at least 10-15 types of local elementary ecosystems. Ecosystems of coniferous-broad-leaved forests at the bottom of river valleys are regularly replaced here by ecosystems of cedar-oak mixed-shrub forests on the southern gentle slopes of mountains, larch-oak mixed-grass forests on the northern gentle slopes of mountains, spruce-fir forests in the upper part of the northern steep slopes of mountains and ecosystems steppe meadows and clump vegetation on the steep southern slopes of the mountains. It is easy to understand what is intra-landscape diversity of ecosystems determined not only by the diversity of their constituent species and ecobiomorphs, but also variety of ecological landscape background associated primarily with the diversity of landforms, the diversity of soils and their underlying rocks.
The processes of extinction of species in the biosphere are compensated by the processes of speciation. If the balance of these two processes is upset in favor of extinction, then the Earth will most likely face the fate of Venus - that is, an atmosphere of carbon dioxide and water vapor, a surface temperature of about +200 degrees Celsius, evaporated oceans and seas. Life on a protein basis in such conditions, of course, is simply impossible. Having become a powerful geological force, humanity must take responsibility not only for the future of its children and grandchildren, but also for the future of the entire biosphere. And this future will largely depend on how far the process of extinction of species in the Earth's biosphere lags behind the process of formation of new species.
For the accounting species that are on the verge of extinction, many countries create Red Books - lists of rare and endangered species of living organisms. To preserve and maintain biological diversity, specially protected natural areas are created - protected areas (reserves, national parks, etc.), genetic data banks. The preservation of an individual species is possible only if its habitat with the entire complex of species included in it, as well as climatic, geophysical and other conditions, is protected. A special role is played by the conservation of environment-forming species (edificatory species), which form the internal environment of the ecosystem. The creation of protected areas is aimed at protecting not only individual species, but also entire complexes and landscapes.
Reserves also serve to evaluate and monitoring state of biodiversity. There is no unified system for monitoring the state of biodiversity in Russia today. The most complete and permanent control over changes in biodiversity components is carried out in reserves. Every year, reserves prepare reports on the state of ecosystems ("Chronicles of Nature") - summaries of data on the state of protected areas, protected populations of plants and animals. Some reserves have been keeping "Chronicles of Nature" for more than 50 years, which include continuous series of data on the number of animals, biological diversity, ecosystem dynamics, as well as data on climate observations.
Part of the reserves of Russia (18) is part of the international network of biosphere reserves, specially created to monitor the state of biodiversity, climatic, biogeochemical and other processes on the scale of the Biosphere.
reasons need conservation biodiversity many: the need for biological resources to meet the needs of mankind (food, materials, medicines, etc.), ethical and aesthetic aspects (life is valuable in itself), etc. However, the main reason for the conservation of biodiversity is that it plays a leading role in ensuring the sustainability of ecosystems and the Biosphere as a whole (absorption of pollution, climate stabilization, provision of conditions suitable for life). Biodiversity performs a regulatory function in the implementation of all biogeochemical, climatic and other processes on Earth. Each species, no matter how insignificant it may seem, contributes to ensuring the sustainability of not only the “native” local ecosystem, but the Biosphere as a whole.
SOIL ECOLOGY
LECTURE № 8,9,10
SUBJECT:
Ecological functions of soils. Biochemical transformation of the upper layers of the lithosphere. Transformation of surface waters into groundwater and participation in the formation of river runoff. Regulation of the gas regime of the atmosphere . Ecological function of soils. Participation of soils in the formation of the geochemical flow of elements.
The soil cover forms one of the geophysical shells of the Earth - the pedosphere. The main geospheric functions of the soil as a natural body are due to the position of the soil at the junction of animate and inanimate nature. And the main one is the provision of life on Earth. It is in the soil that terrestrial plants take root, small animals, a huge mass of microorganisms live in it. As a result of soil formation, it is in the soil that water and mineral nutrition elements that are vital for organisms are concentrated in the forms of chemical compounds available to them. Thus, soil is a condition for the existence of life, but at the same time soil is a consequence of life on Earth.
The global functions of soils in the biosphere are based on the following fundamental qualities. First, the soil serves as a habitat and physical support for a huge number of organisms; secondly, the soil is a necessary, irreplaceable link and regulator of biogeochemical cycles; practically, the cycles of all nutrients are carried out through the soil.
“Old times the richest countries were those whose nature is most abundant” - Henry Buckle.
Biodiversity is one of the fundamental phenomena that characterizes the manifestation of life on Earth. The decrease in the level of biodiversity occupies a special place among the main environmental problems of our time.
The consequence of the extinction of species will be the destruction of existing ecological ties and the degradation of natural groups, their inability to self-sustain, which will lead to their disappearance. Further reduction of biodiversity can lead to destabilization of the biota, loss of the integrity of the biosphere and its ability to maintain the most important characteristics of the environment. Due to the irreversible transition of the biosphere to a new state, it may become unsuitable for human life. Man is completely dependent on biological resources.
There are many reasons for the conservation of biodiversity. This is the need to use biological resources to meet the needs of mankind (food, technical materials, medicines, etc.), ethical and aesthetic aspects, and the like.
However, the main reason for the conservation of biodiversity is that biodiversity plays a leading role in ensuring the stability of ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole (absorption of pollution, stabilization of the climate, provision of conditions suitable for life).
Importance of biodiversity
In order to live and survive in nature, a person has learned to use the beneficial properties of biodiversity components to obtain food, raw materials for the manufacture of clothing, tools, housing construction, and energy sources. The modern economy is based on the use of bioresources.
The economic significance of biodiversity lies in the use of biological resources - this is the foundation on which civilization is built. These resources are the basis of most human activities such as agriculture, pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper, horticulture, cosmetics, construction and waste management.
Biodiversity is also a recreational resource. The recreational value of biodiversity is also of great importance for recreation. The main direction of recreational activity is getting pleasure without destroying nature. We are talking about hiking, photography, bird watching, swimming with whales and wild dolphins, and the like. Rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs create opportunities for water sports, water walks, swimming, recreational fishing. Worldwide, the ecotourism industry is growing at a rapid pace and includes up to 200 million people annually in its orbit.
Health Value
Biodiversity hides from us many more undiscovered cures. For example, quite recently, environmentalists with the help of drones found on one of the Hawaiian rocks.
For centuries, plant and animal extracts have been used by humans to treat various diseases. Modern medicine is interested in biological resources, hoping to find new types of drugs. There is an opinion that the wider the variety of living beings, the more opportunities there are for the discovery of new drugs.
The ecological value of species diversity is a prerequisite for the survival and sustainable functioning of ecosystems. Biological species provide the processes of soil formation. Due to the accumulation and transfer of essential nutrients, soil fertility is ensured. Ecosystems assimilate waste, absorb and destroy pollutants. They purify water and stabilize the hydrological regime by retaining groundwater. Ecosystems contribute to maintaining the quality of the atmosphere by maintaining the required level of oxygen through photosynthesis.
The study and protection of biological diversity is of critical importance for the sustainable development of civilization.
The reduction in the diversity of the animal and plant world will inevitably affect human life, since biodiversity is the foundation of the spiritual and physical health of any nation. The value of biodiversity is enormous in and of itself, regardless of the extent to which people use it. If we want to preserve our mentality and national identity, we must preserve our nature. The state of nature is a mirror of the state of the nation. The conservation of biodiversity is a necessary condition for the survival of mankind.
Source: Environmental blog(website)
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BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
What is biological diversity? Why is it important? And why should we support it? In the most general sense, biodiversity refers to the "diversity of life". This concept covers the genetic diversity of different species and higher taxonomic units (families, classes, phyla, etc.) as well as the diversity of habitats and ecosystems. Because "biological diversity" is too broad, there is no rigorous definition; it all depends on the specific area in which it is used. In practice, biological diversity means, first of all, the diversity of species.
Biodiversity means much more than just having different forms of life. It not only determined the directions of applied research, but also acquired the status of a special assessment: it is good when there is biological diversity, and it is necessary to support it in every possible way, since the lack of diversity is bad. In environmental protection measures, priority is now given not so much to the conservation of individual (typical) species, but to the preservation of the entire diversity of the ecosystem. Many arguments have been put forward in favor of this, starting with the assertion that the diversity of life is valuable in itself and we have a moral and ethical responsibility for its preservation, and ending with the usual anthropocentric pragmatism - a person makes full use of the biological diversity of ecosystems (see article " Ecosystem") for their economic needs, such as the development of drugs for cancer or the development of ecotourism.
How to preserve biodiversity? One approach is to focus efforts primarily on maintaining and conserving the best of the many ecosystems available. Another proposes to take care primarily of "hot spots", that is, areas of greatest concentration of representatives of rare species that are threatened with extinction. Carrying out a complex of protective measures in "hot spots", you can save more rare species than in other regions.
See also the articles "Gradient of latitudinal diversity", "Environmental activities", "Ecological redundancy", "Ecosystem".
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LECTURE № 6,7
SOIL ECOLOGY
SUBJECT:
Biodiversity- short for "biological diversity" - means the diversity of living organisms in all its manifestations: from genes to the biosphere. The issues of study, use and conservation of biodiversity began to receive much attention after the signing by many states of the Convention on Biological Diversity (UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992).
There are three main type of biodiversity:
- genetic diversity, reflecting intraspecific diversity and due to the variability of individuals;
- species diversity, reflecting the diversity of living organisms (plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms). Currently, about 1.7 million species have been described, although their total number, according to some estimates, is up to 50 million;
- diversity of ecosystems covers differences between ecosystem types, habitat diversity and ecological processes. They note the diversity of ecosystems not only in terms of structural and functional components, but also in terms of scale - from microbiogeocenosis to the biosphere;
All types of biological diversity interconnected: Genetic diversity ensures species diversity. The diversity of ecosystems and landscapes creates conditions for the formation of new species. An increase in species diversity increases the overall genetic potential of the living organisms of the Biosphere. Each species contributes to diversity - from this point of view, there are no useless and harmful species.
Distribution species on the surface of the planet unevenly. Species diversity in natural habitats is highest in the tropical zone and decreases with increasing latitude. The richest ecosystems in species diversity are tropical rainforests, which occupy about 7% of the planet's surface and contain more than 90% of all species.
In the geological history of the Earth in the biosphere, there has been a constant emergence and extinction of species All species have a finite lifetime. The extinction was compensated by the emergence of new species, and as a result, the total number of species in the biosphere increased. The extinction of species is a natural process of evolution that occurs without human intervention.
Currently, under the influence of anthropogenic factors, there is reduction biological diversity due to the elimination (extinction, destruction) of species. In the last century, under the influence of human activity, the rate of extinction of species has exceeded the natural rate by many times (according to some estimates, 40,000 times). There is an irreversible and uncompensated destruction of the unique gene pool of the planet.
Elimination of species as a result of human activities can occur in two directions- direct extermination (hunting, fishing) and indirect (habitat destruction, disturbance of trophic interactions). Overfishing is the most obvious direct cause of the direct decline of species, but it has a much lesser impact on extinction than indirect causes of habitat change (eg, chemical pollution of a river or deforestation).
Diversity of biotic cover, or biodiversity, is one of the factors for the optimal functioning of ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole. Biodiversity ensures the resilience of ecosystems to external stresses and maintains a dynamic balance in them. The living from the non-living, first of all, differs by several orders of magnitude in its great diversity and the ability not only to preserve this diversity, but also to significantly increase it in the course of evolution. In general, the evolution of life on Earth can be considered as a process of structuring the biosphere, a process of increasing the diversity of living organisms, forms and levels of their organization, a process of the emergence of mechanisms that ensure the stability of living systems and ecosystems in the constantly changing conditions of our planet. It is the ability of ecosystems to maintain balance, using the hereditary information of living organisms for this, that makes the biosphere as a whole and local ecosystems material-energy systems in the full sense.
In this photo we see many types of plants growing together in a meadow in the floodplain of the river. Budyumkan in the southeast of the Chita region. Why did nature need so many species in one meadow? This is what this lecture is about.
Russian geobotanist L.G. Ramensky in 1910 he formulated the principle of ecological individuality of species - a principle that is the key to understanding the role of biodiversity in the biosphere. We see that many species live together in each ecosystem at the same time, but we rarely think about the ecological meaning of this. Ecological individuality plant species living in the same plant community in the same ecosystem allows the community to quickly rebuild when external conditions change. For example, in a dry summer in this ecosystem, the main role in ensuring the biological cycle is played by individuals of species A, which are more adapted to life with a moisture deficit. In a wet year, individuals of species A are not at their optimum and cannot ensure the biological cycle in the changed conditions. In this year, individuals of species B begin to play the main role in ensuring the biological cycle in this ecosystem. The third year turned out to be cooler; under these conditions, neither species A nor species B can ensure the full use of the ecological potential of this ecosystem. But the ecosystem is rapidly rebuilding, as it contains individuals of species B, which do not need warm weather and photosynthesize well at low temperatures.
Each species of living organisms can exist in a certain range of values of external factors. Outside these values, individuals of the species die. In the diagram, we see the limits of endurance (limits of tolerance) of the species according to one of the factors. Within these limits, thereoptimum zone, the most favorable for the species, and two zones of oppression. Rule L.G. Ramensky on the ecological individuality of species argues that the limits of endurance and optimum zones in different species living together do not coincide.
In nature, we find a lot of factors or mechanisms that provide and maintain a high species diversity of local ecosystems. First of all, such factors include excessive reproduction and overproduction of seeds and fruits. In nature, seeds and fruits are produced hundreds and thousands of times more than is necessary to make up for the natural loss due to premature death and dying of old age.
Thanks to adaptations for distributing fruits and seeds over long distances, the rudiments of new plants fall not only on those areas that are favorable for their growth now, but also on those areas whose conditions are unfavorable for the growth and development of individuals of these species. Nevertheless, these seeds germinate here, exist in a depressed state for some time and die. This happens as long as environmental conditions are stable. But if the conditions change, then the seedlings of species that were previously doomed to death begin to grow and develop here, going through a full cycle of their ontogenetic (individual) development. Ecologists say that in nature there is powerful pressure of diversity of life to all local ecosystems.
General land cover gene pool- its flora-local ecosystems of this region are used most fully due to the pressure of biodiversity. At the same time, local ecosystems in terms of species become richer. During their formation and rearrangement, the ecological selection of suitable components is carried out from a larger number of applicants whose diagerms have found their way into a given habitat. Thus, the probability of forming an ecologically optimal plant community increases.
Thus, the stability factor of a local ecosystem is not only the diversity of species living in this local ecosystem, but also the diversity of species in neighboring ecosystems, from which the introduction of diagerms (seeds and spores) is possible. This applies not only to plants that lead an attached lifestyle, but even more so to animals that can move from one local ecosystem to another. Many animal individuals, not belonging specifically to any of the local ecosystems (biogeocenoses), nevertheless play an important ecological role and participate in ensuring the biological cycle in several ecosystems at once. Moreover, they can alienate biomass in one local ecosystem, and throw out excrement in another, stimulating the growth and development of plants in this second local ecosystem. Sometimes such a transfer of matter and energy from one ecosystem to another can be extremely powerful. This flow connects completely different ecosystems.
Diversity of species and diversity of life forms or ecobiomorph are not the same thing. I will demonstrate this with an example. In the meadow, species, genera and families of plants can live 2-3 times more than in the dark coniferous forest. However, in terms of ecobiomorphs and synusia, it turns out that the biodiversity of the dark coniferous forest as an ecosystem is much higher than the biodiversity of the meadow as an ecosystem. In the meadow, we have 2-3 classes of ecobiomorphs, and in the dark coniferous forest, 8-10 classes. There are many species in the meadow, but all of them belong either to the class of ecobiomorphs, perennial mesophytic summer-green grasses, or to the class of annual grasses, or to the class of green mosses. In the forest, different classes of ecobiomorphs are: dark coniferous trees, deciduous trees, deciduous shrubs, deciduous shrubs, perennial mesophytic summer green grasses, green mosses, epigeic lichens, epiphytic lichens.
The biodiversity of organisms in the biosphere is not limited to the diversity of taxa and the diversity of ecobiomorphs of living organisms. For example, we can get into an area that is entirely occupied by one local elemental ecosystem - a raised swamp, or a damp alder forest at the mouth of a large river. In another area on the same territory, we will meet at least 10-15 types of local elementary ecosystems. Ecosystems of coniferous-broad-leaved forests at the bottom of river valleys are regularly replaced here by ecosystems of cedar-oak mixed-shrub forests on the southern gentle slopes of mountains, larch-oak mixed-grass forests on the northern gentle slopes of mountains, spruce-fir forests in the upper part of the northern steep slopes of mountains and ecosystems steppe meadows and clump vegetation on the steep southern slopes of the mountains. It is easy to understand what is intra-landscape diversity of ecosystems determined not only by the diversity of their constituent species and ecobiomorphs, but also variety of ecological landscape background associated primarily with the diversity of landforms, the diversity of soils and their underlying rocks.
The processes of extinction of species in the biosphere are compensated by the processes of speciation. If the balance of these two processes is upset in favor of extinction, then the Earth will most likely face the fate of Venus - that is, an atmosphere of carbon dioxide and water vapor, a surface temperature of about +200 degrees Celsius, evaporated oceans and seas. Life on a protein basis in such conditions, of course, is simply impossible. Having become a powerful geological force, humanity must take responsibility not only for the future of its children and grandchildren, but also for the future of the entire biosphere. And this future will largely depend on how far the process of extinction of species in the Earth's biosphere lags behind the process of formation of new species.
For the accounting species that are on the verge of extinction, many countries create Red Books - lists of rare and endangered species of living organisms. To preserve and maintain biological diversity, specially protected natural areas are created - protected areas (reserves, national parks, etc.), genetic data banks. The preservation of an individual species is possible only if its habitat with the entire complex of species included in it, as well as climatic, geophysical and other conditions, is protected. A special role is played by the conservation of environment-forming species (edificatory species), which form the internal environment of the ecosystem. The creation of protected areas is aimed at protecting not only individual species, but also entire complexes and landscapes.
Reserves also serve to evaluate and monitoring state of biodiversity. There is no unified system for monitoring the state of biodiversity in Russia today. The most complete and permanent control over changes in biodiversity components is carried out in reserves. Every year, reserves prepare reports on the state of ecosystems ("Chronicles of Nature") - summaries of data on the state of protected areas, protected populations of plants and animals. Some reserves have been keeping "Chronicles of Nature" for more than 50 years, which include continuous series of data on the number of animals, biological diversity, ecosystem dynamics, as well as data on climate observations.
Part of the reserves of Russia (18) is part of the international network of biosphere reserves, specially created to monitor the state of biodiversity, climatic, biogeochemical and other processes on the scale of the Biosphere.
reasons need conservation biodiversity many: the need for biological resources to meet the needs of mankind (food, materials, medicines, etc.), ethical and aesthetic aspects (life is valuable in itself), etc. However, the main reason for the conservation of biodiversity is that it plays a leading role in ensuring the sustainability of ecosystems and the Biosphere as a whole (absorption of pollution, climate stabilization, provision of conditions suitable for life). Biodiversity performs a regulatory function in the implementation of all biogeochemical, climatic and other processes on Earth. Each species, no matter how insignificant it may seem, contributes to ensuring the sustainability of not only the “native” local ecosystem, but the Biosphere as a whole.
