World Space Week kicked off today. It is held annually from 4 to 10 October. Exactly 60 years ago, the first man-made object, the Soviet Sputnik-1, was launched into low Earth orbit. It orbited the Earth for 92 days until it burned up in the atmosphere. After that, the road to space and man was opened. It became clear that it cannot be sent with a one-way ticket. Vladimir Seroukhov, correspondent of the MIR 24 TV channel, learned how space technologies developed.
In 1961, Saratov anti-aircraft gunners spotted an unidentified flying object on the radar. They were warned in advance: if they see such a container falling from the sky, it is not worth interfering with its flight. After all, this is the first space descent vehicle in history with a man on board. But landing in this capsule was not safe, so at an altitude of 7 kilometers he ejected and descended to the surface already with a parachute.
The capsule of the ship "Vostok", in the slang of engineers - "Ball", also descended by parachute. So Gagarin, Tereshkova and other space pioneers returned to Earth. Due to the design features, passengers experienced incredible overloads of 8 g. The conditions in Soyuz capsules are much easier. They have been used for more than half a century, but they should soon be replaced by a new generation of ships -.
“This is the seat of the crew commander and co-pilot. Just those places from which the ship will be controlled, control of all systems. In addition to these chairs, there will be two more chairs on the sides. This is for researchers,” says Oleg Kukin, Deputy Head of the Flight Test Department of RSC Energia.
Compared to the Soyuz family of ships, which are still morally obsolete, and where only three astronauts could fit in close quarters, the Federation capsule is a real apartment, 4 meters in diameter. Now the main task is to understand how convenient and functional the device will be for the crew.
Management is now available to two crew members. The remote control keeps pace with the times - these are three touch displays where you can control information and be more autonomous in orbit.
“Here, in order to choose a landing site where we can sit down. We directly see the map, the flight route. They can also control weather conditions if this information is transmitted from Earth, - said Oleg Kukin, Deputy Head of the Flight Test Department of RSC Energia.
"Federation" is designed for flights to the moon, it's about four days of travel one way. All this time, the astronauts must be in the fetal position. In rescue chairs, or cradles, it is surprisingly comfortable. Each one is a piece of jewelry.
"The measurement of all anthropometric data begins with the measurement of mass," said Victor Sinigin, head of the medical department of NPP Zvezda.
Here it is - the space studio, the Zvezda enterprise. Here, individual spacesuits and lodgements are made for astronauts. For people lighter than 50 kilograms, the way on board is ordered, as well as for those who are heavier than 95. Height must also be average in order to fit in the cabin of the ship. Therefore, measurements are taken in the fetal position.
This is how the chair for the Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata was cast. Got an imprint of the pelvis, back and head. In conditions of weightlessness, the growth of any astronaut can increase by a couple of centimeters, so the lodgement is made with a margin. It should be not only comfortable, but also safe in case of a hard landing.
“The very idea of modeling is to save the internal organs. Kidneys, liver, they are encapsulated. If you give them the opportunity to expand, they can tear, like a plastic bag with water that has fallen to the floor,” Sinigin explained.
In total, 700 lodgements were made in this way not only for the Russians, but also for the Japanese, Italians and even colleagues from the States who worked at the Mir and ISS stations.
“The Americans on their Shuttle carried our lodgements and spacesuits that we made for them, and other rescue equipment. They left it all at the station, in case of an emergency leaving the station, but already on our ship, ”said Vladimir Maslennikov, lead engineer of the testing department at NPP Zvezda.
Soyuz spacecraft
"Soyuz" - the name of a series of Soviet spacecraft for flights in orbit around the Earth; a program for their development (since 1962) and launches (since 1967; unmanned modifications - since 1966). Soyuz spacecraft are designed to solve a wide range of tasks in near-Earth space: testing the processes of autonomous navigation, control, maneuvering, rendezvous and docking; studying the effects of long-term space flight conditions on the human body; verification of the principles of using manned spacecraft for Earth exploration in the interests of the national economy and the performance of transport operations for communication with orbital stations; conducting scientific and technical experiments in outer space and others.
The mass of a fully refueled and completed ship is from 6.38 tons (initial versions) to 6.8 tons, the crew size is 2 people (3 people - in modifications before 1971), the maximum duration of an autonomous flight is 17.7 days (with a crew of 2 people ), length (along the hull) 6.98-7.13 m, diameter 2.72 m, span of solar panels 8.37 m, volume of two residential compartments along the pressurized hull 10.45 m3, free space - 6.5 m3. The Soyuz spacecraft consists of three main compartments, which are mechanically interconnected and separated using pyrotechnic devices. The structure of the ship includes: a system of orientation and motion control in flight and during descent; mooring and attitude thruster system; rendezvous and corrective propulsion system; radio communication, power supply, docking, radio guidance and rendezvous and mooring systems; landing and soft landing system; life supporting system; control system of the onboard instrumentation and equipment complex.
The descent vehicle - weight 2.8 tons, diameter 2.2 m, length 2.16 m, volume along the internal contours of the habitable compartment 3.85 m flight in orbit, during descent in the atmosphere, parachuting, landing. The sealed body of the descent vehicle, made of aluminum alloy, has a conical shape, turning into a sphere in the lower and upper parts. For ease of installation of apparatus and equipment inside the descent vehicle, the frontal part of the body is made removable. Outside, the hull has thermal insulation, structurally consisting of a frontal screen (fired off in the parachuting area), side and bottom thermal protection, the shape of the apparatus and the position of the center of mass provide a controlled descent with an aerodynamic quality (~0.25). In the upper part of the hull there is a hatch (clearance diameter 0.6 m) for communication with the inhabited orbital compartment and exit of the crew from the descent vehicle after landing. The descent vehicle is equipped with three windows, two of which have a three-pane design and one has a two-pane design (at the location of the orienting sight). The hull contains two airtight parachute containers closed with removable lids. 4 soft landing engines are installed on the frontal part of the hull. Landing speed on the main parachute system, taking into account the impulse of the soft landing engines, is not more than 6 m/s. The descent vehicle is designed for landing at any time of the year on soils of various types (including rock) and open water bodies. When landing on water bodies, the crew can stay afloat in the vehicle for up to 5 days.
The descent vehicle contains the cosmonauts' console, spacecraft control knobs, instruments and equipment of the main and auxiliary systems of the spacecraft, containers for the return of scientific equipment, reserve stock (food, equipment, medicines, etc.) radio communications and direction finding on the descent and after landing areas, etc. Inside, the hull and equipment of the descent vehicle are covered with thermal insulation in combination with decorative cladding. When launching the Soyuz into orbit, descending to Earth, performing docking and undocking operations, the crew members are in spacesuits (introduced after 1971). To ensure the flight under the ASTP program, the descent vehicle was provided with a control panel for compatible (operating at the same frequencies) radio stations and external lights, and special lamps were installed to transmit a color television image.
Inhabited orbital (domestic) compartment - weight 1.2-1.3 tons, diameter 2.2 m, length (with docking unit) 3.44 m, volume along the internal contours of the sealed housing 6.6 m3, free volume 4 m3 - it is used as a working compartment during scientific experiments, for crew rest, transfer to another spacecraft and for exit into outer space (acts as an airlock). The pressurized body of the orbital compartment, made of magnesium alloy, consists of two hemispherical shells with a diameter of 2.2 m, connected by a cylindrical insert 0.3 m high. The compartment has two viewing windows. There are two hatches in the hull, one of which connects the orbital compartment with the descent vehicle, and the other (with a “clear” diameter of 0.64 m) is used for landing the crew in the spacecraft at the launch position and for spacewalk. The compartment contains the control panel, instruments and assemblies of the main and auxiliary systems of the ship, household equipment, and scientific equipment. When testing and ensuring docking of automatic and manned modifications of spacecraft, if they are used as transport vehicles, a docking unit is installed in the upper part of the orbital compartment, which performs the following functions: absorption (damping) of spacecraft impact energy; primary hitch; alignment and contraction of ships; rigid connection of ship structures (starting with Soyuz-10 - with the creation of a sealed joint between them); undocking and separation of spacecraft. Three types of docking devices have been used in the Soyuz spacecraft:
the first, made according to the "pin-cone" scheme; the second, also made according to this scheme, but with the creation of an airtight joint between the docked ships to ensure the transfer of the crew from one ship to another;
(the third in the experiment under the ASTP program), which is a new, technically more advanced device - an androgynous peripheral docking unit (APAS). Structurally, the docking device of the first two types consists of two parts: an active docking unit installed on one of the spacecraft and equipped with a mechanism for performing all docking operations, and a passive docking unit installed on another spacecraft.
The instrument-assembly compartment weighing 2.7-2.8 tons is designed to accommodate the apparatus and equipment of the main systems of the spacecraft, which ensure orbital flight. It consists of transitional, instrumental and aggregate sections. In the transition section, made in the form of a uniform structure connecting the descent vehicle with the instrument section, 10 approaching and orientation engines with a thrust of 100 N each, fuel tanks and a single-component fuel supply system (hydrogen peroxide) are installed. Hermetic instrument section with a volume of 2.2 m3, has the shape of a cylinder with a diameter of 2.1 m, a height of 0.5 m with two removable covers. The instrument section contains devices for orientation and motion control systems, control of the ship's onboard apparatus and equipment, radio communication with the Earth and a program-time device, telemetry, and a single power supply. The body of the aggregate section is made in the form of a cylindrical shell, turning into a conical one and ending with a base frame designed to install the ship on the launch vehicle. Outside the power section there is a large radiator-emitter of the thermal control system, 4 mooring and orientation motors, 8 orientation motors. In the aggregate section there is a rendezvous and corrective propulsion unit KTDU-35, consisting of the main and backup engines with a thrust of 4.1 kN, fuel tanks and a two-component fuel supply system. Radio communication and telemetry antennas, ion sensors of the orientation system and part of the batteries of the ship's unified power supply system are installed near the base frame. Solar panels (they are not installed on ships used as transport ships for servicing the Salyut orbital stations) are made in the form of two "wings" of 3-4 wings each. Radio communication antennas, telemetry and color on-board orientation lights (in the experiment under the ASTP program) are placed on the end flaps of the batteries.
All compartments of the spacecraft are closed from the outside with screen-vacuum thermal insulation of green color. When launching into orbit - in the flight segment in dense layers of the atmosphere, the ship is closed by a drop nose fairing, equipped with an emergency rescue system propulsion system.
The ship's orientation and motion control system can operate both in automatic mode and in manual control mode. The onboard equipment receives energy from a centralized power supply system, including solar, as well as autonomous chemical batteries and buffer batteries. After docking the spacecraft with the orbital station, solar panels can be used in the general power supply system.
The life support system includes blocks for regenerating the atmosphere of the descent vehicle and the orbital compartment (similar in composition to the Earth's air) and thermal control, food and water supplies, and a sewage and sanitary device. Regeneration is provided by substances that absorb carbon dioxide while releasing oxygen. Special filters absorb harmful impurities. In the event of a possible emergency depressurization of the living compartments, spacesuits are provided for the crew. When working in them, the conditions for life are created by supplying air to the spacesuit from the onboard pressurization system.
The thermal control system maintains the air temperature in the residential compartments within 15-25 ° C and relates. humidity within 20-70%; gas temperature (nitrogen) in the instrument section 0-40°C.
The complex of radio engineering means is designed to determine the parameters of the spacecraft orbit, receive commands from the Earth, two-way telephone and telegraph communication with the Earth, transmit to the Earth television images of the situation in the compartments and the external environment observed by the TV camera.
For 1967 - 1981 38 Soyuz manned spacecraft were launched into the orbit of an artificial Earth satellite.
Soyuz-1, piloted by V.M. Komarov, was launched on April 23, 1967 in order to test the ship and work out the systems and elements of its design. During the descent (on the 19th orbit), Soyuz-1 successfully passed the deceleration section in the dense layers of the atmosphere and extinguished the first cosmic velocity. However, due to the abnormal operation of the parachute system at an altitude of ~7 km, the descent vehicle descended at a high speed, which led to the death of the cosmonaut.
The spacecraft Soyuz-2 (unmanned) and Soyuz-3 (piloted by G.T. Beregov) made a joint flight to test the operation of systems and construction, to practice rendezvous and maneuvering. At the end of the joint experiments, the ships made a controlled descent using aerodynamic quality.
A formation flight was carried out on Soyuz-6, Soyuz-7, Soyuz-8 spacecraft. A program of scientific and technical experiments was carried out, including testing methods for welding and cutting metals in conditions of deep vacuum and weightlessness, navigation operations were tested, mutual maneuvering was carried out, the ships interacted with each other and with ground command and measurement posts, and simultaneous flight control of three spacecraft was carried out.
The Soyuz-23 and Soyuz-25 spacecraft were scheduled to dock with the Salyut-type orbital station. Due to incorrect operation of the equipment for measuring relative motion parameters (Soyuz-23 spacecraft), deviations from the specified operating mode in the manual berthing section (Soyuz-25), docking did not take place. On these ships, maneuvering and rendezvous with orbital stations of the Salyut type were carried out.
In the course of long-term space flights, a large complex of studies of the Sun, planets and stars was carried out in a wide range of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. For the first time (Soyuz-18), a comprehensive photo- and spectrographic study of auroras, as well as a rare natural phenomenon - noctilucent clouds, was carried out. Comprehensive studies of the reactions of the human body to the effects of long-term space flight factors have been carried out. Various means of preventing the adverse effects of weightlessness have been tested.
During the 3-month flight Soyuz-20, together with Salyut-4, endurance tests were carried out.
On the basis of Soyuz spacecraft, a cargo transport spacecraft GTK Progress was created, and on the basis of the experience of operating Soyuz spacecraft, a significantly modernized Soyuz T spacecraft was created.
Soyuz spacecraft were launched by a 3-stage Soyuz launch vehicle.
Soyuz spacecraft program.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-1". Cosmonaut - V.M. Komarov. The call sign is Ruby. Launch - 04/23/1967, landing - 04/24/1967. The goal is to test a new ship. It was planned to dock with the Soyuz-2 spacecraft with three cosmonauts on board, two cosmonauts go through open space, and land with three cosmonauts on board. Due to the failure of a number of systems on the Soyuz-1 spacecraft, the Soyuz-2 launch was canceled. (This program was carried out in 1969 by the spacecraft
"Soyuz-4" and "Soyuz-5"). Astronaut Vladimir Komarov died while returning to Earth due to off-design work of the parachute system.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-2" (unmanned). Launch - 10/25/1968, landing - 10/28/1968. Purpose: verification of the modified ship design, joint experiments with the manned Soyuz-3 (rapprochement and maneuvering).
Spacecraft "Soyuz-3". Cosmonaut - G.T. Beregovoy. The call sign is "Argon". Launch - 10/26/1968, landing - 10/30/1968 Purpose: verification of the modified ship design, rendezvous and maneuvering with the unmanned Soyuz-2.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-4". The first docking into orbit of two manned spacecraft is the creation of the first experimental orbital station. Commander - V.A.Shatalov. The call sign is "Amur". Launch - 14.01.1969 16.01. 1969 docked manually with the Soyuz-5 passive spacecraft (the mass of the bundle of two spacecraft is 12924 kg), from which two cosmonauts A.S. Eliseev and E.V. Khrunov crossed through open space into Soyuz-4 (time spent in outer space - 37 minutes). After 4.5 hours, the ships undocked. Landing - 01/17/1969 with cosmonauts V.A. Shatalov, A.S. Eliseev, E.V. Khrunov.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-5". The first orbital docking of two manned spacecraft is the creation of the first experimental orbital station. Commander - B.V. Volynov, crew members: A.S. Eliseev, E.V. Khrunov. The call sign is Baikal. Launch - 01/15/1969 01/16/1969 docked with the active spacecraft "Soyuz-4" (the mass of the bundle is 12924 kg), then A.S. Eliseev and E.V. Khrunov went through open space to "Soyuz-4" ”(time spent in open space - 37 minutes). After 4.5 hours, the ships undocked. Landing - 01/18/1969 with cosmonaut B.V. Volynov.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-6". Performing the world's first technological experiment. Group mutual maneuvering of two and three spacecraft (With Soyuz-7 and Soyuz-8 spacecraft). Crew: commander G.S. Shonin and flight engineer V.N. Kubasov. The call sign is "Antey". Launch - 10/11/1969 Landing - 10/16/1969
Spacecraft "Soyuz-7". Performing group mutual maneuvering of two and three ships ("Soyuz-6" and "Soyuz-8"). Crew: commander A.V.Filipchenko, crew members: V.N.Volkov, V.V.Gorbatko. The call sign is Buran. Launch - 10/12/1969, landing - 10/17/1969
Spacecraft "Soyuz-8". Group mutual maneuvering of two and three ships ("Soyuz-6" and "Soyuz-7"). Crew: commander V.A. Shatalov, flight engineer A.S. Eliseev. The call sign is "Granite". Launch - 10/13/1969, landing - 10/18/1969
Spacecraft "Soyuz-9". First long flight (17.7 days). Crew: commander A.G. Nikolaev, flight engineer - V.I. Sevastyanov. The call sign is "Falcon". Launch - 06/1/1970, landing - 06/19/1970
Spacecraft "Soyuz-10". First docking with the Salyut orbital station. Crew: commander V.A. Shatalov, crew members: A.S. Eliseev, N.N. Rukavishnikov. The call sign is "Granite". Launch - 04/23/1971 Landing - 04/25/1971 Docking was completed with the Salyut orbital station (04/24/1971), but the crew could not open the transfer hatches to the station, 04/24/1971 the spacecraft separated from the orbital station and returned ahead of schedule.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-11". The first expedition to the Salyut orbital station. Crew: commander G.T.Dobrovolsky, crew members: V.N.Volkov, V.I.Patsaev. Launch - 06/06/1971. On 06/07/1971, the ship docked with the Salyut orbital station. 06/29/1971 Soyuz-11 undocked from the orbital station. 06/30/1971 - landing was carried out. Due to the depressurization of the descent vehicle at high altitude, all crew members died (the flight was carried out without spacesuits).
Spacecraft "Soyuz-12". Conducting tests of advanced on-board systems of the ship. Checking the crew rescue system in case of emergency depressurization. Crew: commander V.G. Lazarev, flight engineer O.G. Makarov. The call sign is "Ural". Launch - 09/27/1973, landing - 09/29/1973
Spacecraft "Soyuz-13". Performing astrophysical observations and spectrography in the ultraviolet range using the Orion-2 telescope system of sections of the starry sky. Crew: commander P.I. Klimuk, flight engineer V.V. Lebedev. The call sign is "Kavkaz". Launch - 12/18/1973, landing - 12/26/1973
Spacecraft "Soyuz-14". The first expedition to the Salyut-3 orbital station. Crew: commander P.R.Popovich, flight engineer Yu.P.Artyukhin. The call sign is Berkut. Launch - July 3, 1974, docking with the orbital station - July 5, 1974, separation - July 19, 1974, landing - July 19, 1974.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-15". Crew: commander G.V. Sarafanov, flight engineer L.S. Demin. The call sign is "Danube". Launched on August 26, 1974, landing on August 28, 1974. It was planned to dock with the Salyut-3 orbital station and continue scientific research on board. The docking did not take place.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-16". Testing of the on-board systems of the modernized Soyuz spacecraft in accordance with the ASTP program. Crew: commander A.V. Filipchenko, flight engineer N.N. Rukavishnikov. The call sign is Buran. Launch - 12/2/1974, landing - 12/8/1974
Spacecraft "Soyuz-17". The first expedition to the Salyut-4 orbital station. Crew: commander A.A. Gubarev, flight engineer G.M. Grechko. The call sign is "Zenith". Launch - 01/11/1975, docking with the Salyut-4 orbital station - 01/12/1975, separation and soft landing - 02/09/1975.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-18-1". Suborbital flight. Crew: commander V.G. Lazarev, flight engineer O.G. Makarov. Callsign - not registered. Launch and landing - 04/05/1975. It was planned to continue scientific research at the Salyut-4 orbital station. Due to deviations in the operation of the 3rd stage of the launch vehicle, a command was issued to terminate the flight. The spacecraft landed in an off-design area southwest of the city of Gorno-Altaisk
Spacecraft "Soyuz-18". The second expedition to the Salyut-4 orbital station. Crew: commander P.I. Klimuk, flight engineer V.I. Sevastyanov. The call sign is "Kavkaz". Launch - 05/24/1975, docking with the Salyut-4 orbital station - 05/26/1975, separation, descent and soft landing - 07/26/1975
Spacecraft "Soyuz-19". The first flight under the Soviet-American ASTP program. Crew: commander - A.A. Leonov, flight engineer V.N. Kubasov. The call sign is Soyuz. Launch - 07/15/1975, 07/17/1975 -
docking with the American spacecraft "Apollo". On July 19, 1975, the spacecraft undocked, performing the "Solar Eclipse" experiment, then (July 19) the re-docking and final undocking of the two spacecraft was carried out. Landing - 07/21/1975. During the joint flight, the cosmonauts and astronauts made mutual transitions, a large scientific program was completed.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-20". Unmanned. Launch - 11/17/1975, docking with the Salyut-4 orbital station - 11/19/1975, separation, descent and landing - 02/16/1975. Life tests of the ship's onboard systems were carried out.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-21". The first expedition to the Salyut-5 orbital station. Crew: commander B.V. Volynov, flight engineer V.M. Zholobov. The call sign is Baikal. Launch - 07/06/1976, docking with the Salyut-5 orbital station - 07/07/1976, undocking, descent and landing - 08/24/1976
Spacecraft "Soyuz-22". Development of the principles and methods of multi-zonal photography of areas of the earth's surface. Crew: commander V.F. Bykovsky, flight engineer V.V. Aksenov. The call sign is "Hawk". Launch - 09/15/1976, landing - 09/23/1976
Spacecraft "Soyuz-23". Crew: commander V.D. Zudov, flight engineer V.I. Rozhdestvensky. The call sign is "Radon". Launch - 10/14/1976 Landing - 10/16/1976 Work was planned at the Salyut-5 orbital station. Due to the off-design mode of operation of the spacecraft rendezvous system, docking with Salyut-5 did not take place.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-24". The second expedition to the Salyut-5 orbital station. Crew: commander V.V. Gorbatko, flight engineer Yu.N. Glazkov. The call sign is "Terek". Launch - 02/07/1977 Docking with the Salyut-5 orbital station - 02/08/1976 Undocking, descent and landing - 02/25/1977
Spacecraft "Soyuz-25". Crew: commander V.V. Kovalenok, flight engineer V.V. Ryumin. The call sign is "Photon". Launch - 10/9/1977 Landing - 10/11/1977 It was planned to dock with the new Salyut-6 orbital station and carry out a scientific research program on it. The docking did not take place.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-26". Delivery of the crew of the 1st main expedition to the Salyut-6 orbital station. Crew: commander Yu.V.Romanenko, flight engineer G.M.Grechko. Launch - 12/10/1977 Docking with Salyut-6 - 12/11/1977 Undocking, descent and landing - 01/16/1978 with the crew of the 1st visiting expedition consisting of: V.A. Dzhanibekov, O.G. .Makarov (for the first time there was an exchange of spacecraft included in the Salyut-6 complex).
Spacecraft "Soyuz-27". Delivery to the Salyut-6 orbital station of the 1st visiting expedition. Crew: commander V.A. Dzhanibekov, flight engineer O.G. Makarov. Launch - 01/10/1978 Docking with the Salyut-6 orbital station - 01/11/1978 Separation, descent and landing on 03/16/1978 with the crew of the 1st main expedition consisting of: Yu.V. Romanenko, G. M. Grechko.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-28". Delivery to the Salyut-6 orbital station of the 1st international crew (the 2nd visiting expedition). Crew: commander - A.A. Gubarev, cosmonaut-researcher - citizen of Czechoslovakia V. Remek. Launch - 03/2/1978 Docking with Salyut-6 - 03/3/1978 Docking, descent and landing - 03/10/1978
Spacecraft "Soyuz-29". Delivery to the Salyut-6 orbital station of the crew of the 2nd main expedition. Crew: commander - V.V. Kovalenok, flight engineer - A.S. Ivanchenkov. Launch - 06/15/1978 Docking with Salyut-6 - 06/17/1978 Undocking, descent and landing on 09/03/1978 with the crew of the 4th visiting expedition consisting of: V.F. Bykovsky, Z. Yen ( GDR).
Spacecraft "Soyuz-30". Delivery to the Salyut-6 orbital station and return of the crew of the 3rd visiting expedition (the second international crew). Crew: commander P.I. Klimuk, cosmonaut-researcher, citizen of Poland M. Germashevsky. Launch - 06/27/1978 Docking with Salyut-6 - 06/28/1978 Docking, descent and landing - 07/05/1978
Spacecraft "Soyuz-31". Delivery to the Salyut-6 orbital station of the crew of the 4th visiting expedition (3rd international crew). Crew: commander - VF Bykovsky, cosmonaut-researcher, citizen of the GDR Z. Yen. Launch - 08/26/1978 Docking with the Salyut-6 orbital station - 08/27/1978 Docking, descent and landing - 11/2/1978 with the crew of the 2nd main expedition consisting of: V.V. Kovalenok, A .S. Ivanchenkov.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-32". Delivery to the Salyut-6 orbital station of the 3rd main expedition. Crew: commander V.A. Lyakhov, flight engineer V.V. Ryumin. Launch - 02/25/1979 Docking with Salyut-6 - 02/26/1979 Undocking, descent and landing on 06/13/1979 without a crew in automatic mode.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-33". Crew: commander N.N. Rukavishnikov, cosmonaut-researcher, citizen of Bulgaria G.I. Ivanov. The call sign is Saturn. Launch - 04/10/1979. On 04/11/1979, due to deviations from the normal mode in the operation of the rendezvous-correcting installation, docking with the Salyut-6 orbital station was canceled. 04/12/1979 the ship made a descent and landing.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-34". Launch 06/06/1979 without a crew. Docking with the Salyut-6 orbital station - 06/08/1979 06/19/1979 undocking, descent and landing with the crew of the 3rd main expedition consisting of: V.A.Lyakhov, V.V.Ryumin. (The descent module is exhibited at the State Museum of the Interior named after K.E. Tsiolkovsky).
Spacecraft "Soyuz-35". Delivery to the Salyut-6 orbital station of the 4th main expedition. Crew: commander L.I. Popov, flight engineer V.V. Ryumin. Launch - 04/09/1980 Docking with Salyut-6 - 04/10/1980 Undocking, descent and landing on 06/03/1980 with the crew of the 5th visiting expedition (4th international crew consisting of: V.N. Kubasov, B. Farkash.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-36". Delivery to the Salyut-6 orbital station of the crew of the 5th visiting expedition (4th international crew). Crew: commander VN Kubasov, cosmonaut-researcher, citizen of Hungary B. Farkas. Launch - 05/26/1980 Docking with Salyut-6 - 05/27/1980 Docking, descent and landing on 08/3/1980 with the crew of the 7th visiting expedition consisting of: V.V. Gorbatko, Pham Tuan (Vietnam) ).
Spacecraft "Soyuz-37". Delivery to the orbital station of the crew of the 7th visiting expedition (5th international crew). Crew: commander V.V. Gorbatko, cosmonaut-researcher, Vietnamese citizen Pham Tuan. Launch - 07/23/1980 Docking with Salyut-6 - 07/24/1980 Docking, descent and landing - 10/11/1980 with the crew of the 4th main expedition consisting of: L.I. Popov, V.V. .Ryumin.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-38". Delivery to the Salyut-6 orbital station and return of the crew of the 8th visiting expedition (6th international crew). Crew: commander Yu.V.Romanenko, cosmonaut-researcher, Cuban citizen M.A.Tamayo. Launch - 09/18/1980 Docking with Salyut-6 - 09/19/1980 Docking, descent and landing 09/26/1980
Spacecraft "Soyuz-39". Delivery to the Salyut-6 orbital station and return of the 10th visiting crew (7th international crew). Crew: commander V.A. Dzhanibekov, cosmonaut-researcher, citizen of Mongolia Zh. Gurragcha. Launch - 03/22/1981 Docking with Salyut-6 - 03/23/1981 Docking, descent and landing - 03/30/1981
Spacecraft "Soyuz-40". Delivery to the Salyut-6 orbital station and return of the crew of the 11th visiting expedition (8th international crew). Crew: commander L.I.Popov, cosmonaut-researcher, citizen of Romania D.Prunariu. Launch - 05/14/1981 Docking with Salyut-6 - 05/15/1981 Docking, descent and landing 05/22/1981
A spacecraft used for flights in near-Earth orbit, including under human control.
All spacecraft can be divided into two classes: manned and launched in control mode from the Earth's surface.
In the early 20s. 20th century K. E. Tsiolkovsky once again predicts the future exploration of outer space by earthlings. In his work "Spaceship" there is a mention of the so-called celestial ships, the main purpose of which is the implementation of human spaceflight.
The first spaceships of the Vostok series were created under the strict guidance of the general designer of OKB-1 (now the Rocket and Space Corporation Energia) S.P. Korolev. The first manned spacecraft "Vostok" was able to deliver a man into outer space on April 12, 1961. This cosmonaut was Yu. A. Gagarin.
The main objectives of the experiment were:
1) study of the impact of orbital flight conditions on a person, including his performance;
2) verification of the principles of spacecraft design;
3) development of structures and systems in real conditions.
The total mass of the ship was 4.7 tons, diameter - 2.4 m, length - 4.4 m. Among the onboard systems with which the ship was equipped, the following can be distinguished: control systems (automatic and manual modes); system of automatic orientation to the Sun and manual - to the Earth; life supporting system; thermal control system; landing system.
In the future, the developments obtained during the implementation of the Vostok spacecraft program made it possible to create much more advanced ones. To date, the "armada" of spacecraft is very clearly represented by the American reusable transport spacecraft "Shuttle", or Space Shuttle.
It is impossible not to mention the Soviet development, which is currently not used, but could seriously compete with the American ship.
Buran was the name of the Soviet Union's program to create a reusable space system. Work on the Buran program began in connection with the need to create a reusable space system as a means of deterring a potential adversary in connection with the start of the American project in January 1971.
To implement the project, NPO Molniya was created. In the shortest possible time in 1984, with the support of more than a thousand enterprises from all over the Soviet Union, the first full-scale copy was created with the following technical characteristics: its length was more than 36 m with a wingspan of 24 m; starting weight - more than 100 tons with a payload weight of up to
30 tons
"Buran" had a pressurized cabin in the nose compartment, which could accommodate about ten people and most of the equipment for flight in orbit, descent and landing. The ship was equipped with two groups of engines at the end of the tail section and in front of the hull for maneuvering, for the first time a combined propulsion system was used, which included oxidizer and fuel fuel tanks, pressurization temperature control, fluid intake in zero gravity, control system equipment, etc.
The first and only flight of the Buran spacecraft was made on November 15, 1988 in an unmanned, fully automatic mode (for reference: the Shuttle still only lands on manual control). Unfortunately, the flight of the ship coincided with the difficult times that began in the country, and due to the end of the Cold War and the lack of sufficient funds, the Buran program was closed.
The start of a series of American spacecraft of the "Shuttle" type was laid in 1972, although it was preceded by a project of a reusable two-stage aircraft, each stage of which was similar to a jet.
The first stage served as an accelerator, which, after entering orbit, completed its part of the task and returned to Earth with the crew, and the second stage was an orbital ship and, after completing the program, also returned to the launch site. It was the time of an arms race, and the creation of a ship of this type was considered the main link in this race.
To launch the ship, the Americans use an accelerator and the ship's own engine, the fuel for which is placed in an external fuel tank. Spent boosters after landing are not reused, with a limited number of launches. Structurally, the ship of the Shuttle series consists of several main elements: the Orbiter aerospace plane, reusable rocket boosters and a fuel tank (disposable).
Due to a large number of shortcomings and design changes, the first flight of the spacecraft took place only in 1981. In the period from April 1981 to July 1982, a series of orbital flight tests of the Columbia spacecraft was carried out in all flight modes. Unfortunately, in a series of flights of the Shuttle series, there were tragedies.
In 1986, during the 25th launch of the Challenger, a fuel tank exploded due to an imperfect design of the apparatus, as a result of which all seven crew members died. Only in 1988, after a number of changes were made to the flight program, the Discovery spacecraft was launched. To replace the Challenger, a new ship, the Endeavor, was put into operation, which has been operating since 1992.
High-speed transport vehicles differ from vehicles moving at low speed in lightness of construction. Huge ocean liners weigh hundreds of thousands of kilonewtons. The speed of their movement is relatively low (= 50 km/h). The weight of speedboats does not exceed 500 - 700 kN, but they can reach speeds up to 100 km/h. With the increase in the speed of movement, the reduction in the weight of the structure of transport vehicles becomes an increasingly important indicator of their perfection. The weight of the structure is especially important for aircraft (airplanes, helicopters).A spaceship is also an aircraft, but it is only designed to move in a vacuum. You can fly through the air much faster than you can swim on water or move on the ground, and in airless space you can reach even higher speeds, but the greater the speed, the more important the weight of the structure. The increase in the weight of the spacecraft results in a very large increase in the weight of the rocket system that takes the spacecraft into the planned region of outer space.
Therefore, everything that is on board the spacecraft should weigh as little as possible, and nothing should be superfluous. This requirement creates one of the biggest challenges for spacecraft designers.
What are the main parts of a spacecraft? Spacecraft are divided into two classes: habitable (a crew of several people is on board) and uninhabited (scientific equipment is installed on board, which automatically transmits all measurement data to Earth). We will consider only manned spacecraft. The first manned spacecraft, on which Yu. A. Gagarin made his flight, was Vostok. It is followed by ships from the Sunrise series. These are no longer single-seat, like Vostok, but multi-seat devices. For the first time in the world, a group flight of three cosmonauts - Komarov, Feoktistov, Egorov - was made on the Voskhod spacecraft.
The next series of spacecraft created in the Soviet Union was called Soyuz. The ships of this series are much more complex than their predecessors, and the tasks they can perform are also more complex. In the United States, spacecraft of various types have also been created.
Let us consider the general scheme of the structure of a manned spacecraft on the example of the American spacecraft "Apollo".
Rice. 10. Scheme of a three-stage rocket with a spacecraft and a rescue system.
Figure 10 shows a general view of the Saturn rocket system and the Apollo spacecraft docked to it. The spacecraft sits between the rocket's third stage and a device that attaches to the spacecraft at the truss, called the bailout system. What is this device for? The operation of the rocket engine or its control system during the launch of the rocket does not exclude the occurrence of malfunctions. Sometimes these malfunctions can lead to an accident - the rocket will fall to Earth. What can happen in this case? The propellant components will mix, and a sea of fire is formed, in which both the rocket and the spacecraft will be. Moreover, when mixing fuel components, explosive mixtures can also be formed. Therefore, if for any reason an accident occurs, it is necessary to take the ship away from the rocket for a certain distance and only after that land. Under these conditions, neither explosions nor fire will be dangerous for astronauts. This is the purpose of the emergency rescue system (abbreviated SAS).
The SAS system includes the main and control engines running on solid fuel. If the SAS system receives a signal about the emergency state of the rocket, it works. The spacecraft separates from the rocket, and the gunpowder engines of the emergency escape system pull the spacecraft up and to the side. When the powder engine finishes its work, a parachute is ejected from the spacecraft and the ship smoothly descends to Earth. The SAS system is designed to rescue cosmonauts in the event of an emergency, during the launch of the launch vehicle and its flight on the active site.
If the launch of the launch vehicle went well and the flight on the active site is successfully completed, there is no need for an emergency rescue system. After the launch of the spacecraft into low Earth orbit, this system becomes useless. Therefore, before the spacecraft enters orbit, the emergency rescue system is discarded from the spacecraft as unnecessary ballast.
The emergency rescue system is directly attached to the so-called descent or return vehicle of the spacecraft. Why does it have such a name? We have already said that a spacecraft going on a space flight consists of several parts. But only one of its components returns to Earth from a space flight, which is why it is called a return vehicle. The return, or descent, vehicle, unlike other parts of the spacecraft, has thick walls and a special shape, the most advantageous in terms of flight in the Earth's atmosphere at high speeds. The reentry vehicle, or command compartment, is the place where the astronauts are during the launch of the spacecraft into orbit and, of course, during the descent to Earth. It installs most of the equipment with which the ship is controlled. Since the command compartment is intended for the descent of cosmonauts to Earth, parachutes are also located in it, with the help of which the spacecraft is braked in the atmosphere, and then a smooth descent is carried out.
Behind the descent vehicle is a compartment called the orbital. In this compartment, scientific equipment is installed, which is necessary for conducting special research in space, as well as systems that provide the ship with everything necessary: air, electricity, etc. The orbital compartment does not return to Earth after the spacecraft has completed its mission. Its very thin walls are not able to withstand the heat that the reentry vehicle undergoes during its descent to Earth, passing through the dense layers of the atmosphere. Therefore, upon entering the atmosphere, the orbital compartment burns out like a meteor.
It is necessary to have one more compartment in spaceships intended for flight into deep space with landing of people on other celestial bodies. In this compartment, astronauts can descend to the surface of the planet, and when necessary, take off from it.
We have listed the main parts of a modern spacecraft. Now let's see how the life of the crew and the operability of the equipment installed on board the ship are ensured.
It takes a lot to ensure human life. Let's start with the fact that a person cannot exist either at very low or at very high temperatures. The temperature regulator on the globe is the atmosphere, i.e. air. And what about the temperature on the spacecraft? It is known that there are three types of heat transfer from one body to another - thermal conductivity, convection and radiation. To transfer heat by conduction and convection, a heat transmitter is needed. Therefore, in space, these types of heat transfer are impossible. The spacecraft, being in interplanetary space, receives heat from the Sun, the Earth and other planets exclusively by radiation. It is enough to create a shadow from a thin sheet of some material that will block the path of the rays of the Sun (or light from other planets) to the surface of the spacecraft - and it will stop heating up. Therefore, it is not difficult to insulate a spacecraft in an airless space.
However, when flying in outer space, one has to fear not overheating of the ship by the sun's rays or its hypothermia as a result of heat radiation from the walls into the surrounding space, but overheating from the heat that is released inside the spacecraft itself. What causes the temperature in the ship to rise? Firstly, man himself is a source that continuously radiates heat, and secondly, a spacecraft is a very complex machine equipped with many devices and systems, the operation of which is associated with the release of a large amount of heat. The system that ensures the life of the crew members of the ship has a very important task - to remove all the heat generated by both the person and the devices in a timely manner outside the compartments of the ship and ensure that the temperature in them is maintained at a level that is required for the normal existence of a person and the operation of devices.
How is it possible in space, where heat is transferred only by radiation, to ensure the necessary temperature regime in the spacecraft? You know that in the summer, when the sultry Sun shines, everyone wears light-colored clothes, in which the heat is less felt. What's the matter here? It turns out that a light surface, unlike a dark one, does not absorb radiant energy well. It reflects it and therefore heats up much weaker.
This property of bodies, depending on the color of the color, to a greater or lesser extent to absorb or reflect radiant energy, can be used to control the temperature inside the spacecraft. There are substances (they are called thermophototropes) that change their color depending on the heating temperature. As the temperature rises, they begin to discolor and the stronger, the higher the temperature of their heating. On the contrary, when cooled, they darken. This property of thermophototropes can be very useful if they are used in the thermal control system of spacecraft. After all, thermophototropes allow you to maintain the temperature of an object at a certain level automatically, without the use of any mechanisms, heaters or coolers. As a result, the thermal control system using thermophototropes will have a small mass (and this is very important for spacecraft), and no energy will be required to put it into action. (Thermal control systems that operate without consuming energy are called passive.)
There are other passive thermal control systems. All of them have one important property - low weight. However, they are unreliable in operation, especially during long-term operation. Therefore, spacecraft are usually equipped with so-called active temperature control systems. A distinctive feature of such systems is the ability to change the mode of operation. An active temperature control system is like a radiator in a central heating system - if you want the room to be colder, you turn off the hot water supply to the radiator. On the contrary, if you need to raise the temperature in the room, the shut-off valve opens completely.
The task of the thermal control system is to maintain the air temperature in the ship's cabin within the normal, room temperature, i.e. 15 - 20 ° C. If the room is heated with central heating batteries, then the temperature in any place of the room is practically the same. Why is there a very small difference in air temperature near a hot battery and far from it? This is due to the fact that in the room there is a continuous mixing of warm and cold layers of air. Warm (light) air rises, cold (heavy) air sinks. This movement (convection) of air is due to the presence of gravity. Everything in a spaceship is weightless. Consequently, there can be no convection, i.e., air mixing and temperature equalization throughout the entire volume of the cabin. There is no natural convection, but it is created artificially.
For this purpose, the thermal control system provides for the installation of several fans. The fans, driven by an electric motor, force air to circulate continuously through the ship's cabin. Due to this, the heat generated by the human body or any device does not accumulate in one place, but is evenly distributed throughout the volume.
Rice. 11. Scheme of spacecraft cabin air cooling.
Practice has shown that more heat is always generated in a spacecraft than is radiated into the surrounding space through the walls. Therefore, it is advisable to install batteries in it, through which cold liquid must be pumped. This liquid will be given heat by the cabin air driven by the fan (see Fig. 11), while being cooled. Depending on the temperature of the liquid in the radiator, as well as its size, more or less heat can be removed and thus maintain the temperature inside the ship's cabin at the required level. The air-cooling radiator also serves another purpose. You know that when breathing, a person exhales a gas into the surrounding atmosphere, which contains much less oxygen than air, but more carbon dioxide and water vapor. If water vapor is not removed from the atmosphere, it will accumulate in it until a state of saturation occurs. Saturated steam will condense on all instruments, the walls of the ship, everything will become damp. Of course, in such conditions it is harmful for a person to live and work for a long time, and not all devices with such humidity can function normally.
The radiators we talked about help to remove excess water vapor from the atmosphere of the spacecraft cabin. Have you noticed what happens to a cold object brought from the street into a warm room in winter? It is immediately covered with tiny droplets of water. Where did they come from? Out of the air. Air always contains some amount of water vapor. At room temperature (+20°C), 1 m³ of air can contain up to 17 g of moisture in the form of steam. With an increase in air temperature, the possible moisture content also increases, and vice versa: with a decrease in temperature, less water vapor can be present in the air. That is why on cold objects brought into a warm room, moisture falls out in the form of dew.
In a spacecraft, the cold object is a radiator through which a cold liquid is pumped. As soon as too much water vapor accumulates in the cabin air, it from the air washing the radiator tubes condenses on them in the form of dew. Thus, the radiator serves not only as a means of cooling the air, but at the same time is its dehumidifier. Since the radiator performs two tasks at once - it cools and dries the air, it is called a refrigeration dryer.
So, in order to maintain normal temperature and air humidity in the spacecraft cabin, it is necessary to have a liquid in the thermal control system that must be continuously cooled, otherwise it will not be able to fulfill its role - to remove excess heat from the spacecraft cabin. How to cool the liquid? Cooling the liquid, of course, is not a problem if there is a conventional electric refrigerator. But electric refrigerators are not installed on spacecraft, and they are not needed there. Outer space differs from terrestrial conditions in that there is both heat and cold at the same time. It turns out that in order to cool the liquid, with the help of which the temperature and humidity of the air inside the cabin are maintained at a given level, it is enough to place it in outer space for a while, but in such a way that it is in the shade.
In the thermal control system, in addition to the fans that move the air, pumps are provided. Their task is to pump liquid from the radiator inside the cabin to the radiator installed on the outer side of the spacecraft shell, i.e. in outer space. These two radiators are connected to each other by pipelines, which have valves and sensors that measure the temperature of the liquid at the inlet and outlet of the radiators. Depending on the readings of these sensors, the rate of fluid transfer from one radiator to another is regulated, i.e., the amount of heat removed from the ship's cabin.
What properties should a fluid used in a temperature control system have? Since one of the radiators is located in outer space, where very low temperatures are possible, one of the main requirements for the liquid is a low solidification temperature. Indeed, if the liquid in the external radiator freezes, the temperature control system will fail.
Maintaining the temperature inside the spacecraft at a level at which human performance is maintained is a very important task. A person cannot live and work either in the cold or in the heat. Can a person exist without air? Of course not. Yes, and such a question never arises before us, since air on Earth is everywhere. The air fills the cabin of the spacecraft. Is there a difference in providing a person with air on Earth and in the cabin of a spacecraft? The airspace on Earth has a large volume. No matter how much we breathe, no matter how much oxygen we consume for other needs, its content in the air practically does not change.
The position in the cockpit of the spacecraft is different. Firstly, the volume of air in it is very small and, in addition, there is no natural regulator of the composition of the atmosphere, since there are no plants that would absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Therefore, very soon people in the cabin of the spacecraft will begin to feel the lack of oxygen for breathing. A person feels normal if the atmosphere contains at least 19% oxygen. With less oxygen, it becomes difficult to breathe. In a spacecraft, one crew member has a free volume = 1.5 - 2.0 m³. Calculations show that already after 1.5 - 1.6 hours the air in the cabin becomes unsuitable for normal breathing.
Therefore, the spacecraft must be equipped with a system that would feed its atmosphere with oxygen. Where do you get oxygen from? Of course, it is possible to store oxygen on board the ship in the form of compressed gas in special cylinders. As needed, the gas from the cylinder can be released into the cabin. But this kind of oxygen storage is not very suitable for spacecraft. The fact is that metal cylinders, in which gas is under high pressure, weigh a lot. Therefore, this simple method of storing oxygen on spacecraft is not used. But gaseous oxygen can be turned into a liquid. The density of liquid oxygen is almost 1000 times greater than the density of gaseous oxygen, as a result of which much less capacity is required to store it (the same mass). In addition, liquid oxygen can be stored under slight pressure. Therefore, the walls of the vessel can be thin.
However, the use of liquid oxygen on board the ship is associated with some difficulties. It is very easy to supply oxygen to the atmosphere of the spacecraft cabin if it is in a gaseous state, it is more difficult if it is liquid. The liquid must first be turned into a gas, and for this it must be heated. Heating of oxygen is also necessary because its vapors can have a temperature close to the boiling point of oxygen, i.e. - 183°C. Such cold oxygen cannot be let into the cockpit, it is, of course, impossible to breathe it. It should be heated to at least 15 - 18°C.
Gasification of liquid oxygen and heating of vapors will require special devices, which will complicate the oxygen supply system. It must also be remembered that a person in the process of breathing not only consumes oxygen in the air, but simultaneously releases carbon dioxide. A person emits about 20 liters of carbon dioxide per hour. Carbon dioxide, as you know, is not a toxic substance, but it is difficult for a person to breathe air in which carbon dioxide contains more than 1 - 2%.
In order for the cabin air of a spacecraft to be breathable, it is necessary not only to add oxygen to it, but also to remove carbon dioxide from it at the same time. To do this, it would be convenient to have on board the spacecraft a substance that releases oxygen and at the same time absorbs carbon dioxide from the air. Such substances exist. You know that metal oxide is a combination of oxygen with a metal. Rust, for example, is iron oxide. Other metals are also oxidized, including alkali metals (sodium, potassium).
Alkali metals, combining with oxygen, form not only oxides, but also the so-called peroxides and superoxides. Peroxides and superoxides of alkali metals contain much more oxygen than oxides. The formula of sodium oxide is Na₂O, and the superoxide is NaO₂. Under the action of moisture, sodium superoxide decomposes with the release of pure oxygen and the formation of alkali: 4NaO₂ + 2Н₂О → 4NaOH + 3O₂.
Alkali metal superoxides proved to be very convenient substances for obtaining oxygen from them under spacecraft conditions and for cleaning cabin air from excess carbon dioxide. After all, alkali (NaOH), which is released during the decomposition of alkali metal superoxide, very readily combines with carbon dioxide. The calculation shows that for every 20 - 25 liters of oxygen released during the decomposition of sodium superoxide, soda alkali is formed in an amount sufficient to bind 20 liters of carbon dioxide.
The binding of carbon dioxide with alkali is that a chemical reaction occurs between them: CO₂ + 2NaOH → Na₂CO + H₂O. As a result of the reaction, sodium carbonate (soda) and water are formed. The ratio between oxygen and alkali, formed during the decomposition of alkali metal superoxides, turned out to be very favorable, since a person consumes an average of 25 A of oxygen per hour and releases 20 liters of carbon dioxide in the same time.
Alkali metal superoxide decomposes on contact with water. Where do you get water for this? It turns out you don't need to worry about it. We have already said that when a person breathes, he emits not only carbon dioxide, but also water vapor. The moisture contained in the exhaled air is sufficient in excess to decompose the required amount of superoxide. Of course, we know that oxygen consumption depends on the depth and frequency of breathing. You sit at the table and breathe calmly - you consume one amount of oxygen. And if you run or work physically, you breathe deeply and often, so you consume more oxygen than with calm breathing. Spacecraft crew members will also consume different amounts of oxygen at different times of the day. During sleep and rest, oxygen consumption is minimal, but when work related to movement is performed, oxygen consumption increases dramatically.
Due to the inhaled oxygen, certain oxidative processes occur in the body. As a result of these processes, water vapor and carbon dioxide are formed. If the body consumes more oxygen, it means that it emits more carbon dioxide and water vapor. Consequently, the body, as it were, automatically maintains the moisture content in the air in such an amount that is necessary for the decomposition of the corresponding amount of alkali metal superoxide.
Rice. 12. Scheme of replenishing the atmosphere of the spacecraft cabin with oxygen and cleaning it from carbon dioxide.
The scheme of air purification from carbon dioxide and its replenishment with oxygen is shown in Figure 12. Cabin air is driven by a fan through cartridges with sodium or potassium superoxide. From the cartridges, the air comes out already enriched with oxygen and purified from carbon dioxide.
A sensor is installed in the cabin that monitors the oxygen content in the air. If the sensor indicates that the oxygen content in the air is becoming too low, the fan motors are signaled to increase the number of revolutions, as a result of which the speed of air passing through the superoxide cartridges increases, and therefore the amount of moisture (which is in the air) that enters the cartridge at the same time. More moisture equals more oxygen. If the cabin air contains oxygen above the norm, then a signal is sent from the sensors to the fan motors to reduce the number of revolutions.
SPACESHIPS(KK) - spacecraft designed for human flight -.
The first flight into space on the Vostok spacecraft was made on April 12, 1961 by the Soviet pilot-cosmonaut Yu. A. Gagarin. The mass of the spacecraft "Vostok" together with the cosmonaut is 4725 kg, the maximum flight altitude above the Earth is 327 km. The flight of Yuri Gagarin lasted only 108 minutes, but it was of historical significance: it was proved that a person can live and work in space. “He called us all into space,” said American astronaut Neil Armstrong.
Spacecraft are launched either for an independent purpose (conducting scientific and technical research and experiments, observing the Earth and natural phenomena in the surrounding space from space, testing and testing new systems and equipment), or for the purpose of delivering crews to orbital stations. CC is created and launched by the USSR and the USA.
In total, up to January 1, 1986, 112 flights of spacecraft of various types with crews were carried out: 58 flights of Soviet spacecraft and 54 American. In these flights, 93 spacecraft were used (58 Soviet and 35 American). 195 people flew into space on them - 60 Soviet and 116 American cosmonauts, as well as one cosmonaut each from Czechoslovakia, Poland, East Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, Cuba, Mongolia, Romania, France and India, who made flights as part of international crews on the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft and Salyut orbital stations, three cosmonauts from Germany and one cosmonaut each from Canada, France, Saudi Arabia, the Netherlands and Mexico, who flew on the American reusable Space Shuttle.
Unlike automatic spacecraft, each spacecraft has three main mandatory elements: a pressurized compartment with a life support system in which the crew lives and works in space; descent vehicle for crew return to Earth; attitude control, control systems and propulsion for changing the orbit and leaving it before landing (the latter element is typical for many automatic satellites and AMS).
The life support system creates and maintains in the hermetic compartment the conditions necessary for human life and activity: an artificial gaseous environment (air) of a certain chemical composition, with a certain pressure, temperature, humidity; satisfies the crew's needs for oxygen, food, water; removes human waste (for example, absorbs carbon dioxide exhaled by a person). During short-term flights, oxygen reserves can be stored on board the spacecraft; during long-term flights, oxygen can be obtained, for example, by electrolysis of water or decomposition of carbon dioxide.
Reentry vehicles to return the crew to Earth use parachute systems to slow down their rate of descent before landing. The descent vehicles of the American spacecraft land on the water surface, the Soviet spacecraft - on the solid surface of the earth. Therefore, the descent vehicles of the Soyuz spacecraft additionally have soft landing engines that operate directly at the surface and sharply reduce the landing speed. The descent vehicles also have powerful outer heat shields, since when entering the dense layers of the atmosphere at high speeds, their outer surfaces are heated to very high temperatures due to air friction.
Spaceships of the USSR: Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz. Academician S.P. Korolev played an outstanding role in their creation. Remarkable flights were made on these spaceships, which became milestones in the development of astronautics. On the Vostok-3 and Vostok-4 spacecraft, cosmonauts A. G. Nikolaev and P. R. Popovich performed the first group flight. Spacecraft "Vostok-6" lifted into space the first female cosmonaut V. V. Tereshkova. From the Voskhod-2 spacecraft piloted by P. I. Belyaev, cosmonaut A. A. Leonov for the first time in the world made a spacewalk in a special space suit. The first experimental orbital station in Earth satellite orbit was created by docking the Soyuz-4 and Soyuz-5 spacecraft piloted by cosmonauts V. A. Shatalov and B. V. Volynov, A. S. Eliseev, E. V. Khru -new. A. S. Eliseev and E. V. Khrunov went into outer space and transferred to the Soyuz-4 spacecraft. Many Soyuz spacecraft were used to deliver crews to the Salyut orbital stations.
Spaceship "Vostok"
Soyuz is the most advanced manned spacecraft created in the USSR. They are designed to perform a wide range of tasks in near-Earth space: servicing orbital stations, studying the effects of long-term space flight on the human body, conducting experiments in the interests of science and the national economy, and testing new space technology. The mass of the Soyuz spacecraft is 6800 kg, the maximum length is 7.5 m, the maximum diameter is 2.72 m, the span of solar panels is 8.37 m, the total volume of living quarters is 10 m3. The spacecraft consists of three compartments: the descent module, the orbital compartment and the instrument-aggregate compartment.
Spacecraft "Soyuz-19".
In the descent vehicle, the crew is on the site of launching the ship into orbit, while controlling the ship in flight in orbit, when returning to Earth. The orbital compartment is a laboratory in which astronauts conduct scientific research and observations, exercise, eat and rest. This compartment is equipped with places for work, rest and sleep of astronauts. The orbital compartment can be used as an airlock for astronauts to enter outer space. The main on-board equipment and propulsion systems of the ship are located in the instrument-assembly compartment. Part of the compartment is sealed. Inside it, the conditions necessary for the normal functioning of the thermal control system, power supply, radio communication and telemetry equipment, orientation and motion control system devices are maintained. In the non-pressurized part of the compartment, a liquid propellant propulsion system is mounted, which is used to maneuver the spacecraft in orbit, as well as to deorbit the spacecraft. It consists of two engines with a thrust of 400 kg each. Depending on the flight program and refueling of the propulsion system, the Soyuz spacecraft can perform altitude maneuvers up to 1300 km.
Until January 1, 1986, 54 spacecraft of the Soyuz type and its improved version Soyuz T were launched (of which 3 were uncrewed).
Launch vehicle with the Soyuz-15 spacecraft before launch.
US spacecraft: single-seat "Mercury" (6 spacecraft were launched), two-seat "Gemini" (10 spacecraft), three-seat "Apollo" (15 spacecraft) and multi-seat reusable spacecraft created under the Space Shuttle program. The greatest success was achieved by American cosmonautics with the help of the Apollo spacecraft, designed to deliver expeditions to the moon. A total of 7 such expeditions were undertaken, of which 6 were successful. The first expedition to the Moon took place on July 16-24, 1969 on the Apollo 11 spacecraft, piloted by a crew of cosmonauts N. Armstrong, E. Aldrin and M. Collins. On July 20, Armstrong and Aldrin landed on the moon in the lunar compartment of the ship, while Collins in the Apollo main block flew in lunar orbit. The lunar compartment spent 21 hours and 36 minutes on the Moon, of which the cosmonauts spent more than 2 hours directly on the surface of the Moon. Then they launched from the Moon in the lunar compartment, docked with the main block of the Apollo and, dropping the used lunar compartment, headed for Earth. On July 24, the expedition safely splashed down in the Pacific Ocean.
The third expedition to the moon was unsuccessful: an accident occurred on the way to the moon with Apollo 13, the landing on the moon was canceled. Having circumnavigated our natural satellite and overcame colossal difficulties, astronauts J. Lovell, F. Hayes, and J. Swidgert returned to Earth.
On the Moon, American astronauts conducted scientific observations, placed instruments that worked after their departure from the Moon, and delivered samples of lunar soil to Earth.
In the early 80s. A new type of spacecraft was created in the United States - the Space Shuttle (Space Shuttle) reusable spacecraft. Structurally, the space transport system "Space Shuttle" is an orbital stage - an aircraft with three liquid rocket engines (rocket plane), - attached to an external external fuel tank with two solid propellant boosters. Like conventional launch vehicles, the Space Shuttle launches vertically (the starting weight of the system is 2040 tons). The fuel tank separates after use and burns in the atmosphere, boosters after separation splash down in the Atlantic Ocean and can be reused.
The launch weight of the orbital stage is about 115 tons, including a payload of about 30 tons and a crew of 6-8 cosmonauts; fuselage length - 32.9 m, wingspan - 23.8 m.
After completing tasks in space, the orbital stage returns to Earth, landing like a conventional aircraft, and can be reused in the future.
The main purpose of the Space Shuttle is to perform shuttle flights along the Earth-orbit-Earth route to deliver various payloads (satellites, elements of orbital stations, etc.) to relatively low orbits, as well as conduct various studies in space and experiments. The US Department of Defense plans to widely use the Space Shuttle for the militarization of outer space, which the Soviet Union strongly opposes.
The first flight of the reusable Space Shuttle took place in April 1981.
Until January 1, 1986, 23 spacecraft flights of this type took place, while 4 orbital stages "Columbia", "Challenger", "Disk Veri" and "Atlantis" were used.
In July 1975, an important international space experiment was carried out in near-Earth orbit: the ships of the two countries, the Soviet Soyuz-19 and the American Apollo, took part in a joint flight. In orbit, the ships docked, and for two days there was a space system of the spacecraft of the two countries. The significance of this experiment lies in the fact that a major scientific and technical problem of the compatibility of spacecraft was solved for the implementation of a joint flight program with rendezvous and docking, mutual transfer of crews, and joint scientific research.
The joint flight of the Soyuz-19 spacecraft, piloted by cosmonauts A. A. Leonov and V. N. Kubasov, and the Apollo spacecraft, piloted by cosmonauts T. Stafford, V. Brand and D. Slayton, became a historic event in cosmonautics. This flight showed that the USSR and the USA can cooperate not only on Earth, but also in space.
In the period from March 1978 to May 1981, the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft and the Salyut-6 orbital station carried out flights of nine international crews under the Interkosmos program. In space, international crews performed a great deal of scientific work - they conducted about 150 scientific and technical experiments in the field of space biology and medicine, astrophysics, space materials science, geophysics, Earth observation in order to study its natural resources.
In 1982, a Soviet-French international crew flew on the Soviet Soyuz T-6 spacecraft and the Salyut-7 orbital station, and in April 1984, on the Soviet Soyuz T-11 spacecraft and the Salyut-7 orbital station 7" Soviet and Indian cosmonauts flew.
Flights of international crews on Soviet spacecraft and orbital stations are of great importance for the development of world cosmonautics and the development of friendly ties between the peoples of different countries.
