Now let's move from the theater to the Roman amphitheater, where the gladiator fights took place. Gladiator fights had a long tradition even before the construction of amphitheaters in Italy. The original connection of gladiator fights with funeral celebrations is known (“bustum” - a fire on which the body of the deceased was burned, or a grave). The custom of gladiator fights most likely came to Rome from Etruria (according to another version - from Campania), where it also had a religious and ritual character. The origin of this custom is explained in various ways; there is reason to believe that in ancient times it was customary to kill people condemned to death over the coffin of a well-deserved war, thereby bringing a bloody sacrifice to the gods of the underworld. Over time, apparently, this cruel custom was put an end to and instead they began to arrange ritual fights of people with swords in their hands - gladiators (from “gladius” - sword) at the funeral.
The first organized gladiatorial games still retained their connection with funeral rites. In 264 BC these spectacles were staged by the sons of Lucius Junius Brutus at his funeral. The custom took root in Rome, and since then, during the magnificent, solemn funerals of prominent citizens, gladiator games were constantly arranged in their honor. So, in 62 BC. Quintus Caecilius Metelus Scipio held bloody spectacles in memory of his adoptive father, in 59 BC. Faustus Cornelius Sulla honored the memory of his father in the same way. Caesar, for the first time, arranged gladiator games in honor of a dead woman - his daughter Julia. These facts testify to the adherence to the tradition of burial customs, which were established in Italy even more firmly than in Greece.
Years passed, and gladiatorial games began to be arranged on other occasions; they also entered the program of spectacles during some holidays. In the 1st century BC. the organizers of the games were either state authorities through some official, most often the city aedile, or private individuals who had enough funds for this; later games were almost always arranged by the emperor. Bloody spectacles became more and more a favorite entertainment of the Romans, who could no longer do without them and now and then demanded to show them how people kill each other in the amphitheater. In the era of the empire, the burial of high-ranking persons was also often accompanied by gladiatorial games. The inhabitants of Rome used any funeral of any wealthy people in order to demand games under this pretext. The same morals reigned in other cities: in Pollentia, for example, as the biographer of the twelve emperors Suetonius tells, “the mob did not let the procession with the ashes of the senior centurion out of the square until they forced the heirs to spend a lot of money on gladiatorial spectacles. However, Tiberius, having gathered troops, severely punished everyone who participated in this outrage ”Gaius Suetonius Tranquill. Life of the Twelve Caesars. -SPb., 2008. P.7
As epigraphic monuments show, gladiator fights were arranged not only at funerals. Wills provided for the repetition of games at certain times and after burial: according to the inscription in Osti, gladiator battles in honor of a certain late Emily Agrippina were to take place annually.
The growing popularity of gladiatorial games required a large number of well trained and trained fighters to be on hand. This led to the creation of special gladiatorial schools, where training took place. The entrepreneur, who picked up a group of gladiators, then sold them or rented them to the organizers of public spectacles. Gladiator schools were organized on the initiative of individuals, or on the initiative of the state, not only in Rome, but also in other cities of Italy and in the provinces.
Gladiators were selected mainly from prisoners of war, criminals condemned to death, but free people who fell into poverty and expected to earn more with this dangerous craft, ignoring the mortal risk, agreed to fight. When gladiatorial fights turned into a purely entertaining spectacle, they gained an unprecedented scope, so the number of participants had to be limited to no more than 120 fighters at a time. However, these restrictions were not strictly observed: at the games arranged by Octavian Augustus, 600 gladiators entered the arena one after another, or rather, pair after pair. But this was not the limit: having defeated the Dacians, Emperor Trajan celebrated his victory with unprecedented splendor, forcing 10 thousand fighters to fight each other. The weapons and combat equipment of the gladiators were very diverse, as were the types of battles. The skill of the schools constantly competed with each other. The battles were vivid and unforgettable spectacles, bearing a cruel and bloody character. The crowd rejoiced despite the fact that these spectacles claimed the lives of hundreds of people and wild animals.
As you know, the life of a wounded soldier depended on the will of the audience. The astonished person could beg the audience for indulgence, for saving his life, raising his index finger. If the gladiator enjoyed the sympathy of the audience, they favorably listened to his prayers and left him alive; if he had the misfortune not to please them, if they didn’t like the way he behaved in the arena, they doomed him to death with shouts of “Kill!” and with a fatal gesture - dropping down the thumb. Some gladiators were especially popular in Rome: Hermes, Helium, Advolant. Like outstanding actors, gladiators, even if they were not distinguished by their beauty, enjoyed success with the Roman matrons, who were impressed by their strength and glory.
Meanwhile, the program of bloody spectacles so valued by the Romans expanded over time. More and more often, fights with wild animals were arranged in the arena: either the fighter attacked the beast one by one, or they started hunting for a whole flock - venations. Some officials were required to organize such spectacles at their own expense on the day they took office. Despite the high costs, the officials willingly competed among themselves in the pomp and splendor of the arranged spectacles, because this allowed them to gain popularity in the city, which was of no small importance for their entire future career. Gladiator games were considered at that time a nationwide action, capable of providing the emperor with the support of the masses.
For most Romans, these spectacles were a favorite pastime. They went to the amphitheaters to enjoy thrills, to see exotic animals, to admire the best gladiators, whose names were as well known as the names of famous sportsmen and pop singers are today. Going to the amphitheater, the audience already knew who they would see that day in the arena, because there were posters with the full program of performances and the names of the participants.
But other Roman intellectuals did not like bloody mass spectacles, and moreover for many reasons. Roman rich vying with each other set magnificent festivities, arranged expensive games, sparing no means, in order to win the goodwill of fellow citizens. From rich and influential people, such as Crasses, Lucullus, Quintus Hortensius Gortal, Gaius Claudius Pulcher, and finally Pompey the Great, others tried to keep up when they became aediles. Cicero was very critical of such people. The great orator and philosopher called such behavior of officials wastefulness, and not at all generosity or breadth of soul: something about which they will leave a short memory or leave none at all. Mark Thulius Cicero. About responsibilities. -M., 1974. S. 55-57.
About any waste of money, "the purpose of which is to win the favor of the crowd", Cicero speaks sharply negatively. He did not find the slightest pleasure in contemplating the bloody games in the arena. Gladiator fights, baiting of animals - all these are spectacles for the mob, gathering huge crowds of people. We add that such spectacles were simply dangerous, and not only for the fighters who fought with the animals, but also for others.
It is not surprising that even in the era of the empire, not all Romans found pleasure in bloody entertainment. Gladiators admitted to the games took an oath. Seneca ironically comments: "... in the most shameful obligation are ... the words:" I give myself to burn, bind and kill with iron. Whoever lends his hands for the arena, who pays for food and drink with blood, they take a guarantee that they will endure everything, albeit against their will ... ”Lucius Annei Seneca. Moral letters to Lucilius. -M., 1977. S. 2-5.
And in these judgments, Seneca was by no means alone: not everyone in Rome shared the tastes and preferences of the mass audience. But the emperors still tried to please the crowd, to respond to its loud call: “Bread and circuses!”
When the gladiator games became so popular, when the number of their participants increased significantly both in Rome and in other cities of Italy, when, finally, the spectacles began to last for hours, then the Bull Forum or any other city square ceased to be suitable for holding games, because they could not accommodate all fighters and animals, and most importantly - the audience. I had to start building special rooms - amphitheatres, where from now on such spectacles took place.
The first amphitheater in Rome appeared in the middle of the 1st century. BC, it was founded by Gaius Scribonius Curio, who proposed an original project. The wooden amphitheater with two rotating parts was followed in 46 BC. Caesar's amphitheater, also wooden. Under Augustus, the first stone amphitheater in Rome was built on the Field of Mars, built by the city prefect Titus Statilius Taurus. In the middle of the 1st c. BC. Nero's amphitheater appeared. However, the largest and most famous Roman amphitheater was built in the 70s of the 1st century. BC. between the Palatine and Esquiline hills, the emperors Vespasian and Titus: it was a huge, monumental Flavian amphitheater, later called the Colosseum, or Colosseum. It could accommodate more than 45,000 spectators at the same time. Amphitheaters were also built in other cities of Italy and the provinces: in Pompeii, Spoleto, Puteoli, Paul, Verona, Prenest and in many other places in Gaul - in Arelate (Arles), Nemause (Nimes), Lutetia (Paris), Vezunne (Perigueux) , in Spain - in modern Merida and Seville, as well as on the island of Sardinia, in Tunisia. The popularity of gladiatorial games in Italy is evidenced by at least the fact that there were 99 amphitheatres, of which 27 were studied by archaeologists. All of them were built at the expense of the city or at the expense of any private person, and sometimes the construction was partially financed by the emperor himself.
Although not as passionate as gladiator fights, the Romans were also fond of purely sporting spectacles, especially the performances of athletes. It happened that gladiators, distinguished by their extraordinary physical strength, participated in performances as athletes. He organized the first competitions of athletes in Rome in 186. BC. commander Mark Fulvius Nobilior, famous for his sympathy for Greek customs and traditions.
Crowds of people gathered and competitions of bowlers. This spectacle was so popular that, as Seneca writes, it was on those days when it was arranged that thinking people who preferred solitude felt free: no one would come, disturb, or tear them away from their thoughts. If anything could distract an intellectual during these hours, it was only the noise coming from the playgrounds. Although Rome did not have such a powerful tradition of organized sports as in Greece, there were many of them. Pliny the Elder reports on running competitions: “In the circus, some run a distance of 160,000 steps, and in 59 AD. An eight-year-old boy ran 75,000 steps from noon to evening. Pliny the Elder. Natural history, book. VII, -M., 2008. S.57
When cult festivities in honor of deified emperors began to be held (for example, cult celebrations in honor of Augustus in Ancyra), their program included not only gladiator fights, but also purely sports games organized by local provincial authorities at the expense of priests who supported one or another cult of the deceased ruler.
And the Roman emperors regaled the people with another spectacle: these were staging of naval battles - naumachia. Naumachia was first shown to the Romans by Caesar in 46 BC. In 2 AD, on the occasion of the consecration of the temple of Mars the Avenger, Octavian Augustus, according to the Roman historian of the beginning of the 1st century. AD Velleius Paterculus, "blinded the imagination and vision of the Roman people with magnificent gladiatorial games and naumachia ..." Velleius Paterculus. Small Roman stories. -M., 1996. P.78
Augustus, whom the poet, like many of his contemporaries, calls Caesar, presented to his fellow citizens an episode from the history of the Greco-Persian wars: a battle between the Athenian fleet and the ships of the Persians. The princeps himself tells in the autobiographical Ancyra monument that he ordered to dig a huge pool 280 m long and 70 m wide, not far from the Tiber and Caesar's gardens, where about three thousand people fought on thirty ships: dieres, triremes, and smaller ships, not counting rowers. The example of Augustus was followed by his successors. Nero showed the Romans not only a sea battle, but also sea animals in salt water. Emperor Claudius staged such a grandiose spectacle that about 30 thousand people were involved in the construction of a huge drain, who worked for 11 years. Before draining the waters of the lake into the dug channel, the emperor wanted, according to Tacitus, "so that the largest possible number of spectators could see this magnificent structure." To do this, he arranged a naval battle-naumachia on the lake. The shores, hills, and peaks of the surrounding mountains filled, as in an amphitheater, innumerable crowds of spectators, attracted from the neighboring cities and even from Rome with a thirst for spectacles, while others were brought here by the desire to please the princeps.
The Greek tradition of equestrian competitions was continued in Rome by circus games. The oldest Roman circus - the Great Circus - was built in the valley between the Paine and Aventine hills in the era of the kings. This huge building, 644 m long and 123 m wide, could accommodate 260,000 spectators at the same time, and after reconstruction under Emperor Trajan at the beginning of the 2nd century. BC - even 300,000. The circuses were always crowded; Women were also willing to come here, which, as is clear from the poems of Ovid, the young people of that time skillfully used. The circus was a place where gambling was made, stakes were made on one or another team - hundreds of young people were already ruined and wasted their parents' fortune by betting on the wrong horse. This circus excitement repelled some enlightened Romans, who were critical of the crowd's predilections, from the spectacles.
Pliny the Younger belonged to such people, who did not like equestrian competitions and were bored in the circus. The days when most of his fellow citizens rushed to the circus, he preferred to spend in literary pursuits. In a letter to his friend Calphysius Rufus, he speaks with irony about the circus races themselves, and about the Romans' passion for the colors of "their" team.
“I spent all this time among tablets and books, enjoying the most pleasant peace. “How,” you ask, “could you achieve this in the city?” - There were circus games, and I am by no means fond of this kind of spectacle: there is nothing new, nothing diverse, nothing worth seeing more than once. It is all the more surprising for me that thousands of adult men are so childishly eager to see running horses and people standing on chariots again and again. When I remember how much time they spend on this empty, vulgar business and with what insatiability, then I am overcome with pleasure that I am not captured by this pleasure. And in these days, which many waste on the most idle occupation, I give my leisure time to literary work with such pleasure ”Letters of Pliny the Younger. -M., 1984. S. 6.
Philosophers, thinking people, gave an accurate assessment of what was happening before their eyes: “How many people exercised the body and how cowardly the soul! How many people come running to watch this amusing and fleeting spectacle, and what a void around the noble sciences! How weak in spirit are those whose shoulders and arms we admire! This is what I think about most of all: if by exercise you can accustom the body to such patience that it allows you to endure blows and kicks from many people, to spend whole days under the scorching sun, in hot dust, covered in blood, then how much easier it is to temper the soul. » Lucius Annaeus Seneca. Moral letters to Lucilius. -M., 1977. S. 1-3 ...
Roman society retreated further and further from the principles of traditional morality, which the inhabitants of the Eternal City were so proud of. Corruption, abuses of governors, political intrigues, unbridled pursuit of profit, cruel and bloody civil wars, careerism based on family ties, all this led to the moral decline of civilization.
Not a single major holiday in ancient Rome was complete without bloodshed. This, of course, is not about riots, but about gladiatorial games that were regularly held to entertain the citizens of the Eternal City. Gladiators fought and died for the amusement of the crowd. True, this often happened in a completely different way than we used to imagine from books and films.
Retiarius, Murmillo, Secutor, Samnite, Thracian... All these are the names of various types of gladiators who fought for centuries in arenas throughout the territory of the Roman Republic, and then the empire. These skilled warriors, who fought for the entertainment of others, have become one of the most famous symbols of ancient Rome for the general public. Their life is surrounded by so many legends that it is difficult to make out what is true and what is not. In addition, new and new facts are constantly appearing, making it possible to look at gladiator fights from a completely different angle.
Etruscan heritage
Riddles appear from the very beginning: how did the ancient Romans get a passion for such cruel entertainment? One of the most common points of view is that this is an element of the funeral rite, borrowed from the Etruscans (as well as much else in Roman culture). It is often possible to come across the assertion that the Etruscans have not preserved any data about such rites. This is not entirely true. In the writings of the ancient Greek writer Athenaeus, it is mentioned that it was the Etruscans who brought the custom of arranging gladiator fights at feasts to the south of Italy. True, Athenaeus lived quite late - at the turn of the II and III centuries, that is, he wrote about the events of 500 years ago. However, scientists have no doubts that human sacrifices were actively used by the Etruscans. The only question is whether they took the form of a fight to the death.
On the frescoes from the Etruscan tombs, one can often see images of athletic competitions that accompanied the funeral rite. They included both racing and wrestling. The winner, by the way, was crowned with a laurel wreath. A similar tradition was at the funeral of the Greeks. Later, it migrated to the Olympic Games (as well as other major sports of antiquity). It is quite possible that sports fights alternated with bloody fights. The deceased became a human sacrifice to the gods, in memory of who the feast was celebrated for.
According to another version, the Etruscans had nothing to do with it, and gladiator fights at the commemoration were the first to be organized by representatives of the tribes living in the Italian Campania. And from them the custom was adopted by the Romans. The first funeral, accompanied by gladiator fights, was recorded in ancient Rome in 264 BC. A certain Decimus Junius organized a battle of three pairs of fighters in memory of his father Brutus Pere.
Over time, the fights combined with the feast were called "munera" and began to be arranged more and more magnificently. In 174 BC, the future consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus organized three-day games in which 74 gladiators took part.
Spectacles for the crowd
The traditions of organizing the munera became more and more complicated. Group battles have been added to simple one-on-one duels. Then - fights with wild animals, called "venatio". This was done by special types of fighters: venators (they mostly showed tricks with animals without engaging with them in close combat) and bestiaries (fought to the death). By the way, the famous Spanish bullfight, which has survived to this day, originates precisely in the Roman venazios.
The Roman Republic, meanwhile, expanded its borders and conquered more and more new territories. So fighters appeared on the gladiatorial arenas, representing the types of armor and weapons of the barbarian peoples conquered by Rome (the most famous are the Samnites and Thracians). So the audience could simultaneously see the exotic and feel the glory of the invincible Roman weapons.
During the heyday of the republic, it was already unthinkable to imagine the funeral of a noble person, not accompanied by public performances of gladiators. The tradition continued even after Rome became an empire. True, this was no longer perceived as a rite, but simply as entertainment. Citizens are so accustomed to this that they perceived the too modest funeral of a public person as an insult to public mores.
The great Roman historian Suetonius describes a case in which public unrest broke out in the city of Pollentia in northern Italy, so strong that the emperor Tiberius had to send troops there! The reason for the rebellion was the refusal of the heirs of the deceased centurion to arrange gladiatorial games. Outraged citizens attacked the house of the deceased, seized his body and refused to give it to the heirs until they "show respect for tradition." In this situation, one can only sympathize with the heirs - the organization of the games required a huge amount of money.
Valuable personnel
The further the gladiatorial games departed from the rite, turning into a show, the higher the life of gladiators was valued. In a ritual battle, a sacrifice had to be made without fail. Now, however, only as much blood could be shed as was required for the amusement of the crowd. Gladiators have become too expensive for their owners to afford to lose fighters in every fight. After all, the gladiator needed to be well fed, trained, and provided with highly qualified medical care (which most of those who sat in the stands of the amphitheaters could not even dream of).
According to modern historians, only about 10% of gladiators ended their lives in the arena. The rest, of course, received many wounds, but fared much better than the city plebs. During the heyday of the Roman Empire, for just one victory, the gladiator received an amount equal to the salary of a Roman soldier for a year! And the winner of the arena twice already had the right to live in a separate room.
This led to the fact that not only slaves, but also free citizens of Rome became gladiators. Yes, at the same time they were subjected to public censure and ridicule. Cicero, for example, called gladiators "evil men and barbarians." But on the other hand, they could get a very high quality of life and well provide for their families. According to some estimates, out of every 10 gladiators, at least two were free citizens.
Representatives of noble families also entered the arena! This was considered a shame and a loss of reputation, but it could help, for example, get out of debt. Emperors sometimes even had to issue decrees prohibiting the children of senators from becoming gladiators.
Although the emperor Commodus, notorious for his cruel and licentious disposition, was so fond of gladiatorial games that he himself did not disdain to enter the arena. There he spent 735 fights and won victories in all. True, according to some reports, his rivals had no chance, since they were given not steel, but lead weapons.
Beautiful floor in the arena
Contrary to traditional beliefs, not only men, but also women fought in the arena. This is evidenced by both documents and a few images. It is not exactly known when female gladiators appeared, but most of the references to them date back to the reign of the emperors Nero (54-68) and Domitian (81-96).
The theme of female gladiators is still very poorly studied. Ancient authors tended to write about them to denounce their licentiousness, not to describe their exploits. Here, for example, as the famous Roman poet Juvenal wrote about female gladiators in his satirical poems:
She should take part in the trumpet games at Flora's festival;
Doesn't she aspire to the real arena instead?
How can there be shame in such a woman in a helmet,
Loving strength, despising her gender? However, she would not want to become a man: after all, we have little pleasure.
Apparently, at first women appeared in the arena during mass battles. They got the role of fighters who did not engage in close combat. Such, for example, as Essedarius - a gladiator armed with a bow and standing on a chariot. However, over time, female gladiators began to fight on an equal footing with men. True, now only among themselves - not a single fact about the battles of heterosexual fighters has come down to us.
Like men, female gladiators fought dressed in a minimum of armor and equipment. At the same time, they were forbidden to perform half-naked. The chest was covered with a leather strip called "strophy".
A woman in ancient Rome had not so many rights. So for many, obviously, entering the arena was the only way to demonstrate their strength and independence. That is why the daughters of noble families often went to gladiators. At the beginning of the 1st century, several decrees were issued prohibiting the taking of too young women and men as gladiators (at first the age threshold was set at 25 years old, then lowered to 20). A complete ban on the participation of women in gladiatorial games was issued by Emperor Septimius Severus in 200. However, apparently, it was not strictly observed, and fights with the participation of women were carried out in the III century.
On land and on water
Another little-known fact about gladiatorial games is water battles. The Romans called them naumachia. They occupied a special place and were considered the most luxurious form of mass entertainment. Indeed, to organize such a spectacle, it was necessary to spend a huge amount of money and effort.
The first known major naumachia took place in 46 BC. It was arranged by order of Gaius Julius Caesar. For this, right in the middle of Rome, on the Field of Mars, a real man-made lake was dug. 16 galleys took part in the battle, on which about 2 thousand gladiators fit!
As on land, real battles were sometimes staged on the water. Moreover, it was not necessarily about recalling only the victories of Rome. For example, after Caesar, a naumachia took place, imitating the battle of Salamis - the great victory of the Greek fleet over the Persians, won in 480 BC. This performance involved 24 warships and 3,000 gladiators!
The most grandiose naumachia of ancient Rome was arranged by the emperor Claudius in the middle of the 1st century. For her, they used the real Lake Fucino, not far from Rome. The audience settled on the surrounding hills, from which it was clearly visible what was happening on the water. About half a million people fit in this natural "amphitheater"! On the shores of the lake itself, legionnaires were placed in case the participants in the performance decided to rebel. A few more legions were stationed near the site of the naumachia.
50 ships were launched into the water. The total number of involved gladiators reached 20 thousand. Among them were not only professional fighters, but also criminals sentenced to death. The battle turned out to be truly grandiose. True, the crews of several galleys conspired among themselves and tried to evade the battle, hoping that no one would notice this in the general confusion. Alas, they were executed for their “cowardice and effeminacy” after the end of the naumachia. And all those who fought to the death and survived were granted freedom (including criminals).
By the way, European emperors later tried to imitate the ancient Romans. Something similar to naumachia was arranged by the French king Henry II near Rouen in 1550 and Napoleon Bonaparte in 1807 in Milan. However, ancient customs by that time were already far in the past, and it never occurred to the monarchs to force people to kill each other for fun. Their naumachia were more like performances or demonstration maneuvers. Just like the famous "fun battles" arranged by Peter the Great.
Viktor Banev
The feat of a monk
Gladiator games were officially banned in 404 by Emperor Honorius. The reason for this was a tragic event. During the next performance, a Christian monk named Telemachus entered the arena and demanded an immediate end to the bloodshed. The public, eager to enjoy their favorite spectacle, pounced on him and beat him to death. True, many believe that the misfortune with Telemachus was only a pretext. In fact, the emperor was more concerned about the existence of independent gladiatorial schools as such. After all, these were essentially small private armies that could (and were) hired, for example, to intimidate competitors in the political struggle.
Nevertheless, gladiatorial games existed clandestinely in the Western Roman Empire until at least 440. And in the east of the empire - even longer. At least in Byzantium, the last law banning gladiator fights dates back to 681!
They were the idols of the Roman common people. Their fights were rare and were a favorite spectacle, gathering masses of spectators. In the era of the crisis of the Roman Republic, gladiator fights moved from the arena to the city streets and squares of Rome, and circus athletes turned into gangs of thugs in the service of ambitious people.
The political weight of spectacles
The custom of arranging gladiator fights originated and became widespread in Rome at the turn of the 3rd-2nd centuries BC. e. Initially, gladiatorial games were organized on the initiative of private individuals who, wishing to present to the public the fight of specially trained fighters, turned to the help of intermediary entrepreneurs. These latter were engaged in the fact that, at their own peril and risk, they bought prisoners of war and young slaves with suitable physical data on the market, who were taught the art of fencing by special teachers in closed schools. In the future, the fighters were handed over for a lot of money to the organizers of the games. If the gladiators managed to survive the performance, they returned to their master. Most died sooner or later, a few lucky ones managed to get freedom or rise to the position of a fencing teacher.
As the popularity of the spectacle grew, the number of gladiatorial schools and the number of fighters trained in them increased. Some of them are known to us by the names of their owners. For example, in Rome there was a gladiatorial school belonging to a certain Aurelius Skaurus, and in Capua there was a school of Lentulus Batiatus, in which the Spartacus uprising began. According to Plutarch, at least 200 fighters were trained in this school, most of them were Gauls and Thracians.
Duel of gladiators. Relief from the Tiber, Rome, 1st century AD. e.
The success of gladiatorial games among the common people stimulated applicants for public office to arrange appropriate spectacles to increase their popularity among voters. First of all, this concerned candidates for the post of aedile, from which the political career of noble Romans began. The duty of the aediles was to organize theatrical and circus performances, in addition to which they promised the electors the organization of gladiator fights.
The organization and holding of the games could cost the organizer a fortune. Julius Caesar, during his edility, had to bring a record 320 pairs of fighters into the arena, fighting in silver armor, in order to beat the competition. This number so frightened the Senate that it legally limited the number of gladiators that could be owned by a private individual. But Caesar won the unconditional love of the common people with games, which he enjoyed until the end of his days. Having already won the Civil War, Caesar presented to the Roman public the amazing spectacle of a battle between two regiments of 500 infantry, 300 horsemen and 20 war elephants each.
However, in some cases, the well-known generosity or special abilities of the candidate could do him a disservice. Sulla, who sought the office of praetor, lost the election. Plutarch writes about the curious reasons for his failure:
“The culprit for this was, in his opinion, the mob: knowing his friendship with Bokkh (king of Mauritania) and expecting - if he, before becoming a praetor, takes the position and aedile - a magnificent persecution of African animals, she elected other applicants as praetors in order to force him to pass through the post of aedile.
Bodyguards and assassins
The restrictive decrees of the Senate had serious grounds. It was not just about manipulating public opinion. In the last decades of the republic, ambitious and resolute politicians began to acquire a kind of bodyguard squad from among the gladiators, in order to achieve political goals by force as a last resort.
The Senate clearly felt the threat of pressure on the state with the help of these detachments during the conspiracy of Lucius Sergius Catiline in the autumn of 63 BC. e. Many representatives of the nobility participated in the conspiracy, including, according to some sources, even Caesar. The conspirators relied on political terror. They were able to muster between 7,000 and 20,000 followers, which included veterans, impoverished peasants, and shepherds. Fearing civil clashes in Rome itself, the Senate decided to expel from the city and send to Campania all the gladiators available at that time. A certain Gaius Marcellus was expelled from Capua in the same year because he tried to recruit gladiators there, with whom he was going to come to the aid of Catiline.
Bloody battles on the streets of Rome have become familiar elements of life in the last century of the Roman Republic. Illustration by R. Olteanu
The worst fears of the Senate were confirmed during the new unrest that swept Rome in the second half of the 50s BC. e. Violence on the forum during elections and when laws are passed has become the norm. The leaders of the warring parties created entire assault squads, which they used to intimidate enemies and disrupt meetings. The leader of the populares, Publius Clodius Pulcher, usually relied on his supporters from among the plebeians. His opponent Titus Annius Milo used gladiators to counter him. One of Cicero's letters sheds light on the circumstances of their recruitment:
“So they oppose the publication of destructive laws, especially the laws of Cato, which our Milo superbly carried out. For that patron of gladiators and bestiaries bought bestiaries from Cosconius and Pomponius, and they always accompanied him in the crowd with weapons in their hands. He could not feed them, and therefore could hardly support them. Milo found out about this, he instructed someone not close to him to buy these slaves from Cato, without arousing suspicion. As soon as they were taken away, Racilius, the only real tribune of the people at that time, divulged this and said that these people were bought for him, for such was the agreement, and posted an advertisement for the sale of Cato's slaves.
January 18, 52 B.C. e. both leaders met by chance in the vicinity of Rome on the Appian Way. Clodius, returning from a country estate, rode on horseback, accompanied by two or three friends and about 30 slaves armed with swords. Milo, on the contrary, heading from Rome, rode in a wagon with his wife, and he was followed by a large (up to 300 people) crowd of slaves, among whom were gladiators.
Gladiator frieze from the grave crypt of G. Lusius Storax from the Teate of the Marrucins. Italy, 1st century AD e.
When both retinues passed one another in silence, one of the people of Milon started a quarrel with the slaves of Clodius. He returned to find out what caused the noise, and at that moment he was stabbed in the back with a dagger. There was a mess on the road. Bleeding Clodius, his people carried him to a roadside tavern. Milo also came here, who ordered his gladiators to finish off the wounded. His body, covered with wounds, was taken to Rome and burned in the forum with excited mob, and several public buildings were destroyed by a fire that broke out at that time.
Participants in civil wars
In the era of civil wars, all of their participants enrolled gladiators in their armies. The beginning of this practice was laid by Gnaeus Pompey, when in 49 BC. e. granted freedom to fighters trained in Caesar's gladiatorial school in Capua. “They were 5 thousand people, Cicero wrote, as they said, they intended to make a sortie ”. Pompey prudently distributed the gladiators among his supporters, giving them two to each as bodyguards, and thereby excluded the possibility of their military use.
The conspirators who assassinated Caesar in March 44 BC e., used detachments of gladiators hired by them to seize power in the capital and neutralize enemies. Decimus Brutus Albinus included gladiators in his army, with which in the winter of 43 BC. e. withstood the siege of Mark Antony. The latter also had gladiators among his bodyguards, whose number reached 6,000. Gladiators fought as part of the army of his brother Lucius Antony during the Perusian War against Caesar Octavian in the autumn of 41 - in the winter of 40 BC. e. and remained loyal to the employer to the end.
The duel of a murmillo and a goplomakh, a fresco from Pompeii, 1st c. n. e.
The most striking story related to the participation of gladiators in hostilities occurred in 31-30 years. BC e. at the end of the Civil War. It was told by Cassius Dio. If this story had not been confirmed by other authors, it could be considered fiction:
“I can only wonder that while many others, in spite of the generous gifts on the part of Antony and Cleopatra, left them at a difficult hour, those who, despised by all, were intended for gladiator fights, showed great devotion towards them. and fought most courageously for them. These fighters were preparing in Cyzicus for the games that Antony and Cleopatra intended to arrange on the occasion of the victory over Caesar, and as soon as they learned what had happened, they went to Egypt to help their masters. It was they who acted bravely both against Amyntas in Galatia and against the sons of Tarcondimos in Cilicia, who had previously been the closest friends of Antony and Cleopatra, and now, when circumstances have changed, went over to the side of their enemy, and also against Didius, who prevented their passage through Syria. However, they failed to get into Egypt. But even after they were surrounded on all sides, they did not accept a single offer of surrender, despite the generous promises of Didius. Moreover, they called Anthony to them, believing that together with him, even in Syria, they would fight better. But then, when neither he himself came to them and sent them no answer, they decided that he was dead, and reluctantly agreed to peace on the condition that they would never fight as gladiators. They received from Didius Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, where they were to live until the question of their fate was brought to the discretion of Caesar. Later, they were deceived by Messalla: they were sent to different areas under the pretext of enrolling in the legions, and then they were dealt with in one way or another.
gladiators in the army
In the army, gladiators were especially valued for their swordsmanship. The gladiator, who completed the training course, knew how to fight with the same dexterity with both his left and right hands and mastered the most sophisticated combat techniques. Some Roman generals sought to use this experience to train their troops. It is known that as early as 105 BC. e. the consul Publius Rutilius, going to war against the Cimbri, instructed the lanists from the gladiatorial school of Aurelius Skavra to teach their soldiers more complex methods of striking and repelling blows.
However, these attempts were most often unsuccessful. Gladiators, like modern athletes, spent all their time in sports training, which was inaccessible to the vast majority of ordinary soldiers. This difference in the level of training also affected the outcome of the battles that took place. Appian notes that during the skirmishes that constantly took place on the outskirts of the fortifications of the besieged Perusia in the autumn of 41 - in the winter of 40 BC. e., the warriors of Octavian invariably surpassed the enemy in throwing spears. In hand-to-hand combat, the victory usually went to the gladiators of Lucius Antony.
Head and shoulders superior to ordinary soldiers in the level of professional skill, gladiators were noticeably inferior to them in other aspects of the military profession. Roman soldiers, as Vegetius wrote, were taught to march in full military equipment and with heavy luggage, dig ditches and ditches, run and swim. The stamina required to perform these actions fully justified their nickname "Mary's mules". Gladiators in these aspects of military training were significantly inferior to soldiers, being more professional athletes than warriors.
From the description by Tacitus of the fighting during the Civil War between Vitellius and Otho at the beginning of 69, it follows that the experience of using units created from gladiators turned out to be rather unsuccessful. Even on the battlefield, they were unable to resist the onslaught of regular army soldiers. When, during the Marcomannic War, Emperor Marcus Aurelius tried to re-include gladiators in the army, this experience was again unsuccessful.
The duel of the Murmillo and the Thracian, modern reconstruction
Interestingly, many Roman professional soldiers were indifferent to gladiatorial games. Gnaeus Pompey, as is known from the words of Cicero, considered them a waste of time. Caesar caused criticism of the Roman crowd, continuing to work with papers even during performances. Emperor Tiberius, himself an experienced military man, even reduced the number of spectacles organized and the number of participants. Vespasian was also indifferent to gladiator fights, and his son Domitian, when the crowd demanded spectacles from him, brought dwarfs into the arena to mock her.
Literature:
- Junkelmann M. Die Legionen des Augustus. Der romische Soldat im archaeologischen Experiment. - Mainz am Rhein, 2003. - 342 S.
- Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit dem Tod. So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren. - Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, 2000. - 270 S.
- van Creveld M. Wargames From Gladiators to Gigabytes. - Cambridge: University Press, 2013. - 332.
- Wiedemann Th. Gladiators and Emperors. - London, 1995. - 200 p.
- Goroncharovsky V.A. Spartacus War: Rebellious Slaves Against the Roman Legions. - St. Petersburg: Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2011. - 176 p.
- Nosov K.S. gladiators. St. Petersburg, 2005.
- Watson J. Roman Warrior. / Per. from English. – M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2010 – 189 p.
- Hoefling G. Romans, slaves, gladiators. M., 1992. - 270 p.
