Hello dear readers! Mineral salts, what role do they play in our life. How important are they to health? Why should we use them. Why in our food should be present in addition to vitamins and minerals.
From the article you will learn how much mineral salts are necessary for our body. Find out how important it is to have minerals in food. What are the most important for the human body.
Such mineral salts as: sodium, iron, potassium, calcium, silicon, iodine. Each of these elements is responsible for our health and in general for the whole organism. What foods should be in our diet.
From the article you will learn about such mineral salts as sodium, which is responsible for the entire body and is the main element. Iron - you know how important it is for the blood. Potassium is our muscles for which he is responsible.
Mineral salts must be found in our food as well as vitamins. This is very important for the normal functioning of the body. Nature has endowed us with everything we need. Food that is rich in both vitamins and minerals.
Unfortunately, due to malnutrition, we do not get the vital mineral salts and vitamins. Below you will definitely find out what these mineral salts are and how to use them.
The value of mineral salts
Artificial fertilizer is now very developed. Such natural fertilizer as manure, and other natural useful components, are almost crowded out. They chose artificial fertilizer because it gives yield, beauty and growth. Accordingly, plants do not have time to get the natural juices from the earth that they need.
As a result, plants do not receive vitamins and minerals, and the importance of mineral salts is very important. Both individuals and organizations are spraying plant food with the chemical solution. Make this solution and spray it on plants to control insects that harm the crop.
They used to smoke, but now unfortunately they don't. It is believed that the solution is much more effective, but the trouble is that the solution contains arsenic. Of course this kills pests, but this solution ends up on cereals, vegetables and fruits. Then we eat them and poison the body.
Who actually gets vitamins and mineral salts:
They extract the core from wheat grains for commercial purposes and do not think that thereby making them dead. To get white bread varieties, bran is carefully sifted.
They don’t even think about the fact that vitamins are in bran. Who is fed bran? Animals. So the most valuable is given to animals. And people receive bread not only harmful, but also dead.
Composition of mineral salts
The composition of mineral salts includes, does not even include, but is mineral salts, these are sodium, iron, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, fluorine, chlorine, iodine, magnesium, etc.
Mineral salts, inorganic substances, water, etc. are part of the cell. They play a huge role in the cell. These are essential ingredients for human health. They are necessary not only for metabolism, but also for the nervous system.
The composition of mineral salts is primarily calcium phosphates and carbonates. Minerals are divided into two groups:
1. Macronutrients - they are needed by the body in large quantities.
2. Trace elements - they are also needed, but in small quantities.
Functions of mineral salts
The functions of mineral salts, what they are capable of and what role they play in our body. What are these elements and why do we need them read below.
Such an element as sodium is the most important in our body. Iron is very important for our blood. Potassium is responsible for muscle building. Calcium strengthens bones. Phosphorus develops them. Sulfur is simply necessary for all cells of our body.
Silicon - this element is responsible for the construction of skin, hair, nails, muscles and nerves. Like hydrochloric acid, chlorine is needed to combine calcium, sodium and potassium. The functions of mineral salts are very important.
Back bones, teeth, some blood, muscles and brain need fluoride. Iodine is responsible for metabolism, so there should be enough of it in the thyroid gland. Salt is a part of mineral salts. It needs blood and tissue.
Now the turn has come to the last element that is part of the mineral salts. Magnesium - this element gives the teeth and bones a special hardness.
The role of mineral salts
What are mineral salts, what role do they play in our health and what are they?
one . Potassium - it is simply necessary for the muscles. It is needed by the intestines, spleen and liver. This alkali metal helps digest fats and starches. To avoid constipation, eat more foods rich in potassium. It also needs blood.
2. Calcium - three quarters of all mineral elements included in calcium are found in the human body. The heart needs seven times more calcium than any other organ. It needs heart muscles and blood.
3 . Silicon - it also belongs to the mineral salts and is responsible for the development of the skin, hair, nails, nerves and muscles. Chlorine is needed to combine calcium, potassium and sodium.
4 . Iodine - this element also belongs to mineral salts and we really need it, especially the thyroid gland.
5 . Fluorine- plays a huge role in the health of the spinal bones and teeth.
6 . Magnesium- strengthens teeth, bones and gives them special hardness.
7. Salt - it is also part of the mineral salts. It needs blood and tissue.
eight . Phosphorus - If there is a lack of phosphorus in the body, bones develop with a great delay, even if there is enough calcium in it. Brains need phosphorus.
nine . Iron - blood needs this element, it oxidizes it. Red balls in the blood are formed due to iron. With a lack of iron in the blood, acute anemia can develop.
Mineral salts are very important elements for our health. And in general for life, therefore:
Please be careful about your health. Try to have enough iron, phosphorus, chlorine, sulfur, iodine, potassium and salt in the body. Their excess is also harmful. Therefore, a doctor's consultation is necessary.
Please leave your feedback if you liked the article. Your opinion is very important. This will help write articles more interesting and useful. I will be infinitely grateful if you share information with friends and press the buttons of social networks.
Be healthy and happy.
Video - alkaline mineral salts
All transformations of substances in the body occur in the aquatic environment. Water dissolves the nutrients that enter the body. Together with minerals, it takes part in the construction of cells and in many metabolic reactions.
Water is involved in the regulation of body temperature; evaporating, cools the body, protecting it from overheating; transports dissolved substances.
Water and mineral salts create mainly the internal environment of the body, being the main component of blood plasma, lymph and tissue fluid. They are involved in maintaining osmotic pressure and the reaction of blood plasma and tissue fluid. Some salts dissolved in the liquid part of the blood are involved in the transport of gases by the blood.
Water and mineral salts are part of the digestive juices, which largely determines their importance for the digestive process. And although neither water nor mineral salts are sources of energy in the body, their entry into the body and removal from there are a prerequisite for its normal activity.
Loss of water by the body leads to very severe disorders. For example, in case of indigestion in infants, the most dangerous is dehydration, which leads to convulsions, loss of consciousness, etc. It is the sharp dehydration of the body due to loss of fluid that causes such a severe course of such an infectious disease as cholera. Deprivation of water for several days is fatal to humans.
Water exchange
Replenishment of the body with water occurs constantly due to its absorption from the digestive tract. A person needs 2-2.5 liters of water per day with a normal diet and normal ambient temperature. This amount of water comes from the following sources: a) drinking water (about 1 liter); b) water contained in food (about 1 liter); c) water, which is formed in the body during the metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates (300-350 ml).
The main organs that remove water from the body are the kidneys, sweat glands, lungs and intestines. The kidneys remove 1.2-1.5 liters of water from the body per day as part of the urine. Sweat glands remove 500-700 ml of water per day through the skin in the form of sweat. At normal temperature and air humidity, about 1 mg of water is released per 1 cm2 of the skin every 10 minutes. In the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula, however, a person daily loses about 10 liters of water through sweat. During intensive work, a lot of fluid is also released in the form of sweat: for example, in two halves of a tense football match, a football player loses about 4 liters of water.
The lungs in the form of water vapor remove 350 ml of water. This amount increases sharply with deepening and quickening of breathing, and then 700-800 ml of water can be released per day.
Through the intestines with feces, 100-150 ml of water is excreted per day. With a disorder of the activity of the intestine with feces, a large amount of water can be excreted (with diarrhea), which can lead to depletion of the body with water. For the normal functioning of the body, it is important that the intake of water completely covers its consumption.
The ratio of the amount of water consumed to the amount allocated is water balance.
If more water is excreted from the body than it enters, then there is a feeling thirst. As a result of thirst, a person drinks water until normal water balance is restored.
Salt exchange
With the exclusion of animal minerals from the diet, severe disorders in the body and even death occur. The presence of minerals is associated with the phenomenon of excitability - one of the main properties of living things. The growth and development of bones, nerve elements, muscles depend on the content of minerals; they determine the reaction of the blood (pH), contribute to the normal functioning of the heart and nervous system, are used to form hemoglobin (iron), hydrochloric acid of gastric juice (chlorine).
Mineral salts create a certain osmotic pressure, which is so necessary for the life of cells.
With a mixed diet, an adult receives all the minerals he needs in sufficient quantities. Only table salt is added to human food during its culinary processing. A growing child's body especially needs an additional intake of many minerals.
The body constantly loses a certain amount of mineral salts in urine, sweat and feces. Therefore, mineral salts, like water, must constantly enter the body. The content of individual elements in the human body is not the same (Table 13).
Regulation of water-salt metabolism
The constancy of the osmotic pressure of the internal environment of the body, determined by the content of water and salts, is regulated by the body.
With a lack of water in the body, the osmotic pressure of the tissue fluid increases. This leads to irritation of special receptors located in the tissues - osmoreceptors. Impulses from them are sent along special nerves to the brain to the center of regulation of water-salt metabolism. From there, the excitation is sent to the endocrine gland - the pituitary gland, which releases a special hormone into the bloodstream that causes urinary retention. Reducing the excretion of water in the urine restores the disturbed balance.
This example clearly shows the interaction of nervous and humoral mechanisms of regulation of physiological functions. The reflex begins nervously with osmoreceptors, and then the humoral mechanism is activated - the entry of a special hormone into the blood.
The center of regulation of water-salt metabolism controls all ways of transporting water in the body: its excretion with urine, sweat and through the lungs, redistribution between body organs, absorption from the digestive tract, secretion, and water consumption. Particularly important in this regard are certain parts of the diencephalon. If electrodes are introduced into these areas of an animal, and then the brain is irritated with an electric current through them, then the animals begin to drink water voraciously. In this case, the amount of water drunk can exceed 40% of body weight. As a result, there are signs of water poisoning associated with a decrease in the osmotic pressure of blood plasma and tissue fluid. Under natural conditions, these centers of the diencephalon are under the controlling influence of the cerebral cortex.
The mechanism of water balance regulation is very important in practical life. In cases where water has to be saved, in no case should it be drunk in one gulp, but always in very small sips. You will feel that you are drunk, although you have drunk a little water. Knowledge of the features of the regulation of water-salt metabolism is important in one more case. In hot weather, you are usually very thirsty, and no matter how much water you drink, you are still thirsty. But it is worth consciously enduring a little, despite the feeling of thirst, and it passes. That is why you should not drink a lot in the heat, on a hike, etc. The correct tactic here is this: knowing that you have a difficult hike or a long stay in the sun, it is better to drink water “in reserve” in advance, at a time when you still don’t feel like drinking . In this case, then there is no such strong feeling of thirst as if you started drinking in the heat.
Two more practical tips. Before setting off on a hike, you should drink mineral or salted water or eat some moderately salty food - feta cheese, salted cheese, etc. - and drink it well with water. The fact is that a lot of salts are lost with sweat, and this leads to an increase in fatigue, muscle weakness, etc. It is also necessary to know that “false thirst” often arises in the heat: you want to drink not because there is little fluid in the body, and due to the drying of the oral mucosa. In this case, simply rinse your mouth with water.
Hello dear readers! Mineral salts, what role do they play in our life. How important are they to health? Why should we use them. Why in our food should be present in addition to vitamins and minerals.
From the article you will learn how much mineral salts are necessary for our body. Find out how important it is to have minerals in food. What are the most important for the human body.
Such mineral salts as: sodium, iron, potassium, calcium, silicon, iodine. Each of these elements is responsible for our health and in general for the whole organism. What foods should be in our diet.
From the article you will learn about such mineral salts as sodium, which is responsible for the entire body and is the main element. Iron - you know how important it is for the blood. Potassium is our muscles for which he is responsible.
Mineral salts must be found in our food as well as vitamins. This is very important for the normal functioning of the body. Nature has endowed us with everything we need. Food that is rich in both vitamins and minerals.
Unfortunately, due to malnutrition, we do not get the vital mineral salts and vitamins. Below you will definitely find out what these mineral salts are and how to use them.
The value of mineral salts
Artificial fertilizer is now very developed. Such natural fertilizer as manure, and other natural useful components, are almost crowded out. They chose artificial fertilizer because it gives yield, beauty and growth. Accordingly, plants do not have time to get the natural juices from the earth that they need.
As a result, plants do not receive vitamins and minerals, and the importance of mineral salts is very important. Both individuals and organizations are spraying plant food with the chemical solution. Make this solution and spray it on plants to control insects that harm the crop.
They used to smoke, but now unfortunately they don't. It is believed that the solution is much more effective, but the trouble is that the solution contains arsenic. Of course this kills pests, but this solution ends up on cereals, vegetables and fruits. Then we eat them and poison the body.
Who actually gets vitamins and mineral salts:
They extract the core from wheat grains for commercial purposes and do not think that thereby making them dead. To get white bread varieties, bran is carefully sifted.
They don’t even think about the fact that vitamins are in bran. Who is fed bran? Animals. So the most valuable is given to animals. And people receive bread not only harmful, but also dead.
Composition of mineral salts
The composition of mineral salts includes, does not even include, but is mineral salts, these are sodium, iron, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, fluorine, chlorine, iodine, magnesium, etc.
Mineral salts, inorganic substances, water, etc. are part of the cell. They play a huge role in the cell. These are essential ingredients for human health. They are necessary not only for metabolism, but also for the nervous system.
The composition of mineral salts is primarily calcium phosphates and carbonates. Minerals are divided into two groups:
1. Macronutrients - they are needed by the body in large quantities.
2. Trace elements - they are also needed, but in small quantities.
Functions of mineral salts
The functions of mineral salts, what they are capable of and what role they play in our body. What are these elements and why do we need them read below.
Such an element as sodium is the most important in our body. Iron is very important for our blood. Potassium is responsible for muscle building. Calcium strengthens bones. Phosphorus develops them. Sulfur is simply necessary for all cells of our body.
Silicon - this element is responsible for the construction of skin, hair, nails, muscles and nerves. Like hydrochloric acid, chlorine is needed to combine calcium, sodium and potassium. The functions of mineral salts are very important.
Back bones, teeth, some blood, muscles and brain need fluoride. Iodine is responsible for metabolism, so there should be enough of it in the thyroid gland. Salt is a part of mineral salts. It needs blood and tissue.
Now the turn has come to the last element that is part of the mineral salts. Magnesium - this element gives the teeth and bones a special hardness.
The role of mineral salts
What are mineral salts, what role do they play in our health and what are they?
one . Potassium - it is simply necessary for the muscles. It is needed by the intestines, spleen and liver. This alkali metal helps digest fats and starches. To avoid constipation, eat more foods rich in potassium. It also needs blood.
2. Calcium - three quarters of all mineral elements included in calcium are found in the human body. The heart needs seven times more calcium than any other organ. It needs heart muscles and blood.
3 . Silicon - it also belongs to the mineral salts and is responsible for the development of the skin, hair, nails, nerves and muscles. Chlorine is needed to combine calcium, potassium and sodium.
4 . Iodine - this element also belongs to mineral salts and we really need it, especially the thyroid gland.
5 . Fluorine- plays a huge role in the health of the spinal bones and teeth.
6 . Magnesium- strengthens teeth, bones and gives them special hardness.
7. Salt - it is also part of the mineral salts. It needs blood and tissue.
eight . Phosphorus - If there is a lack of phosphorus in the body, bones develop with a great delay, even if there is enough calcium in it. Brains need phosphorus.
nine . Iron - blood needs this element, it oxidizes it. Red balls in the blood are formed due to iron. With a lack of iron in the blood, acute anemia can develop.
Mineral salts are very important elements for our health. And in general for life, therefore:
Please be careful about your health. Try to have enough iron, phosphorus, chlorine, sulfur, iodine, potassium and salt in the body. Their excess is also harmful. Therefore, a doctor's consultation is necessary.
Please leave your feedback if you liked the article. Your opinion is very important. This will help write articles more interesting and useful. I will be infinitely grateful if you share information with friends and press the buttons of social networks.
Be healthy and happy.
Video - alkaline mineral salts
mineral salts perform a variety of functions in the body. They play an important role in plastic processes, the formation and construction of body tissues, regulate metabolism, acid-base balance and water metabolism, participate in protein synthesis, various enzymatic processes, and the work of the endocrine glands. More than 60 out of 104 mineral elements known in nature have already been found in the human body. Minerals present in food in significant quantities are called macronutrients. Among them, calcium, phosphorus, sodium and potassium have the greatest hygienic value.
Calcium is part of the bone tissue. It has a significant effect on the metabolism and work of the heart muscle, helps to increase the body's defenses, participates in the process of blood clotting and has an anti-inflammatory effect. Calcium deficiency in the body adversely affects the processes of ossification, the function of the heart muscle and the course of a number of enzymatic processes. The daily calcium requirement for adults is 800 mg. Milk and dairy products (cottage cheese, cheese, sour cream) are especially rich in calcium.
Phosphorus, like calcium, is essential for bone formation. It plays an important role in the activity of the nervous system. Organic phosphorus compounds are consumed during muscle contraction, as well as in biochemical processes occurring in the brain, liver, kidneys and other organs. The daily norm of phosphorus is 1600 mg. The main sources of phosphorus: cheese, liver, eggs, meat, fish, beans, peas. To meet the body's need for calcium and phosphorus, the conditions for their optimal assimilation are important. Calcium and phosphorus are well absorbed when the ratio between them is 1:1.5 (milk and dairy products, buckwheat porridge with milk).
Sodium is found in many organs, tissues and body fluids. It plays an important role in the processes of intracellular and intercellular metabolism. Sodium is of great importance for maintaining the osmotic pressure in the blood and tissue fluids, as well as for water metabolism. A person receives sodium mainly from table salt, which gives taste to food and stimulates appetite. Under normal conditions, the daily requirement for sodium chloride is 10-15 g. At high air temperatures, the body can lose a significant amount of sodium chloride with sweat. Therefore, with profuse sweating, the need for it increases to 20-25 g.
Potassium is an indispensable bioelement for humans. The adult requirement for potassium is 2000-3000 mg per day and is mainly covered by the intake of plant foods and meat.
An important role in the life of the organism is also played by iron, cobalt, iodine, fluorine, bromine, potassium, chlorine, manganese, zinc. In the body and food, they are found in very small quantities. Minerals are contained and ingested with vegetables and fruits.
We must not forget about water. It is needed primarily for introducing nutrient solutions into the blood, for removing unnecessary metabolic products from the body, and also for regulating body temperature. The daily requirement of a young organism for water is 1-2.5 liters.
The lack of water leads to thickening of the blood, to the retention of harmful metabolic products in the tissues, to a violation of the salt balance. Its excess is no better, also leading to a violation of the water-salt balance in the body, creating an excessive load on the heart and excretory organs.
The composition of plants includes various mineral salts of inorganic acids. A significant number of them contain vegetables and fruits.
Mineral salts and their chemical composition are of great importance in the implementation of normal life processes of the human body. They are part of cells and intercellular fluids, ensure the normal course of physicochemical processes, participate in metabolic processes and enzymatic activity of the body, affect the excitability of the nervous and muscular systems, depending on the state of the body's salt metabolism.
Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium are part of bones and teeth, iodine, zinc, zirconium, lithium, vanadium are part of the secrets of some endocrine glands, sodium, chlorine are digestive glands. Iron, copper, cobalt are involved in the process of hematopoiesis. Cobalt and manganese enhance the production of antibodies in the body.
Calcium salts
Necessary for the processes of hematopoiesis, metabolism, reduction of vascular permeability, that is, the penetration of microbes into the blood, for the normal growth of bones (skeleton, teeth); they have a beneficial effect on the state of the nervous system, have an anti-inflammatory effect, and are a good regulator when the weather changes.
If a person has enough calcium in his diet, he is not afraid of sudden changes in weather, infections, epidemics.
Among the elements that make up our body, calcium ranks 5th after the 4 main elements: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, and among the metals that form bases (alkalis), it ranks 1st.
Main sources of calcium
Calcium contains the peel of all fruits and vegetables; bran, legumes - peas, green peas, lentils, soybeans, beans, beans; spinach, carrots, turnips, young dandelion leaves, celery, apples, cherries, gooseberries, strawberries, asparagus, cabbage, potatoes, currants, eggs, cucumbers, oranges, pineapples, peaches, radishes, grapes, lettuce, onions; tops of carrots, turnips, radishes; green grains of wheat, rye bread, oatmeal, almonds, onions; fermented milk products - cottage cheese, sour cream, kefir, curdled milk, acidophilus, etc.; apricots, beets, blackberries.
Potassium salts
Potassium salts are necessary for the normal functioning of all muscles, especially the heart, they contribute to the release of water from the body. Potassium is an anti-sclerotic substance used to prevent disorders of the cardiovascular system. Potassium promotes the release of sodium and thereby eliminates swelling.
Potassium- a necessary component of the functioning of the nervous system and muscles, the process of absorption in the intestine. Useful for constipation, poor blood circulation, weakening of the heart, inflammation and skin diseases, with congestion of blood to the head.
Main sources of potassium
The source of potassium are spinach, cucumbers, potatoes, carrots, onions, lettuce, parsley, asparagus, horseradish, dandelion, garlic, black currants, lentils, peas, cabbage, grapefruit, radishes, tomatoes, dried apricots, raisins, prunes, legumes, bread rye, oatmeal.
Magnesium salts
Magnesium salts have an antiseptic and vasodilating effect, lower blood pressure and blood cholesterol, enhance inhibition processes in the cerebral cortex, and have a calming (sedative) effect on the nervous system.
Main sources of magnesium
These are almonds, egg yolk (raw), lettuce, liver, mint, chicory, olives, parsley, peanuts, potatoes, pumpkin, plums, walnuts, grains of wheat, oats, buckwheat, rye bread, tomatoes, millet, bran, beans, grapes.
iron salts
Iron salts are necessary for hematopoiesis, provide oxygen transportation from the lungs to the tissues of all organs, including the brain. Iron is part of hemoglobin, the red pigment in the blood. Red blood cells are formed in the bone marrow, they enter the bloodstream and circulate for six weeks. Then they break up into their constituent parts, and the iron contained in them enters the liver and spleen and is deposited there until needed. Iron is essential for building the cell nucleus. The consequence of a lack of iron in the blood are anemia, reduced immunity, depressed mood.
Main dietary sources of iron
Phosphorus salts
Phosphorus salts are essential for humans. They need twice as much as calcium salts, although calcium and phosphorus cannot exist without each other. Phosphorus, like calcium, is an integral part of bone tissue. It is necessary to constantly maintain the ratio of these two minerals, otherwise, if their balance is disturbed, the body is forced to take calcium from the teeth, nails, and joints for its survival.
So, very often a person complains of pain in the joints and bones, believing that he is undergoing processes of salt deposition, while he should take care of proper nutrition. Fortunately, vitamin D regulates the phosphorus-calcium balance in the body and thus protects us from the mentioned diseases. If the diet includes a sufficient amount of foods containing phosphorus and calcium, you can not be afraid of bone fractures, diseases of the joints, skin, bones and nerves.
Major dietary sources of phosphorus
Green peas, spinach, hazelnuts, oats, beans, rye, apples, barley, pears, wheat, lentils, cucumbers, cauliflower, cheese, meat, eggs, salmon, sardines, shrimp, peanuts, soybeans, walnuts, radishes are rich in phosphorus , celery, cod liver, fish, mushrooms, sprouted wheat, whole wheat grains.
Cobalt
Cobalt is necessary for the normal functioning of the pancreas, as well as the formation of red blood cells.
It is an integral part of vitamin B12. It is successfully used in the treatment of anemia. Cobalt deficiency can cause blood cancer.
Main dietary sources of cobalt
Cobalt is found in dairy products, eggs, liver, kidneys, butter.
Zinc
Zinc is an essential trace element. It is part of the blood and muscle tissue, being a catalyst for chemical reactions, due to which the necessary acid level is maintained in the body. This trace element is part of insulin (pancreatic hormone), which regulates blood sugar.
Major Dietary Sources of Zinc
The source of zinc is wheat bran, germinated wheat.
Copper
Copper, like iron, plays an important role in maintaining normal blood composition. The presence of copper is necessary for the activity of iron, otherwise the iron accumulated in the liver will not be able to participate in the formation of hemoglobin.
Main dietary sources of copper
Copper is found in nuts, egg yolk, liver, milk, and lactic acid products.
Iodine is necessary to increase immunity, for the synthesis of the thyroid hormone - tyrosine; participates in the creation of phagocytes - patrol cells that protect our body from the invasion of hostile viruses into the blood.
Children and teenagers need more iodine than adults. Lack of iodine causes serious metabolic disorders in the body, contributes to the development of goiter.
Main dietary sources of iodine
Sea fish, seaweed, seaweed, lettuce, green parts of plants, turnips, leeks, melons, garlic, asparagus, carrots, cabbage, potatoes, onions, tomatoes, beans, oatmeal, sorrel, grapes, strawberries are rich in iodine.
Silica
Silica is an integral part of connective tissues. Its content in the blood is insignificant, but when it decreases, a person's health and mental state worsen. Hair becomes thin and brittle, baldness begins, the skin loses its elasticity. The lens of the eye contains 25 times more silica than the eye muscle.
Silica successfully treats dystrophy, epilepsy, rheumatism, obesity, atherosclerosis.
Unlike iron and calcium, silica is easily absorbed by the body, even in old age.
Main food sources of silica
The source of silica is celery, cucumbers, leaves of young dandelions, leeks, sour-milk products, radishes, sunflower seeds, tomatoes, turnips, as well as herbs: horsetail, lungwort, drugstore dog.
Vanadium
Vanadium plays an important role in enhancing the protective functions of the body. It stimulates the movement of phagocytes - cells that absorb pathogenic microbes and increase immunity to infections. Biochemical studies have shown that, in combination with other minerals, vanadium slows down the aging process.
Main food sources of vanadium
The source of vanadium is rice (unpeeled), oats, radishes, barley, millet, lettuce, buckwheat, raw potatoes, rye, carrots, beets, cherries, strawberries, pears.
Sulfur
Sulfur is a trace element necessary for cleansing the body.
Major dietary sources of sulfur
The main sources of sulfur in our food include all types of cabbage, horseradish, garlic, onions, radishes, turnips, asparagus, watercress, pumpkin, carrots, potatoes, bean pods, gooseberries, plums, figs.
Salt
Table salt is often called the "white death", because in the human body it creates an alkaline reaction, retains water, thickens the blood, and disrupts metabolic processes. The daily dose of its consumption should not exceed 4-8g. However, we exceed this norm by 20 times and thereby cause irreparable harm to our health.
Fluorine
Contained in drinking water, meat, vegetables.
Found in vegetables and meat.
THE ROLE OF MINERAL SALT IN THE BODY. In addition to proteins, fats and carbohydrates, a healthy diet should contain various mineral salts: calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium, sodium, magnesium and others. These minerals are absorbed by plants from the upper layers of the soil and from the atmosphere, and then enter the body of humans and animals through plant foods.
Almost 60 chemical elements are used in the human body, but only 22 chemical elements are considered basic. They make up a total of 4% of a person's body weight.
All minerals that are present in the human body are conditionally divided into macroelements and microelements. Macronutrients: calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, iron, phosphorus, chlorine, sulfur are present in large quantities in the human body. Trace elements: copper, manganese, zinc, fluorine, chromium, cobalt, nickel and others are required by the body in small amounts, but are very important. For example, the content of boron in human blood is minimal, but its presence is necessary for the normal exchange of important macronutrients: calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. The body will not benefit even from a huge amount of these three macronutrients without boron.
Mineral salts in the human body maintain the necessary acid-base balance, normalize water-salt metabolism, support the endocrine system, nervous, digestive, cardiovascular and other systems. Also, minerals are involved in hematopoiesis and blood clotting, in metabolism. They are necessary for building muscles, bones, internal organs. Mineral salts also play an important role in the water regime. Therefore, minerals in sufficient quantities must be constantly supplied with food, since a continuous exchange of mineral salts takes place in the human body.
Lack of minerals. The lack of macro and microelements leads to serious diseases. For example, a long-term deficiency table salt can lead to nervous exhaustion and weakening of the heart. Flaw calcium salts leads to increased bone fragility, and rickets can develop in children. With a lack gland anemia develops. With a lack iodine- dementia, deafness, goiter, dwarf growth.
The main reasons for the lack of minerals in the body include:
1. Poor quality drinking water.
2. Monotonous food.
3. Region of residence.
4. Diseases leading to the loss of minerals (bleeding, ulcerative colitis).
5. Drugs that prevent the absorption of macro and microelements.
MINERALS IN PRODUCTS. The only way to supply the body with all the minerals it needs is through a balanced healthy diet and water. You need to regularly eat plant foods: grains, legumes, root crops, fruits, green vegetables - this is an important source of trace elements. As well as fish, poultry, red meat. Most of the mineral salts are not lost during cooking, but a significant amount passes into the broth.
In different products, the content of minerals is also different. For example, dairy products contain more than 20 minerals: iron, calcium, iodine, manganese, zinc, fluorine, etc. Meat products contain: copper, silver, zinc, titanium, etc. Marine products contain fluorine, iodine, nickel. Some foods selectively concentrate only certain minerals.
The ratio of various minerals entering the body is of great importance, since they can reduce the beneficial qualities of each other. For example, with an excess of phosphorus and magnesium, the absorption of calcium decreases. Therefore, their ratio should be 3:2:1 (phosphorus, calcium and magnesium).
DAILY RATE OF MINERALS. To maintain human health, daily norms for the consumption of minerals are officially established. For example, for an adult male, the daily norm of minerals is: calcium - 800 mg, phosphorus - 800 mg, magnesium - 350 mg, iron - 10 mg, zinc - 15 mg, iodine - 0.15 mg, selenium - 0.07 mg, potassium - from 1.6 to 2 g, copper - from 1.5 to 3 mg, manganese - from 2 to 5 mg, fluorine - from 1.5 to 4 mg, molybdenum - from 0.075 to 0.25 mg, chromium - from 0.05 to 0.2 mg. To obtain the daily norm of minerals, a varied diet and proper cooking are required.
It should also be borne in mind that for some reason an increased intake of minerals is required. For example, with heavy physical labor, during pregnancy and lactation, with various diseases, with a decrease in immunity.
mineral salts. MAGNESIUM
The role of magnesium in the body:
Magnesium in the body is necessary for the normal course of biological processes in the brain and muscles. Magnesium salts give special hardness to bones and teeth, normalize the functioning of the cardiovascular and nervous systems, stimulate bile secretion and intestinal activity. With a lack of magnesium, nervous tension is observed. In diseases: atherosclerosis, hypertension, ischemia, gallbladder, intestines, it is necessary to increase the amount of magnesium.
The daily intake of magnesium for a healthy adult is 500-600 mg.
Magnesium in foods:
Most magnesium - 100 mg (per 100 g of food) - in bran, oatmeal, millet, seaweed (kelp), prunes, apricots.
A lot of magnesium - 50-100 mg - in herring, mackerel, squid, eggs. In cereals: buckwheat, barley, peas. In greens: parsley, dill, lettuce.
Less than 50 mg of magnesium - in chickens, cheese, semolina. In meat, boiled sausage, milk, cottage cheese. In fish: horse mackerel, cod, hake. In white bread, pasta. In potatoes, cabbage, tomatoes. In apples, apricots, grapes. In carrots, beets, black currants, cherries, raisins.
mineral salts. CALCIUM:
The role of calcium in the body:
Calcium in the body contributes to better absorption of phosphorus and proteins. Calcium salts are part of the blood, affect blood clotting. Lack of calcium weakens the heart muscle. Salts of calcium and phosphorus are necessary for building teeth and bones of the skeleton and are the main elements of bone tissue. Calcium is best absorbed from milk and dairy products. The daily need for calcium will be satisfied by 100 g of cheese or 0.5 l of milk. Milk also enhances the absorption of calcium from other foods, so it should be included in any diet.
daily intake of calcium – 800-1000 mg.
Calcium in foods:
Most calcium - 100 mg (per 100 g of food) - in milk, cottage cheese, cheese, kefir. In green onions, parsley, beans.
A lot of calcium - 50-100 mg - in eggs, sour cream, buckwheat, oatmeal, peas, carrots. In fish: herring, horse mackerel, carp, caviar.
Less than 50 mg of calcium - in butter, 2nd grade bread, millet, pearl barley, pasta, semolina. In fish: pike perch, perch, cod, mackerel. In cabbage, beets, green peas, radishes, potatoes, cucumbers, tomatoes. In apricots, oranges, plums, grapes, cherries, strawberries, watermelons, apples and pears.
mineral salts. POTASSIUM:
The role of potassium in the body:
Potassium in the body promotes the digestion of fats and starch, is necessary for building muscles, for the liver, spleen, intestines, is useful for constipation, heart disease, skin inflammation, and hot flashes. Potassium removes water and sodium from the body. The lack of potassium salts reduces mental activity, makes muscles flabby.
Daily intake of potassium – 2-3g. The amount of potassium must be increased with hypertension, kidney disease, while taking diuretics, with diarrhea and vomiting.
Potassium in foods:
Most potassium is found in egg yolks, milk, potatoes, cabbage, peas. Lemons, cranberries, bran, nuts contain a lot of potassium.
mineral salts. PHOSPHORUS :
The role of phosphorus in the body:
Phosphorus salts are involved in metabolism, in the construction of bone tissue, hormones, and are necessary for the normal functioning of the nervous system, heart, brain, liver and kidneys. From animal products, phosphorus is absorbed by 70%, from plant products - by 40%. The absorption of phosphorus is improved by soaking cereals before cooking.
daily phosphorus intake – 1600 mg. The amount of phosphorus must be increased in diseases of the bones and fractures, in tuberculosis, in diseases of the nervous system.
Phosphorus in products:
Most phosphorus is found in cheeses, beef liver, caviar, beans, oatmeal and pearl barley.
A lot of phosphorus - in chicken, fish, cottage cheese, peas, buckwheat and millet, in chocolate.
Less phosphorus – in beef, pork, boiled sausages, eggs, milk, sour cream, pasta, rice, semolina, potatoes and carrots.
mineral salts. IRON :
The role of iron in the body:
Iron in the body is necessary for the formation of blood hemoglobin and muscle myoglobin. The best sources of iron are: meat, chicken, liver. For better absorption of iron, citric and ascorbic acid, fruits, berries and juices from them are used. When meat and fish are added to grains and legumes, the absorption of iron from them improves. Strong tea interferes with the absorption of iron from foods. The absorption of iron salts is reduced in diseases of the intestines and stomach.
With a lack of iron, anemia (iron deficiency anemia) develops. Anemia develops with a lack of nutrition of animal proteins, vitamins and trace elements, with large blood loss, with diseases of the stomach (gastritis, enteritis), and worms. In such cases, it is necessary to increase the amount of iron in the diet.
Daily intake of iron – 15 mg for an adult.
Iron in foods:
Most iron (more than 4 mg) in 100g of food – in beef liver, kidneys, tongue, porcini mushrooms, buckwheat, beans, peas, blueberries, chocolate.
A lot of iron - in beef, lamb, rabbit, eggs, bread 1 and 2 grades, oatmeal and millet, nuts, apples, pears, persimmons, quince, figs, spinach.
mineral salts. SODIUM:
The role of sodium in the body:
Sodium is supplied to the body mainly by table salt (sodium chloride). Thanks to sodium in the body, lime and magnesium are retained in the blood and tissues, and iron captures oxygen from the air. With a lack of sodium salts, stagnation of blood in the capillaries occurs, the walls of the arteries harden, heart diseases develop, gall and urinary stones form, and the liver suffers.
With an increase in physical activity, the body's need for mineral salts, especially potassium and sodium, also increases. Their content in the diet should be increased by 20-25%.
Daily requirement for sodium:
For an adult, 2-6 g of salt per day is enough. Excessive salt content in food contributes to the development of diseases: atherosclerosis, hypertension, gout. Lack of salt leads to weight loss.
Sodium in foods:
Most sodium is in cheese, cheese, sausages, salted and smoked fish, sauerkraut.
mineral salts. CHLORINE:
The role of chlorine in the body:
Chlorine in products is found in large quantities in egg white, milk, whey, oysters, cabbage, parsley, celery, bananas, rye bread.
mineral salts. IODINE:
The role of iodine in the body:
Iodine in the body is present in the thyroid gland, regulates metabolism. With a lack of iodine in the body, immunity is weakened, thyroid disease develops. The disease develops with a lack of animal protein, vitamins A and C, and some trace elements. For the purpose of prevention, iodized table salt is used.
Daily intake of iodine – 0.1-0.2 mg. The amount of iodine must be increased with insufficient thyroid function, with atherosclerosis and obesity.
Iodine in products:
A lot of iodine - in seaweed (kelp), sea fish, seafood. Also, iodine is found in beets, tomatoes, turnips, lettuce.
Iodine is present in small amounts - in meat, freshwater fish and drinking water.
mineral salts. FLUORINE:
The role of fluorine in the body:
Fluoride in the body is found in bones and teeth. With a lack of fluorine, teeth rot, tooth enamel cracks, and the bones of the skeleton hurt.
Daily fluoride intake – 0.8-1.6 mg.
Fluorine in products:
Most fluorine is found in sea fish and seafood, in tea.
Fluorine is also found in cereals, nuts, peas and beans, egg whites, green vegetables and fruits.
mineral salts. SULFUR:
The role of sulfur in the body:
Sulfur is found in all tissues of the human body: in hair, nails, muscles, bile, urine. With a lack of sulfur, irritability, various tumors, and skin diseases appear.
The daily requirement of sulfur is 1 mg.
Sulfur in products:
Sulfur is found in large quantities in egg whites, cabbage, turnips, horseradish, bran, walnuts, wheat and rye.
mineral salts. SILICON:
Silicon in the human body is used to build hair, nails, skin, muscles and nerves. With a lack of silicon, hair falls out, nails break, and there is a risk of diabetes.
Silicon in products:
Silicon is found in large quantities in cereals, in the peel of fresh fruits. In small quantities: in beets, cucumbers, parsley, strawberries.
mineral salts. COPPER:
Copper in the human body is involved in hematopoiesis, it is recommended for patients with diabetes mellitus.
Norm of copper – 2 mg.
Copper is found in products - in beef and pork liver, in cod and halibut liver, in oysters.
mineral salts. ZINC:
Zinc in the human body normalizes the function of the endocrine system, is involved in hematopoiesis.
daily requirement for zinc – 12-16 mg.
Zinc in products:
Most of the zinc – in meat and offal, fish, oysters, eggs.
mineral salts. ALUMINUM:
The daily requirement for aluminum is 12-13 mg.
mineral salts. MANGANESE:
Manganese in the human body:
Manganese has a beneficial effect on the nervous system, is actively involved in the metabolism of fats and carbohydrates, prevents fat from being deposited in the liver, and lowers cholesterol. Manganese increases muscle endurance, participates in hematopoiesis, increases blood clotting, participates in the construction of bone tissue, and helps the absorption of vitamin B1.
The daily requirement for manganese is 5-9 mg per day.
Manganese in products:
The main sources of manganese are: chicken meat, beef liver, cheese, egg yolk, potatoes, beets, carrots, onions, beans, peas, lettuce, celery, bananas, tea (leaf), ginger, cloves.
Hazelnuts - 4.2 mg, oatmeal (hercules) - 3.8 mg, walnuts and almonds - about 2 mg, rye bread - 1.6 mg, buckwheat - 1.3 mg, rice - 1.2 mg.
It is recommended to include nutritious oatmeal in your diet more often in the morning - with it you will get almost half of the daily requirement of manganese. Manganese is not lost during cooking, but a significant part of it is lost during defrosting and soaking. To retain most of the manganese, frozen vegetables should be fried and boiled without thawing. Manganese is stored in vegetables boiled in their skins or steamed.
Lack of manganese in the body:
With a lack of manganese, the level of cholesterol in the blood rises, poor appetite, insomnia, nausea, muscle weakness, sometimes cramps in the legs (because the absorption of vitamin B1 is impaired), and bone tissue is deformed.
mineral salts. CADMIUM- found in scallop mollusk.
mineral salts. NICKEL- participates in hematopoiesis.
mineral salts. COBALT, CESIUM, STRONTIUM and other trace elements are needed by the body in small quantities, but their role in metabolism is very large.
Mineral salts:ACID-ALKALINE BALANCE IN THE BODY:
Proper, healthy nutrition maintains the acid-base balance in the human body constantly. But sometimes changing the diet with a predominance of acidic or alkaline minerals can upset the acid-base balance. Most often, there is a predominance of acidic mineral salts, which is the cause of the development of atherosclerosis, diabetes, diseases of the kidneys, stomach, etc. If the alkali content in the body rises, then diseases arise: tetanus, narrowing of the stomach.
People of mature age in the diet need to increase the amount of alkaline foods.
Acid mineral salts : phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, contain such products: meat and fish, bread and cereals, eggs.
Alkaline mineral salts: calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium contain such products: dairy products (except cheese), potatoes, vegetables, fruits, berries. And although vegetables and fruits taste sour, they are converted into alkaline minerals in the body.
How to restore acid-base balance?
* In the human body, there is a constant struggle between the mineral salts of potassium and sodium. The lack of potassium in the blood is manifested by edema. It is necessary to exclude salt from the diet, and replace it with products rich in potassium salts: garlic, onion, horseradish, dill, celery, parsley, caraway seeds. In addition, use carrots, parsley, spinach, baked potatoes, cabbage, green peas, tomatoes, radishes, raisins, dried apricots, grapefruit, legumes, oatmeal, dried rye bread.
* Observe the drinking regimen: drink clean water; water with the addition of apple cider vinegar, lemon juice, honey; infusion of wild rose, raspberry leaves and blackcurrant.
The excited state of the atom corresponds to the electronic configuration
1) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1
2) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6
3) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1 3p 2
Answer: 3
Explanation:
The energy of the 3s sublevel is lower than the energy of the 3p sublevel, but the 3s sublevel, which should contain 2 electrons, is not completely filled. Therefore, such an electronic configuration corresponds to the excited state of the atom (aluminum).
The fourth option is not an answer due to the fact that, although the 3d level is not filled, its energy is higher than the 4s sublevel, i.e. in this case, it is filled last.
In which order are the elements arranged in decreasing order of their atomic radius?
1) Rb → K → Na
2) Mg → Ca → Sr
3) Si → Al → Mg
Answer: 1
Explanation:
The atomic radius of the elements decreases with a decrease in the number of electron shells (the number of electron shells corresponds to the number of the period of the Periodic system of chemical elements) and with the transition to non-metals (that is, with an increase in the number of electrons at the outer level). Therefore, in the table of chemical elements, the atomic radius of the elements decreases from bottom to top and from left to right.
A chemical bond is formed between atoms with the same relative electronegativity
2) covalent polar
3) covalent non-polar
Answer: 3
Explanation:
Between atoms with the same relative electronegativity, a covalent non-polar bond is formed, since there is no shift in electron density.
The oxidation states of sulfur and nitrogen in (NH 4) 2 SO 3 are respectively equal
1) +4 and -3 2) -2 and +5 3) +6 and +3 4) -2 and +4
Answer: 1
Explanation:
(NH 4) 2 SO 3 (ammonium sulfite) - a salt formed by sulfurous acid and ammonia, therefore, the oxidation states of sulfur and nitrogen are +4 and -3, respectively (the oxidation state of sulfur in sulfurous acid is +4, the oxidation state of nitrogen in ammonia is - 3).
Has an atomic crystal lattice
1) white phosphorus
3) silicon
Answer: 3
Explanation:
White phosphorus has a molecular crystal lattice, the formula of the white phosphorus molecule is P 4 .
Both allotropic modifications of sulfur (rhombic and monoclinic) have molecular crystal lattices, at the nodes of which there are cyclic crown-shaped molecules S 8 .
Lead is a metal and has a metallic crystal lattice.
Silicon has a diamond-type crystal lattice, however, due to the longer Si-Si bond length compared to C-C, it is inferior to diamond in hardness.
Among the listed substances, select three substances that belong to amphoteric hydroxides.
Answer: 245
Explanation:
Amphoteric metals include Be, Zn, Al (you can remember "BeZnAl"), as well as Fe III and Cr III. Therefore, from the proposed answers, Be(OH) 2 , Zn(OH) 2 , Fe(OH) 3 belong to amphoteric hydroxides.
The Al(OH) 2 Br compound is a basic salt.
Are the following statements about the properties of nitrogen correct?
A. Under ordinary conditions, nitrogen reacts with silver.
B. Nitrogen under normal conditions in the absence of a catalyst does not react with hydrogen.
1) only A is true
2) only B is true
3) both statements are correct
Answer: 2
Explanation:
Nitrogen is a very inert gas and does not react with metals other than lithium under normal conditions.
The interaction of nitrogen with hydrogen refers to the industrial production of ammonia. The process is exothermic reversible and proceeds only in the presence of catalysts.
Carbon monoxide (IV) reacts with each of the two substances:
1) oxygen and water
2) water and calcium oxide
3) potassium sulfate and sodium hydroxide
4) silicon oxide (IV) and hydrogen
Answer: 2
Explanation:
Carbon monoxide (IV) (carbon dioxide) is an acidic oxide, therefore, it interacts with water to form unstable carbonic acid, alkalis and oxides of alkali and alkaline earth metals to form salts:
CO 2 + H 2 O ↔ H 2 CO 3
CO 2 + CaO → CaCO 3
Each of the two reacts with sodium hydroxide solution
3) H 2 O and P 2 O 5
Answer: 4
Explanation:
NaOH is an alkali (it has basic properties), therefore, interaction with an acid oxide - SO 2 and an amphoteric metal hydroxide - Al (OH) 3 is possible:
2NaOH + SO 2 → Na 2 SO 3 + H 2 O or NaOH + SO 2 → NaHSO 3
NaOH + Al(OH) 3 → Na
Calcium carbonate interacts with the solution
1) sodium hydroxide
2) hydrogen chloride
3) barium chloride
Answer: 2
Explanation:
Calcium carbonate is a water-insoluble salt, therefore it does not interact with salts and bases. Calcium carbonate dissolves in strong acids with the formation of salts and the release of carbon dioxide:
CaCO 3 + 2HCl → CaCl 2 + CO 2 + H 2 O
In the transformation scheme
1) iron oxide (II)
2) iron (III) hydroxide
3) iron (II) hydroxide
4) iron chloride (II)
Answer: X-5; Y-2
Explanation:
Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent (the oxidizing power of halogens increases from I 2 to F 2), oxidizes iron to Fe +3:
2Fe + 3Cl 2 → 2FeCl 3
Iron (III) chloride is a soluble salt and enters into exchange reactions with alkalis to form a precipitate - iron (III) hydroxide:
FeCl 3 + 3NaOH → Fe(OH) 3 ↓ + NaCl
The homologues are
1) glycerin and ethylene glycol
2) methanol and butanol-1
3) propyne and ethylene
Answer: 2
Explanation:
Homologues are substances that belong to the same class of organic compounds and differ by one or more CH 2 groups.
Glycerin and ethylene glycol are trihydric and dihydric alcohols, respectively, differ in the number of oxygen atoms, therefore they are neither isomers nor homologues.
Methanol and butanol-1 are primary alcohols with an unbranched skeleton, they differ by two CH 2 groups, therefore, they are homologues.
Propyne and ethylene belong to the classes of alkynes and alkenes, respectively, contain different numbers of carbon and hydrogen atoms, therefore, they are neither homologues nor isomers with each other.
Propanone and propanal belong to different classes of organic compounds, but contain 3 carbon atoms, 6 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom each, therefore, they are isomers according to the functional group.
For butene-2 impossible reaction
1) dehydration
2) polymerization
3) halogenation
Answer: 1
Explanation:
Butene-2 belongs to the class of alkenes, enters into addition reactions with halogens, hydrogen halides, water and hydrogen. In addition, unsaturated hydrocarbons polymerize.
The dehydration reaction is a reaction that proceeds with the elimination of a water molecule. Since butene-2 is a hydrocarbon, i.e. does not contain heteroatoms, the elimination of water is impossible.
Phenol does not interact with
1) nitric acid
2) sodium hydroxide
3) bromine water
Answer: 4
Explanation:
With phenol, nitric acid and bromine water enter into the reaction of electrophilic substitution on the benzene ring, resulting in the formation of nitrophenol and bromophenol, respectively.
Phenol, which has weak acidic properties, reacts with alkalis to form phenolates. In this case, sodium phenolate is formed.
Alkanes do not react with phenol.
Acetic acid methyl ester reacts with
1) NaCl 2) Br 2 (solution) 3) Cu(OH) 2 4) NaOH (solution)
Answer: 4
Explanation:
Methyl ester of acetic acid (methyl acetate) belongs to the class of esters, undergoes acid and alkaline hydrolysis. Under the conditions of acid hydrolysis, methyl acetate is converted into acetic acid and methanol, under the conditions of alkaline hydrolysis with sodium hydroxide, sodium acetate and methanol.
Butene-2 can be obtained by dehydration
1) butanone 2) butanol-1 3) butanol-2 4) butanal
Answer: 3
Explanation:
One of the ways to obtain alkenes is the reaction of intramolecular dehydration of primary and secondary alcohols, which proceeds in the presence of anhydrous sulfuric acid and at temperatures above 140 o C. The splitting of a water molecule from an alcohol molecule proceeds according to the Zaitsev rule: a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group are split off from neighboring carbon atoms, moreover, hydrogen is split off from that carbon atom at which the smallest number of hydrogen atoms is located. Thus, intramolecular dehydration of the primary alcohol - butanol-1 leads to the formation of butene-1, intramolecular dehydration of the secondary alcohol - butanol-2 to the formation of butene-2.
Methylamine can react with (c)
1) alkalis and alcohols
2) alkalis and acids
3) oxygen and alkalis
4) acids and oxygen
Answer: 4
Explanation:
Methylamine belongs to the class of amines and, due to the presence of an unshared electron pair on the nitrogen atom, has basic properties. In addition, the basic properties of methylamine are more pronounced than those of ammonia, due to the presence of a methyl group that has a positive inductive effect. Thus, having basic properties, methylamine interacts with acids to form salts. In an oxygen atmosphere, methylamine burns to carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water.
In a given transformation scheme
substances X and Y, respectively, are
1) ethanediol-1,2
3) acetylene
4) diethyl ether
Answer: X-2; Y-5
Explanation:
Bromoethane in an aqueous solution of alkali enters into a nucleophilic substitution reaction with the formation of ethanol:
CH 3 -CH 2 -Br + NaOH (aq.) → CH 3 -CH 2 -OH + NaBr
Under conditions of concentrated sulfuric acid at temperatures above 140 0 C, intramolecular dehydration occurs with the formation of ethylene and water:
All alkenes easily react with bromine:
CH 2 \u003d CH 2 + Br 2 → CH 2 Br-CH 2 Br
Substitution reactions include the interaction
1) acetylene and hydrogen bromide
2) propane and chlorine
3) ethene and chlorine
4) ethylene and hydrogen chloride
Answer: 2
Explanation:
Addition reactions include the interaction of unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes, alkynes, alkadienes) with halogens, hydrogen halides, hydrogen and water. Acetylene (ethyne) and ethylene belong to the classes of alkynes and alkenes, respectively, therefore, they enter into addition reactions with hydrogen bromide, hydrogen chloride and chlorine.
Alkanes enter into substitution reactions with halogens in the light or at elevated temperature. The reaction proceeds by a chain mechanism with the participation of free radicals - particles with one unpaired electron:
The rate of a chemical reaction
HCOOCH 3 (l) + H 2 O (l) → HCOOH (l) + CH 3 OH (l)
does not provide influence
1) pressure increase
2) temperature increase
3) change in the concentration of HCOOCH 3
4) the use of a catalyst
Answer: 1
Explanation:
The reaction rate is affected by changes in the temperature and concentrations of the initial reagents, as well as the use of a catalyst. According to Van't Hoff's empirical rule, for every 10 degrees increase in temperature, the rate constant of a homogeneous reaction increases by 2-4 times.
The use of a catalyst also speeds up reactions, while the catalyst is not included in the composition of the products.
The starting materials and products of the reaction are in the liquid phase, therefore, a change in pressure does not affect the rate of this reaction.
Reduced ionic equation
Fe + 3 + 3OH - \u003d Fe (OH) 3 ↓
corresponds to the molecular reaction equation
1) FeCl 3 + 3NaOH \u003d Fe (OH) 3 ↓ + 3NaCl
2) 4Fe(OH) 2 + O 2 + 2H 2 O = 4Fe(OH) 3 ↓
3) FeCl 3 + 3NaHCO 3 = Fe(OH) 3 ↓ + 3CO 2 + 3NaCl
Answer: 1
Explanation:
In an aqueous solution, soluble salts, alkalis and strong acids dissociate into ions, insoluble bases, insoluble salts, weak acids, gases, and simple substances are written in molecular form.
The condition for the solubility of salts and bases corresponds to the first equation, in which the salt enters into an exchange reaction with alkali to form an insoluble base and another soluble salt.
The complete ionic equation is written in the following form:
Fe +3 + 3Cl − + 3Na + + 3OH − = Fe(OH) 3 ↓ + 3Cl − + 3Na +
Which of the following gases is toxic and has a pungent odor?
1) hydrogen
2) carbon monoxide (II)
Answer: 3
Explanation:
Hydrogen and carbon dioxide are non-toxic, odorless gases. Carbon monoxide and chlorine are both toxic, but unlike CO, chlorine has a strong odor.
enters into the polymerization reaction
1) phenol 2) benzene 3) toluene 4) styrene
Answer: 4
Explanation:
All substances from the proposed options are aromatic hydrocarbons, but polymerization reactions are not typical for aromatic systems. The styrene molecule contains a vinyl radical, which is a fragment of the ethylene molecule, which is characterized by polymerization reactions. Thus, styrene polymerizes to form polystyrene.
To 240 g of a solution with a mass fraction of salt of 10% was added 160 ml of water. Determine the mass fraction of salt in the resulting solution. (Write down the number to the nearest integer.)
Answer: 6%Explanation:
The mass fraction of salt in the solution is calculated by the formula:
Based on this formula, we calculate the mass of salt in the initial solution:
m (in-va) \u003d ω (in-va in the original solution). m (original solution) / 100% \u003d 10%. 240 g / 100% = 24 g
When water is added to the solution, the mass of the resulting solution will be 160 g + 240 g = 400 g (water density 1 g / ml).
The mass fraction of salt in the resulting solution will be:
Calculate the volume of nitrogen (N.O.) produced by the complete combustion of 67.2 L (N.O.) of ammonia. (Write down the number to tenths.)
Answer: 33.6 liters
Explanation:
Complete combustion of ammonia in oxygen is described by the equation:
4NH 3 + 3O 2 → 2N 2 + 6H 2 O
A consequence of Avogadro's law is that the volumes of gases under the same conditions are related to each other in the same way as the number of moles of these gases. Thus, according to the reaction equation
ν(N 2) = 1/2ν(NH 3),
therefore, the volumes of ammonia and nitrogen are related to each other in exactly the same way:
V (N 2) \u003d 1 / 2V (NH 3)
V (N 2) \u003d 1 / 2V (NH 3) \u003d 67.2 l / 2 \u003d 33.6 l
What volume (in NL liters) of oxygen is produced by the decomposition of 4 moles of hydrogen peroxide? (Write down the number to tenths).
Answer: 44.8 liters
Explanation:
In the presence of a catalyst - manganese dioxide, peroxide decomposes with the formation of oxygen and water:
2H 2 O 2 → 2H 2 O + O 2
According to the reaction equation, the amount of oxygen formed is half the amount of hydrogen peroxide:
ν (O 2) \u003d 1/2 ν (H 2 O 2), therefore, ν (O 2) \u003d 4 mol / 2 \u003d 2 mol.
The volume of gases is calculated by the formula:
V = Vm ν , where V m is the molar volume of gases at n.o., equal to 22.4 l / mol
The volume of oxygen formed during the decomposition of peroxide is equal to:
V (O 2) \u003d V m ν (O 2) \u003d 22.4 l / mol 2 mol \u003d 44.8 l
Establish a correspondence between the classes of compounds and the trivial name of the substance, which is its representative.
Answer: A-3; B-2; IN 1; G-5
Explanation:
Alcohols are organic substances containing one or more hydroxyl groups (-OH) directly bonded to a saturated carbon atom. Ethylene glycol is a dihydric alcohol, contains two hydroxyl groups: CH 2 (OH)-CH 2 OH.
Carbohydrates are organic substances containing carbonyl and several hydroxyl groups, the general formula of carbohydrates is written as C n (H 2 O) m (where m, n> 3). Of the proposed options, carbohydrates include starch - a polysaccharide, a high-molecular carbohydrate consisting of a large number of monosaccharide residues, the formula of which is written as (C 6 H 10 O 5) n.
Hydrocarbons are organic substances that contain only two elements - carbon and hydrogen. The hydrocarbons from the proposed options include toluene, an aromatic compound consisting only of carbon and hydrogen atoms and not containing functional groups with heteroatoms.
Carboxylic acids are organic substances whose molecules contain a carboxyl group consisting of carbonyl and hydroxyl groups linked together. The class of carboxylic acids includes butyric (butanoic) acid - C 3 H 7 COOH.
Establish a correspondence between the reaction equation and the change in the oxidation state of the oxidizing agent in it.
| REACTION EQUATION
A) 4NH 3 + 5O 2 = 4NO + 6H 2 O B) 2Cu (NO 3) 2 \u003d 2CuO + 4NO 2 + O 2 C) 4Zn + 10HNO 3 \u003d NH 4 NO 3 + 4Zn (NO 3) 2 + 3H 2 O D) 3NO 2 + H 2 O \u003d 2HNO 3 + NO |
CHANGING THE OXIDIZER DEGREE |
Answer: A-1; B-4; AT 6; G-3
Explanation:
An oxidizing agent is a substance that contains atoms that are capable of attaching electrons during a chemical reaction and thus lowering the oxidation state.
A reducing agent is a substance that contains atoms that can donate electrons during a chemical reaction and thus increase the oxidation state.
A) The oxidation of ammonia with oxygen in the presence of a catalyst leads to the formation of nitrogen monoxide and water. The oxidizing agent is molecular oxygen, initially having an oxidation state of 0, which, by adding electrons, is reduced to an oxidation state of -2 in NO and H 2 O compounds.
B) Copper nitrate Cu (NO 3) 2 - a salt containing an acid residue with nitric acid. The oxidation states of nitrogen and oxygen in the nitrate anion are +5 and -2, respectively. During the reaction, the nitrate anion is converted into nitrogen dioxide NO 2 (with nitrogen oxidation state +4) and oxygen O 2 (with oxidation state 0). Therefore, nitrogen is the oxidizing agent, since it lowers the oxidation state from +5 in nitrate ion to +4 in nitrogen dioxide.
C) In this redox reaction, the oxidizing agent is nitric acid, which, turning into ammonium nitrate, lowers the oxidation state of nitrogen from +5 (in nitric acid) to -3 (in the ammonium cation). The degree of nitrogen oxidation in the acid residues of ammonium nitrate and zinc nitrate remains unchanged; the same as that of nitrogen in HNO 3 .
D) In this reaction, nitrogen in dioxide disproportionates, i.e. simultaneously increases (from N +4 in NO 2 to N +5 in HNO 3) and lowers (from N +4 in NO 2 to N +2 in NO) its oxidation state.
Establish a correspondence between the formula of a substance and the products of electrolysis of its aqueous solution, which were released on inert electrodes.
Answer: A-4; B-3; IN 2; G-5
Explanation:
Electrolysis is a redox process that occurs on electrodes when a direct electric current passes through an electrolyte solution or melt. At the cathode, the reduction occurs predominantly of those cations that have the highest oxidizing activity. At the anode, those anions are oxidized first of all, which have the greatest reduction ability.
Electrolysis of aqueous solution
1) The process of electrolysis of aqueous solutions on the cathode does not depend on the material of the cathode, but depends on the position of the metal cation in the electrochemical series of voltages.
For cations in a row
Li + - Al 3+ reduction process:
2H 2 O + 2e → H 2 + 2OH - (H 2 is released at the cathode)
Zn 2+ - Pb 2+ reduction process:
Me n + + ne → Me 0 and 2H 2 O + 2e → H 2 + 2OH - (H 2 and Me are released at the cathode)
Cu 2+ - Au 3+ reduction process Me n + + ne → Me 0 (Me is released at the cathode)
2) The process of electrolysis of aqueous solutions at the anode depends on the material of the anode and on the nature of the anion. If the anode is insoluble, i.e. inert (platinum, gold, coal, graphite), the process will depend only on the nature of the anions.
For anions F -, SO 4 2-, NO 3 -, PO 4 3-, OH - the oxidation process:
4OH - - 4e → O 2 + 2H 2 O or 2H 2 O - 4e → O 2 + 4H + (oxygen is released at the anode)
halide ions (except F -) oxidation process 2Hal - - 2e → Hal 2 (free halogens are released)
organic acids oxidation process:
2RCOO - - 2e → R-R + 2CO 2
The overall electrolysis equation is:
A) Na 2 CO 3 solution:
2H 2 O → 2H 2 (at the cathode) + O 2 (at the anode)
B) Cu (NO 3) 2 solution:
2Cu(NO 3) 2 + 2H 2 O → 2Cu (at the cathode) + 4HNO 3 + O 2 (at the anode)
C) AuCl 3 solution:
2AuCl 3 → 2Au (at the cathode) + 3Cl 2 (at the anode)
D) BaCl 2 solution:
BaCl 2 + 2H 2 O → H 2 (at the cathode) + Ba(OH) 2 + Cl 2 (at the anode)
Establish a correspondence between the name of the salt and the ratio of this salt to hydrolysis.
Answer: A-2; B-3; IN 2; G-1
Explanation:
Salt hydrolysis is the interaction of salts with water, leading to the addition of the hydrogen cation H + of the water molecule to the anion of the acid residue and (or) the hydroxyl group OH − of the water molecule to the metal cation. Salts formed by cations corresponding to weak bases and anions corresponding to weak acids undergo hydrolysis.
A) Sodium stearate - a salt formed by stearic acid (a weak monobasic carboxylic acid of the aliphatic series) and sodium hydroxide (an alkali - a strong base), therefore, undergoes anionic hydrolysis.
C 17 H 35 COONa → Na + + C 17 H 35 COO −
C 17 H 35 COO - + H 2 O ↔ C 17 H 35 COOH + OH - (formation of a weakly dissociating carboxylic acid)
The solution is alkaline (pH > 7):
C 17 H 35 COONa + H 2 O ↔ C 17 H 35 COOH + NaOH
B) Ammonium phosphate - a salt formed by weak phosphoric acid and ammonia (weak base), therefore, undergoes hydrolysis both in cation and in anion.
(NH 4) 3 PO 4 → 3NH 4 + + PO 4 3-
PO 4 3- + H 2 O ↔ HPO 4 2- + OH - (formation of a weakly dissociating hydrophosphate ion)
NH 4 + + H 2 O ↔ NH 3 H 2 O + H + (formation of ammonia dissolved in water)
The solution medium is close to neutral (pH ~ 7).
C) Sodium sulfide is a salt formed by a weak hydrosulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide (an alkali is a strong base), therefore, it undergoes anionic hydrolysis.
Na 2 S → 2Na + + S 2-
S 2- + H 2 O ↔ HS - + OH - (formation of a weakly dissociating hydrosulfide ion)
The solution is alkaline (pH > 7):
Na 2 S + H 2 O ↔ NaHS + NaOH
D) Beryllium sulfate - a salt formed by strong sulfuric acid and beryllium hydroxide (weak base), therefore, undergoes hydrolysis at the cation.
BeSO 4 → Be 2+ + SO 4 2-
Be 2+ + H 2 O ↔ Be(OH) + + H + (formation of a weakly dissociating Be(OH) + cation)
The solution medium is acidic (pH< 7):
2BeSO 4 + 2H 2 O ↔ (BeOH) 2 SO 4 + H 2 SO 4
Establish a correspondence between the method of influencing an equilibrium system
MgO (solid) + CO 2 (g) ↔ MgCO 3 (solid) + Q
and a shift in chemical equilibrium as a result of this impact
Answer: A-1; B-2; IN 2; G-3Explanation:
This reaction is in chemical equilibrium, i.e. in a state where the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse. The shift of equilibrium in the desired direction is achieved by changing the reaction conditions.
Le Chatelier's principle: if an equilibrium system is influenced from the outside, changing any of the factors that determine the equilibrium position, then the direction of the process that weakens this effect will increase in the system.
Factors that determine the position of equilibrium:
— pressure: an increase in pressure shifts the equilibrium towards a reaction leading to a decrease in volume (conversely, a decrease in pressure shifts the equilibrium towards a reaction leading to an increase in volume)
— temperature: an increase in temperature shifts the equilibrium towards an endothermic reaction (conversely, a decrease in temperature shifts the equilibrium towards an exothermic reaction)
— concentrations of starting substances and reaction products: an increase in the concentration of the starting substances and the removal of products from the reaction sphere shift the equilibrium towards the direct reaction (on the contrary, a decrease in the concentration of the starting substances and an increase in the reaction products shift the equilibrium towards the reverse reaction)
— Catalysts do not affect the equilibrium shift, but only accelerate its achievement.
Thus,
A) since the reaction of obtaining magnesium carbonate is exothermic, a decrease in temperature will contribute to a shift in the equilibrium towards a direct reaction;
B) carbon dioxide is the initial substance in the production of magnesium carbonate, therefore, a decrease in its concentration will lead to a shift in the equilibrium towards the initial substances, because in the direction of the reverse reaction;
C) magnesium oxide and magnesium carbonate are solids, only CO 2 is a gas, so its concentration will affect the pressure in the system. With a decrease in the concentration of carbon dioxide, the pressure decreases, therefore, the equilibrium of the reaction shifts towards the starting substances (reverse reaction).
D) the introduction of a catalyst does not affect the equilibrium shift.
Establish a correspondence between the formula of a substance and the reagents, with each of which this substance can interact.
| SUBSTANCE FORMULA | REAGENTS
1) H 2 O, NaOH, HCl 2) Fe, HCl, NaOH 3) HCl, HCHO, H 2 SO 4 4) O 2 , NaOH, HNO 3 5) H 2 O, CO 2, HCl |
Answer: A-4; B-4; IN 2; G-3
Explanation:
A) Sulfur is a simple substance that can burn in oxygen to form sulfur dioxide:
S + O 2 → SO 2
Sulfur (like halogens) disproportionates in alkaline solutions, resulting in the formation of sulfides and sulfites:
3S + 6NaOH → 2Na 2 S + Na 2 SO 3 + 3H 2 O
Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes sulfur to S +6, reducing to nitrogen dioxide:
S + 6HNO 3 (conc.) → H 2 SO 4 + 6NO 2 + 2H 2 O
B) Porphorite (III) oxide is an acidic oxide, therefore, it interacts with alkalis to form phosphites:
P 2 O 3 + 4NaOH → 2Na 2 HPO 3 + H 2 O
In addition, phosphorus (III) oxide is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen and nitric acid:
P 2 O 3 + O 2 → P 2 O 5
3P 2 O 3 + 4HNO 3 + 7H 2 O → 6H 3 PO 4 + 4NO
C) Iron oxide (III) - amphoteric oxide, because exhibits both acidic and basic properties (reacts with acids and alkalis):
Fe 2 O 3 + 6HCl → 2FeCl 3 + 3H 2 O
Fe 2 O 3 + 2NaOH → 2NaFeO 2 + H 2 O (fusion)
Fe 2 O 3 + 2NaOH + 3H 2 O → 2Na 2 (dissolution)
Fe 2 O 3 enters into a co-proportionation reaction with iron to form iron oxide (II):
Fe 2 O 3 + Fe → 3FeO
D) Cu (OH) 2 - a water-insoluble base, dissolves with strong acids, turning into the corresponding salts:
Cu(OH) 2 + 2HCl → CuCl 2 + 2H 2 O
Cu(OH) 2 + H 2 SO 4 → CuSO 4 + 2H 2 O
Cu(OH) 2 oxidizes aldehydes to carboxylic acids (similar to the "silver mirror" reaction):
HCHO + 4Cu(OH) 2 → CO 2 + 2Cu 2 O↓ + 5H 2 O
Establish a correspondence between substances and a reagent with which they can be distinguished from each other.
Answer: A-3; B-1; IN 3; G-5
Explanation:
A) The two soluble salts CaCl 2 and KCl can be distinguished with a potassium carbonate solution. Calcium chloride enters into an exchange reaction with it, as a result of which calcium carbonate precipitates:
CaCl 2 + K 2 CO 3 → CaCO 3 ↓ + 2KCl
B) Solutions of sulfite and sodium sulfate can be distinguished by an indicator - phenolphthalein.
Sodium sulfite is a salt formed by a weak unstable sulfurous acid and sodium hydroxide (an alkali is a strong base), therefore, it undergoes anionic hydrolysis.
Na 2 SO 3 → 2Na + + SO 3 2-
SO 3 2- + H 2 O ↔ HSO 3 - + OH - (formation of a low-dissociating hydrosulfite ion)
The medium of the solution is alkaline (pH > 7), the color of the phenolphthalein indicator in an alkaline medium is raspberry.
Sodium sulfate - a salt formed by strong sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide (alkali - a strong base), does not hydrolyze. The solution medium is neutral (pH = 7), the color of the phenolphthalein indicator in a neutral medium is pale pink.
C) Na 2 SO 4 and ZnSO 4 salts can also be distinguished using a potassium carbonate solution. Zinc sulfate enters into an exchange reaction with potassium carbonate, as a result of which zinc carbonate precipitates:
ZnSO 4 + K 2 CO 3 → ZnCO 3 ↓ + K 2 SO 4
D) Salts FeCl 2 and Zn (NO 3) 2 can be distinguished with a solution of lead nitrate. When it interacts with iron chloride, a poorly soluble substance PbCl 2 is formed:
FeCl 2 + Pb(NO 3) 2 → PbCl 2 ↓+ Fe(NO 3) 2
Establish a correspondence between reacting substances and carbon-containing products of their interaction.
| REACTING SUBSTANCES
A) CH 3 -C≡CH + H 2 (Pt) → B) CH 3 -C≡CH + H 2 O (Hg 2+) → B) CH 3 -C≡CH + KMnO 4 (H +) → D) CH 3 -C≡CH + Ag 2 O (NH 3) → |
INTERACTION PRODUCT
1) CH 3 -CH 2 -CHO 2) CH 3 -CO-CH 3 3) CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 3 4) CH 3 -COOH and CO 2 5) CH 3 -CH 2 -COOAg 6) CH 3 -C≡CAg |
Answer: A-3; B-2; AT 4; G-6
Explanation:
A) Propyne attaches hydrogen, in its excess turning into propane:
CH 3 -C≡CH + 2H 2 → CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 3
B) The addition of water (hydration) of alkynes in the presence of divalent mercury salts, resulting in the formation of carbonyl compounds, is the reaction of M.G. Kucherov. Hydration of propyne leads to the formation of acetone:
CH 3 -C≡CH + H 2 O → CH 3 -CO-CH 3
C) Oxidation of propyne with potassium permanganate in an acidic medium leads to the breaking of the triple bond in the alkyne, resulting in the formation of acetic acid and carbon dioxide:
5CH 3 -C≡CH + 8KMnO 4 + 12H 2 SO 4 → 5CH 3 -COOH + 5CO 2 + 8MnSO 4 + 4K 2 SO 4 + 12H 2 O
D) Silver propinide is formed and precipitates when propyne is passed through an ammonia solution of silver oxide. This reaction serves to detect alkynes with a triple bond at the end of the chain.
2CH 3 -C≡CH + Ag 2 O → 2CH 3 -C≡CAg↓ + H 2 O
Match the reactants with the organic matter that is the product of the reaction.
| INTERACTION PRODUCT
5) (CH 3 COO) 2 Cu |
Answer: A-4; B-6; IN 1; G-6
Explanation:
A) When ethyl alcohol is oxidized with copper (II) oxide, acetaldehyde is formed, while the oxide is reduced to metal:
B) When alcohol is exposed to concentrated sulfuric acid at a temperature above 140 0 C, an intramolecular dehydration reaction occurs - the elimination of a water molecule, which leads to the formation of ethylene:
C) Alcohols react violently with alkali and alkaline earth metals. The active metal replaces the hydrogen in the hydroxyl group of the alcohol:
2CH 3 CH 2 OH + 2K → 2CH 3 CH 2 OK + H 2
D) In an alcohol solution of alkali, alcohols undergo an elimination reaction (cleavage). In the case of ethanol, ethylene is formed:
CH 3 CH 2 Cl + KOH (alcohol) → CH 2 \u003d CH 2 + KCl + H 2 O
Using the electron balance method, write the equation for the reaction:
In this reaction, chloric acid is the oxidizing agent because the chlorine it contains lowers the oxidation state from +5 to -1 in HCl. Therefore, the reducing agent is acidic phosphorus (III) oxide, where phosphorus increases the oxidation state from +3 to a maximum of +5, turning into orthophosphoric acid.
We compose the oxidation and reduction half-reactions:
Cl +5 + 6e → Cl −1 |2
2P +3 – 4e → 2P +5 |3
We write the redox reaction equation in the form:
3P 2 O 3 + 2HClO 3 + 9H 2 O → 2HCl + 6H 3 PO 4
Copper was dissolved in concentrated nitric acid. The evolved gas was passed over heated zinc powder. The resulting solid was added to the sodium hydroxide solution. An excess of carbon dioxide was passed through the resulting solution, and the formation of a precipitate was observed.
Write the equations for the four described reactions.
1) When copper is dissolved in concentrated nitric acid, copper is oxidized to Cu +2, and a brown gas is released:
Cu + 4HNO 3 (conc.) → Cu(NO 3) 2 + 2NO 2 + 2H 2 O
2) When brown gas is passed over heated zinc powder, zinc is oxidized, and nitrogen dioxide is reduced to molecular nitrogen (assumed by many, with reference to Wikipedia, zinc nitrate is not formed when heated, since it is thermally unstable):
4Zn + 2NO 2 → 4ZnO + N 2
3) ZnO - amphoteric oxide, dissolves in an alkali solution, turning into tetrahydroxozincate:
ZnO + 2NaOH + H 2 O → Na 2
4) When an excess of carbon dioxide is passed through a solution of sodium tetrahydroxozincate, an acid salt is formed - sodium bicarbonate, zinc hydroxide precipitates:
Na 2 + 2CO 2 → Zn(OH) 2 ↓ + 2NaHCO 3
Write the reaction equations that can be used to carry out the following transformations:
When writing reaction equations, use the structural formulas of organic substances.
1) The most characteristic of alkanes are free radical substitution reactions, during which a hydrogen atom is replaced by a halogen atom. In the reaction of butane with bromine, the hydrogen atom at the secondary carbon atom is predominantly replaced, resulting in the formation of 2-bromobutane. This is due to the fact that a radical with an unpaired electron at the secondary carbon atom is more stable than a free radical with an unpaired electron at the primary carbon atom:
2) When 2-bromobutane interacts with alkali in an alcoholic solution, a double bond is formed as a result of the elimination of a hydrogen bromide molecule (Zaitsev's rule: when hydrogen halide is eliminated from secondary and tertiary haloalkanes, a hydrogen atom is split off from the least hydrogenated carbon atom):
3) The interaction of butene-2 with bromine water or a solution of bromine in an organic solvent leads to a rapid discoloration of these solutions as a result of the addition of a bromine molecule to butene-2 and the formation of 2,3-dibromobutane:
CH 3 -CH \u003d CH-CH 3 + Br 2 → CH 3 -CHBr-CHBr-CH 3
4) When interacting with a dibromo derivative, in which the halogen atoms are at neighboring carbon atoms (or at the same atom), an alcohol solution of alkali, two molecules of hydrogen halide are split off (dehydrohalogenation) and a triple bond is formed:
5) In the presence of divalent mercury salts, alkynes add water (hydration) to form carbonyl compounds:
A mixture of iron and zinc powders is reacted with 153 ml of a 10% hydrochloric acid solution (ρ = 1.05 g/ml). Interaction with the same weight of the mixture requires 40 ml of a 20% sodium hydroxide solution (ρ = 1.10 g/ml). Determine the mass fraction of iron in the mixture.
In your answer, write down the reaction equations that are indicated in the condition of the problem, and give all the necessary calculations.
Answer: 46.28%
When burning 2.65 g of organic matter, 4.48 liters of carbon dioxide (n.o.) and 2.25 g of water were obtained.
It is known that when this substance is oxidized with a sulfuric acid solution of potassium permanganate, a monobasic acid is formed and carbon dioxide is released.
Based on these conditions of the assignment:
1) make the calculations necessary to establish the molecular formula of an organic substance;
2) write down the molecular formula of the original organic matter;
3) make a structural formula of this substance, which unambiguously reflects the order of bonding of atoms in its molecule;
4) write the reaction equation for the oxidation of this substance with a sulfuric acid solution of potassium permanganate.
Answer:
1) C x H y ; x=8, y=10
2) C 8 H 10
3) C 6 H 5 -CH 2 -CH 3 - ethylbenzene
4) 5C 6 H 5 -CH 2 -CH 3 + 12KMnO 4 + 18H 2 SO 4 → 5C 6 H 5 -COOH + 5CO 2 + 12MnSO 4 + 6K 2 SO 4 + 28H 2 O
For answers to tasks 20-22, use a separate sheet. First write down the task number (20, 21, 22), and then a detailed answer to it. Write your answers clearly and legibly.
Using the electron balance method, write the equation for the reaction
Na 2 SO 3 + KMnO 4 + KOH → Na 2 SO 4 + K 2 MnO 4 + H 2 0.
Determine the oxidizing agent and reducing agent.
Show answer
Na_2S^(+4)O_3+KMn^(+7)O_4+KOH\rightarrow Na_2S^(+6)O_4+H_2O
Mn^(+7)+\overline e=Mn^(+6)\;\;\;\vert\;\;\cdot\;2\;- recovery process
S^(+4)-2\overline e=S^(+6)\;\;\;\vert\;\;\cdot\;1\;- oxidation process
2Mn^(+7)\;+\;S^(+4)\;=\;2Mn^(+6)\;+\;S^(+6)
Mn +7 (KMn +7 O 4 due to Mn +7) - oxidizing agent S +4 (Na 2 S +4 O 3 due to S +4) - reducing agent Molecular equation
Na 2 SO 3 + 2KMnO 4 + 2KOH = Na 2 SO 4 + 2K 2 MnO 4 + H 2 O.
What volume of a 60% nitric acid solution with a density of 1.305 g/ml can be obtained using a nitrogen-containing catalytic oxidation product of 896 liters (N.S.) of ammonia?
Show answer
Reaction equations:
4NH 3 + 5O 2 \u003d 4NO + 6H 2 O 2NO + O 2 \u003d 2NO 2
4NO 2 + O 2 + 2H 2 O = 4HNO 3
NH3 ... → HNO3
2) Calculate the amount of ammonia substance: n \u003d V r / V m, n (NH 3) \u003d 896 / 22.4 \u003d 40 mol
3) Calculate the volume of HNO 3 solution:
a) according to the scheme for calculating n (HNO 3) \u003d n (NH 3) \u003d 40 mol
n = m in-va / M in-va,
M(HNO 3) = 63 g/mol; m (HNO 3) \u003d 40 63 \u003d 2520 g
b) ω \u003d m in-va / m p-pa, m p-pa \u003d m in-va / ω
m solution (HNO 3) \u003d 2520 / 0.6 \u003d 4200 g
V p-pa (HNO 3) \u003d 4200 / 1.305 \u003d 3218.4 ml ≈ 3.22 l.
Substances are given: CaCO 3, CuO, solutions of HNO 3, K 2 SO 4 NaOH, H 2 O 2. Using water and the necessary substances only from this list, get copper (II) hydroxide in two stages. Describe the signs of ongoing reactions. For an ion exchange reaction, write an abbreviated ionic equation.
Show answer
Experiment scheme
СuО → Cu(NO 3) 2 → Сu(OH) 2
1) CuO + 2HNO 3 \u003d Cu (NO 3) 2 + H 2 O
СuО + 2Н + = Сu 2+ + Н 2 O
Ion exchange reaction. Copper(II) oxide is a black substance that dissolves in nitric acid to form a blue solution.
2) Cu(NO 3) 2 + 2NaOH = Cu(OH) 2 ↓ + 2NaNO 3
Cu 2+ + 2OH - \u003d Cu (OH) 2
Ion exchange reaction. When a solution of copper(II) nitrate is added to a solution of sodium hydroxide, a blue precipitate is formed.
Option 15.
Task 3.
Chemical bond in hydrogen fluoride:
1. Covalent polar
2. Ionic
3. Covalent non-polar
4. Metallic
Explanation: Hydrogen fluoride - HF, is formed by two non-metals - fluorine and hydrogen, a covalent polar bond is formed between the atoms of two different non-metals.
The correct answer is 1.
Task 4.
The oxidation state of iron in compounds whose formulas are Fe2O3 and Fe(OH)2, respectively, are:
1. +3 and +3
2. +2 and +2
3. +3 and +2
4. +2 and +3
Explanation: we have two iron compounds - iron oxide (III), which means that the oxidation state of iron is +3, and iron (II) hydroxide - Fe (OH) 2, the oxidation state of iron is +2.
The correct answer is 3.
Task 5.
Oxides include each of two substances, the formulas of which are:
1. H2O2 and CuO
2. SO3 and Al2O3
3. OF2 and P2O3
4.PH3 and Li2O
Explanation: oxides are composed of metal or non-metal atoms and oxygen, that is, oxygen is in second place in the oxide. H2O2 is hydrogen peroxide, not an oxide.
Therefore, only the second option is suitable - sulfur oxide (VI) and aluminum oxide.
The correct answer is 2.
Task 6.
A sign of a reaction between potassium carbonate and hydrochloric acid is:
1. Color change
2. Precipitation
3. Gas evolution
4. Odor
Explanation: Let's write down the given reaction.
K2CO3 + 2HCl = 2KCl + H2CO3 (carbonic acid decomposes into H2O and CO2 in solution). Therefore, a sign of the reaction will be the release of carbon dioxide (bubbles).
The correct answer is 3.
Task 7.
Are the following statements about electrolytes correct?
A. Nitric and sulfuric acids are strong electrolytes.
B. Hydrogen sulfide in an aqueous solution completely decomposes into ions.
1. Only A is true
2. Only B is true
3. Both judgments are correct
4. Both judgments are wrong
Explanation: strong electrolytes are strong acids, alkalis (soluble bases), and salts, so A is true. And hydrogen sulfide flies out of the solution, since it is a gas and does not decompose into ions.
The correct answer is 1.
Task 8.
Reduced ionic equation
H (+) + OH (-) \u003d H2O
corresponds to interaction.
1. Sodium hydroxide and silicic acid
2. Potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid
3. Copper (II) hydroxide and sulfuric acid
4. Barium hydroxide and sulfuric acid
Explanation: such a reduced ionic equation means that all reactants and products are soluble. The first reaction is not suitable, since silicic acid is insoluble, in the third reaction
insoluble copper (II) hydroxide, and in the fourth - the resulting barium sulfate. Only the second reaction is suitable.
2KOH + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2H2O
(the correct answer can still be reached in the following way: this abbreviated ionic equation characterizes the neutralization reaction - the interaction of a base with an acid, which forms a salt and water)
The correct answer is 2.
Task 9.
At room temperature, a reaction is possible between:
1. Water and zinc
2. Water and sodium
3. Water and copper
4. Water and lead
Explanation: sodium is a very active alkali metal, it spontaneously reacts very violently with water, forming a soluble base - sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen is released.
2Na + 2H2O = H2 + 2NaOH
The correct answer is 2.
Task 10.
In the list of substances whose formulas are:
A. HNO3
B.KOH
B. SO3
G. H2O
D. K2O
E. CuSO4
interact with barium oxide:
2. AVE
3. AGD
4. VDE
Explanation: barium oxide - a basic oxide, has basic properties, which means it can only react with substances with acidic properties, such as
nitric acid (HNO3), sulfur oxide (VI) - SO3, and also with water to form barium hydroxide - Ba (OH) 2.
The correct answer is 1.
Task 11.
With each of the substances, the formulas of which are BaCl2, Cu (OH) 2, Fe, the solution will interact:
1. Hydrochloric acid
2. Sulfuric acid
3. Silicic acid
4. Concentrated nitric acid
Explanation: given - middle salt, amphoteric hydroxide and transition metal. Since barium chloride is given to us, we can assume that the desired substance is sulfuric acid (since the interaction of a salt containing barium and sulfuric acid is qualitative for sulfate ions - an insoluble salt is formed - barium sulfate).
Let's write down the reactions.
BaCl2 + H2SO4 = BaSO4(precipitate) + 2HCl
Cu(OH)2 + H2SO4 = CuSO4 + 2H2O (neutralization reaction)
Fe + H2SO4 = FeSO4 + H2 (gas)
The correct answer is 2.
Task 12.
Salt is not formed as a result of the reaction
1. Zn + H2SO4 =
2. Ca + Cl2 =
3. CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 =
4. Cu(NO3)2 =
Explanation: Let's add the given reactions.
1. Zn + H2SO4 = ZnSO4 (salt) + H2
2. Ca + Cl2 = CaCl2 (salt)
3. CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2(acid salt)
4. 2Cu(NO3)2 (t)= 2CuO(oxide) + 4NO2(oxide) + O2
Salt is not formed in the last reaction - the decomposition of copper (II) nitrate.
The correct answer is 4.
Task 13.
To obtain and collect gaseous ammonia from a mixture of ammonia chloride and calcium hydroxide, use the device shown in the figure.
Explanation: ammonia is lighter than air, so collect it in a test tube upside down.
Get ammonia in the reaction: 2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 = 2NH3 ^ + CaCl2 + 2H2O
When two solids (powders) are heated, a colorless gas with a pungent odor is released, which is collected in a test tube. The test tube with the initial substances must be placed horizontally.
The correct answer is 3.
Task 14.
Chlorine is a reducing agent in the reaction:
1. 2Cl2 + 2H2O = 4HCl + O2
2. 4HCl + MnO2 = MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
3. Cl2 + 2KI = 2KCl + I2
4. 2KClO3 + 3S = 2KCl + 3SO2
Explanation: we write down the change in the oxidation state of chlorine in the above reactions.
1. Cl2(0) +2e 2Cl(-1) - oxidant
2. 2Cl(-1) -2e Cl2(0) - reducing agent
3. Cl2(0) +2e 2Cl(-1) - oxidizer
4. Cl(+5) +6e Cl(-1) - oxidant
The correct answer is 2.
Task 15.
The mass fraction of phosphorus in sodium phosphate is:
1. 54%
2. 18%
3. 36%
4. 24%
Explanation: sodium phosphate - Na3PO4.
Ar(Na) = 23 g/mol x 3 atoms = 69 g/mol
Ar(P) = 31 g/mol
Ar(O) = 16 g/mol x 4 atoms = 64 g/mol
Mr(Na3PO4) = 69+31+64 = 164 g/mol
w(P) = 31/164 x 100% = 18%
The correct answer is 2.
Task 16.
Common to oxygen and fluorine is:
1. The presence of two electron layers in their atoms
2. Their formation of oxides with the general formula E2O7
3. Existence of simple substances corresponding to them in the form of diatomic molecules
4. Their formation of compounds in which they exhibit only a positive oxidation state
5. The value of their electronegativity is less than that of bromine
Explanation: both elements are in the second period, which means they have two electron layers. Oxygen does not have an oxide (it forms oxides itself). Both elements form diatomic molecules - simple substances - O2 and F2.
In compounds, they exhibit a negative oxidation state (in most compounds). Fluorine is the strongest non-metal.
The correct answer is 13.
Task 17.
Ethanol is characterized by the following statements
1. There is a double carbon-carbon bond in the molecule
2. The molecule contains two carbon atoms
3. At room temperature is a gaseous substance
4. Lit
5. Does not dissolve in water
Explanation: ethanol (ethyl alcohol) - C2H5OH - has a single bond between carbons (this is saturated alcohol), but it has two carbon atoms in the molecule,
at room temperature it is a liquid substance, burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water, dissolves in water without limit.
The correct answer is 24.
Task 18.
Match the two substances with a reagent that can be used to distinguish between these substances.
Substances
A. KBr(solution) and KCl(solution)
B. K2SO4(solution) and Al2(SO4)3(solution)
B. H2S(sol.) and HCl(sol.)
Reagent
1. Sodium hydroxide (solution)
2. Lead (II) nitrate
3. Chlorine water
4. Potassium chloride (solution)
Explanation: potassium chloride and potassium bromide are distinguishable with the help of chlorine water - chlorine displaces bromine from potassium bromide - we will see the appearance of a brown liquid - bromine.
2KBr + Cl2 = 2KCl + Br2
Potassium and aluminum sulfates are distinguishable with a solution of sodium hydroxide, the first reaction will not go, since all substances are soluble, and in the second reaction,
complex salt - sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate.
Solutions of hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen chloride are distinguished by lead nitrate. Let's write down the reactions.
H2S + Pb(NO3)2 = PbS(silver gray precipitate) + 2HNO3
2HCl + Pb (NO3) 2 \u003d 2HNO3 + PbCl2 (slightly soluble substance - transparent crystals)
The correct answer is 312.
Task 19.
Establish a correspondence between the name of the substance and the reagents with which this substance can interact.
Substance name
A. Crystalline silicon
B. Silicon (IV) oxide
B. Potassium silicate
Reagents
1. H2O, Zn
2. F2, Na
3. Na2CO3(crystal), Mg
4. CO2(sol.), H2CO3(sol.)
Explanation: crystalline silicon reacts with fluorine and sodium.
Si + 2F2 = SiF4 (combustion of silicon in a fluorine atmosphere)
Si + Na(t)= NaSi
Silicon (IV) oxide reacts with crystalline sodium carbonate and with magnesium.
SiO2 + Na2CO3 = Na2SiO3 + CO2
SiO2 + 2Mg = 2MgO + Si
The potassium silicate reacts with the precipitated carbon dioxide and the carbonic acid solution.
K2SiO3 + CO2 = K2CO3 + SiO2(precipitate)
K2SiO3 + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + H2SiO3 (precipitate)
The correct answer is 234.
Task 20.
Using the electronic balance method, arrange the coefficients in the reaction equation, the scheme of which
C + KNO3 = K2CO3 + CO2 + N2
Determine the oxidizing agent and reducing agent.
Explanation: carbon and nitrogen change their oxidation state.
Let's write the balance.
C(0) -4e C(+4) | - reducing agent
2N(+5) +10e N2(0) | - oxidizing agent
We set the coefficients.
5C + 4KNO3 = 2K2CO3 + 3CO2 + 2N2
