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Vladimir Vasilievich Mavrodin(February 21, 1908, Rylsk, Kursk province - November 20, 1987, Leningrad) - Soviet historian, professor at the Faculty of History of Leningrad State University.

Biography

Father, Vasily Konstantinovich (1856-1911) - border guard officer. Mother, Natalya Grigorievna (d. in 1929) - teacher.

He graduated from the historical department of the historical and linguistic faculty of the Leningrad State University, where he studied in 1926-1930, a student of B. D. Grekov. Then he was left at the graduate school of the Historical and Linguistic Institute (LILI), where he was greatly influenced by S. N. Valk, in 1933 he defended his Ph.D. and M. M. Tsvibak, M. N. Martynov and A. N. Malyshev also spoke), but since just at that time academic degrees ceased to be awarded, Mavrodin became a candidate of historical sciences only in 1938, when he was awarded degree.

V. V. Mavrodin's subsequent activity was connected with the Faculty of History of the Leningrad State University, where he worked from the moment of its foundation until the end of his life. From 1971 to 1971 (with interruptions) he was the dean of the faculty, headed the department of history of the USSR. One of the breaks was related to the war and evacuation: from 1944 V. V. Mavrodin headed the department of the Department of History of the USSR at the Faculty of History and Philology of Saratov University. Since 1940 - Doctor of Historical Sciences (the published monograph "Essays on the History of the Left-Bank Ukraine" was submitted for defense, scientific opponents - I. I. Yakovkin, V. I. Ravdonikas, B. D. Grekov).

Main scientific interests: the history of Ancient Russia, Russia in the 18th century (the reign of Peter I and the class struggle in the second half of the century), historiography.

Son - Mavrodin, Valentin Vladimirovich, historian. Vladimir Vasilyevich is buried in the cemetery of the city of Zelenogorsk.

Major writings

• Distortion by M.N. Pokrovsky of questions of the history of the formation of the Russian state // Uchenye zapiski / Leningrad. state un-t. - 1938. - V. 4, No. 19. - S. 163-185.
• On popular movements in the Galicia-Volyn principality of the XII-XIII centuries // Uchenye zapiski / Leningrad. state un-t. - 1939. - No. 48. - S. 3-15.
• Essays on the history of Left-bank Ukraine: (From ancient times to the second half of the XIV century). - L., 1940. 320 p. (Reprinted: St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2002. - 415 p. - (Russian Library). - ISBN 5-02-026834-8.)
• The struggle of the Russian people for the Neva banks. - L.: Gospolitizdat, 1944. - 56 p.
• A. A. Brusilov. - M .: Gospolitizdat, 1942. - 48 p.
• Formation of the Old Russian state. - L .: Leningrad Publishing House. un-ta, 1945. - 432 p.
• Ancient Russia: (The origin of the Russian people and the formation of the Kiev state). - M .: Gospolitizdat, 1946. - 311 p., L. ill.
• The beginning of navigation in Russia. - L .: Leningrad Publishing House. un-ta, 1949. -, 148 p. + l. kart.
• Mavrodin V.V., Boris Dmitrievich Grekov (1882-1953). - L .: Leningrad Publishing House. un-ta, 1968. - 23 p. - (Outstanding scientists of the Leningrad University).
• Mavrodin V.V., Froyanov I. Ya. V. I. Lenin and some problems of the history of Kievan Rus // Bulletin of the Leningrad University. - 1970. - No. 8.
• The formation of the Old Russian state and the formation of the Old Russian people. - M .: Higher School, 1971. - 192 p.
• Mavrodin V.V., Froyanov I. Ya. F. Engels and some issues of the evolution of communal land tenure in Russia in the 10th-12th centuries. // Soviet ethnography. - 1972. - No. 1.
• Russian participants in the Beniovsky rebellion and their voyage to Madagascar and Europe // Problems of national and general history. - L., 1973. - Issue. 2. - S. 103-110.
• Under the banner of the Peasants' War. - M.: Thought, 1974. - 151 p.
• Class struggle and socio-political thought in Russia in the 18th century (1773-1790): A course of lectures. - L .: Leningrad Publishing House. un-ta, 1975. - 214 p.
• Ezhov V. A. , Mavrodin V.V. Leningrad University during the Great Patriotic War. - L .: Leningrad Publishing House. un-ta, 1975. - 88 p., 8 sheets. ill.
• Mavrodin V.V., Valentin Pikul // Aurora. - 1978. - No. 3.
• Tmutarakan // Questions of history. - 1980. - No. 11.
• Mavrodin V.V., ISBN 5-288-00114-6.

Literature

• Genesis of feudalism in Russia in the works of V. V. Mavrodin / A. Ya. Degtyarev, I. V. Dubov, V. A. Ezhov, I. Ya. Froyanov // Genesis and development of feudalism in Russia. - L., 1983. - S. 3-13.
• Dvornichenko A. Yu. Vladimir Vasilyevich Mavrodin: Pages of life and creativity. - St. Petersburg. : Philol. fak. St. Petersburg State University, 2001. - 191 p. - (History of science, personalities). - ISBN 5-8465-0039-0.
• To the 100th anniversary of the birth of Vladimir Vasilyevich Mavrodin // Problems of Russian History: Sources, Historiography, Research. Sat. scientific articles. Rep. ed. M. V. Druzin. - St. Petersburg. ; K., Mn. , 2008. - P.7-56.
• Under the banner of the Peasants' War. V. V. MAVRODIN. - Publishing house "Thought", 1974.

Bibliography

• List of scientific works of VV Mavrodin / Comp. V. A. Petrova // Problems of the history of feudal Russia. - L., 1971. - S. 257-267.
• List of scientific works of V. V. Mavrodin (1971-1976) / Comp. V. A. Petrova // From the history of feudal Russia. - L., 1978. - S. 190-194.
• List of scientific works of V. V. Mavrodin (1977-1981) / Comp. A. Yu. Dvornichenko // Genesis and development of feudalism in Russia. - L., 1983. - S. 210-211.
• List of scientific works of V. V. Mavrodin (1982-1986) / Comp. Yu. V. Krivosheev // Genesis and development of feudalism in Russia. - L., 1987. - S. 224.

Links

• Melnikova D.“He was a creator…” // St. Petersburg University. - 2008. - No. 6/7.

Notes

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See what "Mavrodin, Vladimir Vasilyevich" is in other dictionaries:

- (1908 87) Russian historian, doctor of historical sciences, professor. Works on the history of Russia 11 18 centuries ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (1908 1987), historian, doctor of historical sciences (1940). Professor at Leningrad University. Works on the history of Russia in the XI-XVIII centuries. * * * MAVRODIN Vladimir Vasilyevich MAVRODIN Vladimir Vasilyevich (1908 87), Russian historian, doctor of historical ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Genus. 1908, mind. 1987. Historian, specialist in the history of Russia in the XI-XVIII centuries ... Big biographical encyclopedia

- (February 21, 1908 (19080221), Chisinau - November 20, 1987, Leningrad) - Soviet historian, professor at the Faculty of History of Leningrad State University. Contents 1 Biography 2 Main works ... Wikipedia

Mavrodin, Vladimir Vasilievich Vladimir Vasilievich Mavrodin Date of birth: February 21, 1908 (1908 02 21) Place of birth: Rylsk, Kursk region, Russian Empire Date of death: November 20, 1987 ... Wikipedia

Vladimir Vasilievich Mavrodin(February 21, 1908, Rylsk, Kursk province - November 20, 1987, Leningrad) - Soviet historian, specialist in the history of ancient Russian statehood and the ethnic history of the Russian people. Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor of the Faculty of History of Leningrad State University. Honored Scientist of the RSFSR (1968)

Biography

Father, Vasily Konstantinovich (1856-1911) - border guard officer. Mother, Natalya Grigorievna (d. in 1929) - teacher.

He graduated from the historical department of the Faculty of History and Linguistics of Leningrad State University, where he studied in 1926-1930, a student of B. D. Grekov. Then he was left at the graduate school of the Historical and Linguistic Institute (LILI), where he was greatly influenced by S. N. Valk, in 1933 he defended his Ph.D. and M. M. Tsvibak, M. N. Martynov and A. N. Malyshev also spoke), but since just at that time academic degrees ceased to be awarded, Mavrodin became a candidate of historical sciences only in 1938, when he was awarded degree.

In 1930-1937 he was a junior, then a senior researcher at the GAIMK.

V. V. Mavrodin's subsequent activity was connected with the Faculty of History of the Leningrad State University, where he worked from the moment of its foundation until the end of his life. From 1939 to 1971 (with interruptions) he was the dean of the faculty, headed the department of history of the USSR. One of the breaks was related to the war and evacuation: from 1943 to 1944, V. V. Mavrodin headed the Department of the History of the USSR at the Faculty of History and Philology of Saratov University. Since 1940 - Doctor of Historical Sciences (the published monograph "Essays on the History of the Left-Bank Ukraine" was presented for defense, scientific opponents - I. I. Yakovkin, V. I. Ravdonikas, B. D. Grekov).

In 1970, V. V. Mavrodin was nominated as a candidate for Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences in the Department of History, but was not elected.

Main scientific interests: the history of Ancient Russia, Russia in the 18th century (the reign of Peter I and the class struggle in the second half of the century), historiography.

He was buried in the Zelenogorsk cemetery.

Awards and titles

• Order of the Badge of Honor (02/21/1944)
• Honored Scientist of the RSFSR (1968)

Family

Son - Mavrodin, Valentin Vladimirovich, historian.

Major writings

Scientific and non-fiction books

• Baklanov N. B., Mavrodin V. V., Smirnov I. I. Tula and Kashira factories in the 17th century. - M.: OGIZ, 1934. - 160 p. - (Proceedings of the State Academy of the History of Material Culture named after N. Ya. Marr. Issue 98).
• Mavrodin VV Formation of the Russian national state. - L.: OGIZ. Sotsekgiz, 1939. - 196 p. - 30,000 copies.
• Mavrodin VV Essays on the history of the left-bank Ukraine: (From ancient times to the second half of the XIV century). - L., 1940. - 320 p.
  • Mavrodin VV Essays on the history of the left-bank Ukraine: (From ancient times to the second half of the XIV century). - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2002. - 416 p. - (Russian library). - 1000 copies. - ISBN 5-02-026834-8.
• Mavrodin V.V. Battle on the Ice. - L.; M.: OGIZ. Gospolitizdat, 1941. - 16 p. - 74,000 copies.
• Mavrodin VV Formation of the Russian national state. - L.: OGIZ. Gospolitizdat, 1941. - 208 p. - 30,000 copies.
• Mavrodin V. V. A. A. Brusilov. - M.: OGIZ. Gospolitizdat, 1942. - 48 p. - 30,000 copies.
• Mavrodin V. V. Dmitry Donskoy. - M.: OGIZ. Gospolitizdat, 1942. - 48 p. - (Our great ancestors). - 30,000 copies.
• Mavrodin V. V. The struggle of the Russian people for the Neva banks. - L.: Gospolitizdat, 1944. - 56 p. - 10,000 copies.
• Mavrodin VV Formation of the ancient Russian state. - L .: Publishing house Leningrad. un-ta, 1945. - 432 p. - 7000 copies.
• Mavrodin V. V. Peter I. - L .: Gospolitizdat, 1945. - 144 p. - 10,000 copies.
• Mavrodin VV Ancient Russia: (The origin of the Russian people and the formation of the Kiev state). - M.: OGIZ. Gospolitizdat, 1946. - 312, p. - 30,000 copies.
• Mavrodin VV Peter the Great. - M.: Young Guard, 1948. - 480 p. - (Life of remarkable people). - 45,000 copies.
• The beginning of navigation in Russia. - L .: Publishing house Leningrad. un-ta, 1949. -, 148 p. + l. kart.
• Mavrodin VV Formation of a single Russian state / Ed. ed. D. S. Likhachev. - L .: Publishing house Leningrad. un-ta, 1951. - 328 p. - 15,000 copies.
• Mavrodin V. V. Russian navigation on the southern seas (Black, Azov and Caspian from ancient times to the 16th century inclusive) / Hardcover by artist I. Rybchenko. - Simferopol: Krymizdat, 1955. - 180 p. - 5000 copies.
• Mavrodin V. V. Essays on the history of the USSR: Old Russian state. - M.: Uchpedgiz, 1956. - 264 p. - 30,000 copies.
• Mavrodin V. V., Sladkevich N. G., Shilov L. A. Leningrad University: (Brief essay). - L .: Publishing house Leningrad. un-ta, 1957. - 128 p. - 3570 copies.
• Popular uprisings in ancient Russia XI-XIII centuries. - M.: Sotsekgiz, 1961. - 118 p., L. kart.
• Class struggle and socio-political thought in Russia in the 18th century. (1725-1773): (Lecture course). - L .: Publishing house Leningrad. un-ta, 1964. - 194 p.
• Boris Dmitrievich Grekov (1882-1953). - L .: Publishing house Leningrad. un-ta, 1968. - 23 p. - (Outstanding scientists of the Leningrad University).
• Mavrodin V.V. Formation of the Old Russian State and the Formation of the Old Russian Nationality: Textbook. - M.: Higher School, 1971. - 192 p. - 11,000 copies.
• Mavrodin V. V. Under the banner of the Peasant War / Design by the artist B. Trofimov. - M.: Thought, 1974. - 152, p. - 25,000 copies.
• Mavrodin V.V. Class struggle and social and political thought in Russia in the 18th century (1773-1790): A course of lectures. - L .: Publishing House of Leningrad State University, 1975. - 216 p. - 4600 copies.
• Ezhov V. A., Mavrodin V. V. Leningrad University during the Great Patriotic War. - L .: Publishing House of Leningrad State University, 1975. - 88, p.
• Mavrodin V.V. Foundation of St. Petersburg. - L.: Lenizdat, 1978. - 232 p. - 25,000 copies.
  • . - 2nd ed. - L.: Lenizdat, 1983. - 208, p. - (Library of a young worker). - 100,000 copies.
• Mavrodin VV The origin of the Russian people. - L .: Publishing House of Leningrad State University, 1978. - 184 p. - 76,560 copies.
• Mavrodin V.V., Mavrodin Val. V. From the history of domestic weapons: Russian rifle. - L .: Publishing House of Leningrad State University, 1981. - 112 p.
  • . - 2nd ed. - L .: Publishing House of Leningrad State University, 1984. - 168 p. - 30,000 copies.
• Mavrodin V.V. The birth of a new Russia. - L .: Publishing House of Leningrad State University, 1988. - 536 p. - 30,000 copies. - ISBN 5-288-00114-6.
• Mavrodin V. V. Ancient Russia. - St. Petersburg: Russian world, 2009. - 392 p. - 1500 copies. - ISBN 978-5-904088-01-9.
• Mavrodin VV Ancient and medieval Russia. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2009. - 722 p. - (Russian library). - ISBN 978-5-02-026311-6.

The fall of the power of the Volhynians, defeated by the Avars, weakened the Eastern Slavs and led to the fact that the southern and eastern Russian tribes fell under the rule of the Khazars, semi-nomadic tribes of various origins, among which the tribes of Turkic origin played a dominant role.

In the 8th c. the Khazar state, the so-called Khazar Khaganate, was formed, occupying a vast territory from Transcaucasia in the south to Kama in the north, where its neighbor was the state of the Kama or Silver Bulgarians, the closest relatives of the Khazars, and from the Dnieper and Sozh in the west to the Transcaspian steppes in the east.

Relations between the Russian tribes and the Khazars were established a very long time ago. It is worth noting that they were the result of trade and cultural relations between the population of Eastern Europe and the East back in pre-Islamic times, in the 5th-6th centuries. n. era. These connections brought the Eastern Slavs into the Khazars.

In the "History of the Albanians" by Moses Utiets, there is a story about the attack of the Khazars on the cities of Tbilisi and Berdaa in Transcaucasia, and among the Khazars there were warriors who called fat "lard", and dishes "ball" or "skull" (shard), i.e. -Russian. It was in the 7th century.

Eastern writers Al-Baladur and Tabari tell about the campaign of Marwan (mid-8th century) against the Sakalibs, as Eastern writers of the Slavs (although not only them alone) usually call them, who lived “in the land of the Khazars”, “by the Slavic river”. They are echoed by Ibn-Al-Fakih, who reports that on the mountain Kabk (Caucasus) lives "a family of Sakalibs".

Was there a continuous Russian, Slavic population here, in the south? Of course not. In the southern, Caucasian

and the Volga regions of the Khazars, lived Russian merchants, combatants who inhabited the Khazar cities. Here, to the east, they were attracted by the prospect of trade and service in the army of the powerful Khazar Khagan. The power of the Khzar kagan extended to the tribes of the eastern regions no later than the 8th century. Our chronicle dates the conquest of part of the East Slavic tribes by the Khazars back to Gendar times.

These were the times when each tribe lived “individually” “and lived together with the ϲʙᴏ family and in their places, owning the family ϲʙᴏ them”, when the Russian tribes “had a volost” and each tribe had a “prince” ϲʙᴏё.

The chronicle dates the beginning of the establishment of Khazar dominion in the middle Dnieper region with the death of the legendary three brothers - the founders of Kyiv - Kyi, Shchek and Khoriv.

The folk legend about Kiev reflected the times of campaigns on the Danube and in the lands of Byzantium, and we are talking not about the memories of the campaigns of Oleg, Igor and Svyatoslav, the memory of which had not yet been erased in the minds of the people of Kiev from chronicle times, but about campaigns much earlier, campaigns pharmacy pores. And the chronicler is right, linking the establishment of Khazar dominion with the death of the legendary (and perhaps only semi-legendary) brothers - the founders of Kiev, since the event actually took place after the decline of the barbaric political formations of the Ants, i.e. after VII in "After these same years, after death, the brothers of this bysh were offended by the Drevly and the hoarfrost, and I was Kozare, sitting on these mountains and in the forests, and deciding Kozari: "Pay tribute to us."

The chronicle reports that before the "calling of the warags" "Kozari imach on It is worth saying - glade and Severekh and Vyatichi, imakh on a white wind from the smoke."

From the further story of the chronicler, we learn that the Radimichi also paid tribute to the Khazars “according to the shlyag”. The Khazars and Vyatichi paid tribute to the Khazars and Vyatichi according to the shlyag “from the ral”, although earlier the chronicle indicates the payment by the Vyatichi Khazars “by a white wind from the smoke”.

In this case, apparently, there was a replacement of the more ancient tribute with “veils” from each “smoke” by tribute with “schlyags”, i.e. money, “from the ral” (plow)

Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that the entire eastern group of Slavic tribes - the glades, northerners, Vyatichi and Radimichi were under

the power of the Khazar Khagan. The message of the chronicle is confirmed by a letter from the Khazar king Joseph to the learned Spanish Jew Hasdai-ibn-Shafrut, which lists the peoples living in the Volga-Oka basin, along the Don and on the left bank of the Dnieper and, apparently at different times, subject to the Khazars: “On the ϶ᴛᴏth river ( Itish) live many peoples - Burtas, Bulgars, Arisu (fidgeting), Tsarmis (Cheremis), Ventit (Vyatichi), Savar (northern, northerners), Slaviud (Slavs) .. ”Ibn says about the subordination of the Khazars to the Slavs and “neighboring peoples” -Fadlan.

In the letter of the Khazar king Joseph, northerners and Vyatichi are mentioned among the Khazar tributaries. As for the third tribe of the Eastern Slavs, subject to the kagan, namely the "Slaviun", it is interesting to note that Tsar Joseph lists these peoples, as if moving along the map from north to south and southeast. "Slaviun" he places to the south-east of the northerners, that is, somewhere on the Northern Donets or on the Don. And ϶ᴛᴏ is quite understandable - under the auspices of the kagan, who for a long time secured the steppes of Eastern Europe from invasions of nomads, the Russian population begins to descend further and further south along the Don. Following the ϶ᴛᴏth advancement of the Slavic population to the south, as will be discussed in more detail below, there will be Slavic settlements of the middle Don, such as the famous Borshchevsky settlement, where, by the way, evidence of the connection of a fairly large Slavic population with the East will be finds of Arab dirhems that came here in the result of trade with Khazaria, and the bones of a camel, a typical domestic animal of the East. These settlements were probably founded by the Vyatichi.

What was the nature of Khazar rule? The primitive Khazar state was limited solely to collecting tribute from the conquered Slavic tribes. And under the rule of the Khazar kagan “leading the clans of ϲʙᴏ them”, ruling in ϲʙᴏ her land, ϲʙᴏ them, and little regard for the Khazar ruler, “live each other with the family”, the tribe ϲʙᴏ them, lived and ruled the tribal princes, “bright and great princes”, “ every prince of the Russian land, ”surviving until the time of Oleg and Igor.

Involvement in trade with the East, in the campaigns and wars of the Khazar Khagans led the Slavs to the cities of Khazaria. And ϶ᴛᴏ was already in the VIII and at the very beginning of the IX

Even Ibn-Khordadbeg (mid-9th century) reports that "Ruses, and they belong to the Slavs ..." travel along the Don and Volga to the capital of Khazaria. In Itil, which lay at the mouth of the Volga, there was a whole region inhabited by the Slavs and called the “Slavic part”. It is worth noting that it was located in the eastern, commercial part of Itil, in the so-called Khazeran.

From the “Rus and Slavs”, according to Masudi (X century), the guard of the Khazar Khagan and his servants were formed “For the Slavs and Rus and other pagans” in Itil there was a special judge who judged “according to the law of reason” (Masudi)

In order to understand why entire regions of Itil were inhabited by Russ and Slavs and were called the “Slavic part”, in order to imagine why they occupied such a position in the life of Khazaria, it should be assumed that their appearance here refers to VIII, the beginning of IX c., i.e. by the time the Khazar dominion spread to the Oka, Dnieper and Podonsk lands, by the time when “the Slavs and all neighboring peoples are in his (kagan. - V. M) power” (Ibn-Fadlan)

Undoubtedly, the eastern, in particular the Khazar, influence on the East Slavic tribes. Khazar Judaism influenced Russia (the ruling elite of the Khazars professed the Jewish faith). This explains the transfer to Russian sources of the epic motif about the testing of faith by Vladimir, borrowed from a similar Khazar story, which we find in a letter from the Khazar king Joseph to the learned Spanish Jew Hasdai-ibn- Shaf-ruta, parables (about the blind man and the lame man), apocrypha (Solomon and Ki tovras), legends borrowed directly from the Talmud, Midrash and other Jewish literature, and, moreover, apparently not from books, but from oral communication. This was the contribution of the Khazar Jews and Jews who lived in Kyiv and communicated with the Russians to Russian creativity and "bookishness", a contribution that was the result of long-term ties with the Jewish Khazaria.

Eastern, Khazar influence is also reflected in the material culture of the eastern and southern groups of Russian tribes.
It is worth noting that the so-called "Saltovo-Mayatsky culture" is especially characteristic in ϶ᴛᴏm.

At the time of the folding of the Khazar state in the region of the forest-steppe zone near the Donets and Don, the

The process of nomads settling on the ground, which is confirmed by the famous settlements such as Saltovsky (on the Donets), Mayatsky (at the confluence of the Quiet Pine into the Don), Tsimlyansky (on the Lower Don), etc. These are small stone fortresses surrounded by rather extensive unfortified settlements. The creators of these settlements were the ancient Turkic Bulgarian tribes, whom our chronicle calls "yases".

This is confirmed by the exceptional similarity of the antiquities of the "Saltovo-Mayak culture" with the antiquities of the Danube BULGARIA of those times when the Turkic-Bulgarians had not yet managed to dissolve among the Slavic population. It is worth saying that the semi-patriarchal-semi-feudal, semi-sedentary-semi-nomadic nobility of these cities of the “Saltovo-Mayak culture” acted as conductors of Khazar rule.

From her midst, tuduns were appointed by the kagan - rulers who collected tribute in the surrounding Slavic lands. From here, from the cities of the “Saltovo-Mayak type”, products of the eastern type spread throughout the Russian lands, found everywhere and everywhere in the North Caucasus, the Lower Don, the Donets, and the Crimea.

"Yasi"-Bulgarians moved to the Russian lands and dissolved among the Slavic population in the same way as their fellow tribesmen on the Danube.

For example, in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign" Chernigov "were" boyars are mentioned: Tatras, Olbers, Shelbirs, Revugs, all bearing Turkic names, and ϶ᴛᴏ not late newcomers from the steppes already in annalistic times (they were called in Chernigov " kouyami"), and the ancient Turkic population, which has long settled in Russia. About ϶ᴛᴏm, the ancient Turkic term “reality” itself, which has long been preserved in the Danube BULGARIA, speaks of ϶ᴛᴏ. From here, from the cities of the "yas" along the Don and Donets, they went north, to the Slavic lands (Kharkov, It is worth saying - Poltava, Sumy, Kursk, Chernigov, Voronezh regions), goods, handicrafts, skills of handicraft training, samples of art, the beginnings of a specific, eastern, Khazar culture.

From here, from the depths of the Khazar world, Russia borrows the name "khakan" or "kagan" to designate a prince, a sovereign. The Russian ambassadors in the Bertin Annals call the ϲʙᴏ his ruler khagan, the Russ call the ϲʙᴏ his sovereign according to Ibn-Dasta (Ibn-Rost) and the Persian anonym of the 10th century khagan (khakan). Vladimir and Yaroslav are called Kagan “Praise” of Metropolitan Hilarion, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, inscriptions on the frescoes of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. And quite understandable. It is worth saying that for the ancient Russians, the kagan was the personification of the highest state power. The idea of ​​϶ᴛᴏ was formed back in the days of the dominion, strength and power of the Khazar Khaganate, when the kagan seemed to be subject to him by the Slavs, but ϶ᴛᴏ actually was, the supreme ruler. That is why, when the Slavs of the middle Dnieper region freed themselves from Khazar domination and became independent, they named their sovereign as their recent ruler and the personification of the highest power on earth, the kagan, was called. In the squads of the kagan, living in his capital, trading, making campaigns through the Khazars, fighting together with the Khazars and against them, paying tribute to the kagan “from the mouth” and “from the smoke”, the ancient Russians used to look at the kagan as the supreme overlord.

But it would be wrong to note only the influence of the East (Khazars, Bulgarians and other Japhetic, Iranian and Turkic tribes) on the East Slavic world. In the material and spiritual culture of the peoples of Khazaria, we see a significant Slavic, Russian influence. Not! by chance, many eastern sources call the Khan of the Kama Bulgarians the “king of the Slavs”, the Bulgarians themselves are Slavs, and their city Bulgars is the city of the Slavs. No wonder Shems-ed-din-Limeshki reports that the Bulgarian pilgrims who went to Baghdad and Mecca, when asked who they were, answered: - “we are Bulgarians, and Bulgarians are a mixture of Turks and Slavs” In the material culture of the Kama Bulgarians, in traces of Slavic influence are clearly visible in their language. Al-Bekri reports that a number of peoples of the north (north in relation to the Arab countries), the peoples of the Volga region, incl. Khazars, "speak Slavic because they have mixed with them."

This is also confirmed by Konstantin Porphyrogenitus, who reports that the Hungarians call their leaders in Russian “governors”, and the Pechenegs use the Russian word “law”

All of the above suggests that the Slavic language was its kind of inter-tribal language for the peoples of the Danube, Dnieper, Volga and Kama,

Fakhr-ad-din-Mubarak-shah reports that "the Khazars have a letter borrowed from the Russians ... And they write from left to right and the letters do not connect with each other, and there are no more than twenty-one letters." This letter was seen by a Russ in Chersonese Constantine the Philosopher (Cyril) during his trip to Khazaria in the middle of the 9th century.

Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that the Khazar writing is rooted in its origin in the ancient Russian, Slavic writing, and ϶ᴛᴏ testifies to the great role of the Slavs in the life of the peoples of Khazaria.

The Khazars were not “images”, and the dominion of the Khazar Khagan differed from the tyranny of the Avar Khan. Otherwise, people's memory would mark a new yoke, would remember those who imposed it on the Russian tribes. But ϶ᴛᴏ did not happen and could not happen. Even if we assume, and ϶ᴛᴏ it is quite possible that some of the

owners of castle yards acted as tuduns of the Khazar kagan, who collected tribute for the kagan from neighboring Slavic tribes according to the “schlyag” or “white wind”, “from the smoke” or “from the ral”, then, given the small amount of tribute, we can consider that such tributary relations, while maintaining inviolable the life of the Slavs and their tribal associations, their economy, their tribal nobility, could not create the glory for the Khazars in Russia, which the Avars deservedly used. In the history of the Russian people ϶ᴛᴏt segment of his historical path, which he passed together with other peoples of the Volga, Kama, Don and Ciscaucasia regions as part of the Khazar state, played a big role.

And what, if not given deep economic, political, cultural and linguistic ties, connections, the foundation of which was laid back in the time of the Khazar Khaganate, explains the Russian-Caucasian relations of the X-XIII centuries, marriage ties and political relations of the Russian and Caucasian states and wide connections of the Caucasian world with Russian in the field of language and epic, music and fine arts, architecture and crafts.

It is no coincidence that the Russian legend about Kiy, Schek and Khoriv and their sister Lybed, the founders of the city in the land of the glades, fell into the Armenian epic and resulted in the legend of the three brothers and their sister Swan, who founded the city in the land

Gradually, the power of the Khazars in the middle Dnieper region is weakening. The Magyars took the stage. Their "hordes" swept through the steppes of Eastern Europe like a whirlwind. It is important to note that dressed in animal skins, undersized, with three pigtails on a shaved head, on ϲʙᴏ their small, shaggy and hardy horses, the Hungarians ϲʙᴏ their appearance, their swiftness in battle, cruelty and militancy instilled fear in the peoples they met on the way of their advance to the south and west.

Late 20s or early 30s. 9th century Magyars appear in Lebedia, a country lying somewhere between the Don and the Dnieper in the Black Sea steppes. In those days, the Hungarians were subordinate to the Khazars. The Magyars did not stay long in Lebedia, and three years later, under the pressure of the nomadic Turkic tribes - the Pechenegs - they moved to the area between the Dnieper and the Danube, the so-called Atelkuzu. In Atelkuzu, they settled for a longer period, and from here they carried out ϲʙᴏ and predatory raids in order to capture booty and captive slaves in the lands of the Eastern Slavs. Ibn-Roste reports: "The Magyars dominate all neighboring Slavs, impose heavy tributes on them and treat them like prisoners of war (i.e., slaves)." The captured Slavs were sold by the Hungarians into slavery to the Greeks.

But the raids of the Hungarians on the Slavs were far from "priming" the Avars. The people's memory has left us no memories of Hungarian rule. Our chronicle has preserved only one mention of the Ugrians.

“Idosha Ugri past Kyiv with a mountain, now calling Ugorskoye, and having come to the Dnieper, we have stacked vezhami, besha walking like this It’s worth saying - Polovtsy. Having come from the east and rushing through the great mountains, even called the Eel-skia mountains ... "

“According to the same (ex. - V. M.) Pechenesi came; packs of idosh Eels of Chernia past Kyiv, later at Olz.

But at the time of the chronicler in Russia, the Ugrians were already thoroughly forgotten, and the messages of the chronicle are inconsistent and vague.

From Atelkuzu, the Hungarians crossed the Carpathians, having occupied Pannonia (modern Hungary) and leaving behind his stay in Russia exclusively "Ugric" near Kiev and "Ugrian" - warriors of the Kiev princes.

In the 30s. 9th century in the Don steppes, in Lebedia, and then in the steppes of the Dnieper region, the Pechenegs appear.

The invasion of the nomads could not but affect the connection between the Dnieper and the Khazars. The power of the Khazar Khagan is weakening.

A vague recollection of the termination of the tributary relations of the Polyans to the Khazar Khagan was reflected in the chronicler's story about how the Polyans refused to pay tribute to the Khazar Khagan and instead of tribute sent a sword to the Khazars, which served as a harbinger of the liberation of the Polyans from the Khazar dominion.

By the time of the chronicler ϶ᴛᴏ the event took the form of a legend, but it was not a legend itself.

The chronicle story reflected in an epic form a real historical fact - the liberation of the middle Dnieper region, the land of the meadows, “It is worth saying - the fields”, “even now calling Russia” from the power of the Khazar Khagan. When did ϶ᴛᴏ happen?

It is worth saying - we believe that on the verge of the VIII and IX centuries.

The times of Khazar rule in Russia are over.

The Khazar Khaganate served as a link between

Russia and the East, a "window to the East" for Russia, a way

contributed to its rapprochement with the East and the perception of Russia

some elements of the high culture of countries and peoples

East. And in ϶ᴛᴏm its positive significance in history

ancient Russia.

But over time, as the productive forces of Russia grow, as new, more advanced forms of the political life of the ancient Russian tribes develop, as their culture grows and develops, their craving for independence, the Khazar Khaganate, weakened and undermined by the nomads, becomes an obstacle to further the growth of Russia, on the vast expanses of which the ancient Russian state is being formed. The Khazar dominion from the stimulus of the development of Russia becomes its fetters. Under the rule of the Khazar Khagan, new forces are maturing, which should lead to the creation of an independent Russian statehood, ensuring the independence of the Russian people and the development of their culture. Khazar dominion was to fall and fell under the blows of Russian swords, which gave rise to the creation of a folk legend recorded by the chronicler about the Russian sword and the Khazar saber. And on the ruins of the Khazar Khaganate a powerful Russian state is being created - Kievan Rus, direct

heiress of the power of the kagan, spreading ϲʙᴏ and possessions on the lands of Khazaria, on the lands of the Yases and Obes (Abkhazians), Kasogs (Circassians) and Khazars, to Korcheva (Kerch) and Tmutarakan and retained traces of the former commonality of the political life of Russian tribes for a long time and the Khazars.

With the formulation of the ϶ᴛᴏth question, we enter the field of the history of the formation of the ancient Russian state.

First half of the ninth century In the vast expanses of Eastern Europe, among forests and swamps, in the forests and along the banks of rivers, at the very edge of forests, on the border with the steppe and in the far north, off the coast of Ilmen, in the Carpathian Mountains and along the Oka, settlements of Russian tribes are spread.

Vast lands were occupied by the “Slovenian language in Russia”. And everywhere “ϲʙᴏe princeling”, everywhere ϲʙᴏ and “bright and great princes”, everywhere ϲʙᴏё “any prince”: “in It is worth saying - fields” prince “ϲʙᴏе”, “in Trees ϲʙᴏе, and Dregovichi ϲʙᴏе, and Slovenia ϲʙᴏе in Novgorod, and the other is worth saying - the canvas, which is worth saying - the Polotsk people.

Tribal princes are surrounded by "the best", "deliberate men", "old" or "deliberate child". These princes "hold" the ϲʙᴏyu land, ϲʙᴏё tribal reign.

It is worth noting that they rely on the tribal nobility, are generated by it, are closely connected with the council of tribal elders - “the best husbands”, with the tribal gathering, on the basis of the “sdu-masha”, they resolved all issues of the “land”. And so "possessing the skin of the genus ϲʙᴏim." The tribal principalities had a different character. It is important to note that some of them ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ belonged to tribal lands (Drevlyans, Radimichi, Vyatichi), others were complex intertribal political associations (Volynians) or were created on part of the territory of a given tribe (Polochans)

So, “Slovenes had a volost, but Krivitsi ϲʙᴏyu” and new lands-volosts more and more acquired not a tribal, but a territorial-political character. Along with the disintegration of primitive tribal relations, there was a disintegration of tribal territories and intertribal barbarian political formations were formed.

The era of the decomposition of the tribal system, the era of barbarism is characterized by the creation in Russia, as in many other countries, of a special military organization in the hands of the barbarian nobility. This organization was the so-called "thousandth" organization. The “howl” of ancient Russian “lands” and “volosts” united into tens, hundreds and thousands, which were headed by tenth, sot and thousand.

Evidence of the ancient origin of the thousandth military organization, a relic of the times when the army of ancient Russia, or rather, its individual lands, was an “armed people”, which is so characteristic of barbarism, is the great importance of the thousandth in Kievan Rus of the 9th-12th centuries, when significant events and separate periods of time were named not by the names of the princes, but by the names of the thousands, who played an exceptional role in the political life of the Dnieper Rus.
It is worth noting that this system was especially developed in the land of the glades, in Russia itself, on the territory of the middle Dnieper region, where each city had ϲʙᴏth “thousand” and itself organized ϲʙᴏё army.

"Thousands" existed in Kyiv, Vyshgorod, Belgorod, Snovsk near Chernigov, etc.

With the passage of time, as the lands and power are “reigned”, the thousandth organization takes on a different character. Thousands and sots acquire administrative, financial and judicial functions, hundreds themselves turn into organizations of merchants, urban (Novgorod) or dependent rural people (Galych, Volyn), and thousands evolve towards expanding their military functions. This is how the ancient military organization with a thousand members “princes” and transforms.

But everything ϶ᴛᴏ happened later, in the 11th-12th-13th centuries, and in the 9th century, at the time we are considering, the thousandth military organization was still strong, and the soldiers included in it were the main military force of the Russian lands.

The main one, but not the only one, since along with it a new military organization was born - the princely, retinue.

It should be noted that the term "team", in ancient times denoting any commonwealth, partnership, union, community, now acquires a different meaning and a more specific connotation and begins to mean princely soldiers and employees, princely "husbands".

Vigilantes surround the ancient Russian "great and bright" princes, live with them under the same roof, filling their chambers and sharing all their interests. The prince consults with them on issues of war and peace, organizing campaigns, collecting tribute, court, and administrative management. Together with them, he makes laws, decrees, decisions. It is worth noting that they help the prince manage his house, yard, household, travel around the land on his behalf, creating court and reprisal, collecting tribute, “setting” the land, “chopping” cities, convening soldiers, following the princely economy, for " cornfields” and “withdrawals”, “catches” and “overhang”, behind villages and servants. It is worth noting that they are also sent as “slams” (ambassadors) of the prince to other countries, to other rulers, “stay” there and trade in princely goods, which he collected during a polyud or as a result of a successful trip to a “foreign land”, they conclude from contracts in his name and, equipped with princely powers (later formalized in letters), conduct diplomatic negotiations.

The squad is divided into three groups. In the first place is the “senior” squad, “bright boyars”, who have grown out of “the best husbands”, “old” or “deliberate child”. It is worth noting that they have ϲʙᴏё economy, ϲʙᴏy yard, servants, ϲʙᴏ their combatants - "youths". It is worth noting that they are elders, and they are entrusted with the most important functions of princely administration. The younger squad (“children”, “stepsons”, “lads”, “young”) lives at the court of the prince, serves his house, yard, household, acting as servants. The prince shares with her part of their income from tribute collections, court fines, and part of the spoils of war. The prince supplies her with "weapons and ports", "liars" and write, housing and "patterns", in short - everything. From her midst come the servants of the prince, his bodyguards, junior officials, junior agents of the prince's administration. By the way, this part of the prince's retinue merges with the prince's "fire" - the court, with "children and households", with heavenly servants - the servants.

And, finally, the third group consists of "warriors", "husbands of the slave." These were warriors in the broadest sense of the word, recruited from the people, a relic of an ancient time, when armed people went to war and defended their own land or conquered someone else's. These "men" of the "ancient princes" collected "a lot of property", "warring

country". The farther into the depths of time, the more important were the “men of the brave”, who constituted the main combat contingent of the personal military forces of the prince. It is worth noting that they came out of the people and were closely connected with him. Reflecting the era of military democracy, when the armed people appeared on the arena of history, over time, in the 11th-12th centuries, they lost their significance and gave way to clearly defined social, political groupings, “older”, “front” and “younger” squad. “Men” warriors either were part of the “front” squad, or were absorbed by the “younger”, or fell into a subordinate position to both of them, again merging with the people, with the urban population, acting as “warriors” of urban militias - "regiments", and a gaping abyss grew between them and the prince. But in those days, at the dawn of the Russian state, they played a big role and constituted almost the main force of the princely squads. They got into the composition of the princely squads long ago, from the end of the 8th - beginning of the 9th century, along with the growth of princely power, the strengthening of the influence of the princes, and their path to the princely squad ran through almost a thousand-strong organization. And if the well-known, most of the city’s warriors made up the city’s “regiment” headed by the thousandth, then the “volost” is the land, and the city itself, part of their fighting forces, had to yield to the prince, whose wealth, influence and power grew all the time, causing a natural craving among the rank and file "warriors", armed "simple children" of cities and "rural people", still independent, who had a personal ϲʙᴏ body, to the prince, their desire to join the ranks of the prince's warriors, which promised both "weapons" and "ports", and silver "liars", wealth, honor and glory.

It is worth noting - they are barbarians. War becomes a function of people's life, the only occupation worthy of men. Robbery of neighbors and war become not only a means of profit, but also a source of their livelihood

So, along with the old, thousandth, there will be a new, retinue, princely military organization.

The development of the military forces of Russia by the end of the VIII and the beginning of the IX century. it was, on the one hand, an expression of the highest flourishing of barbarism; Russia stood on the edge of civilization, at the threshold of feudal society, at the origins of the state,

and new forces that manifested themselves in the historical development of the Slavs of the Middle Dnieper region and other regions of Russia, creating phenomena reminiscent of the main characteristic features of the Middle Dnieper region of Antic times (barbarian nobility, conquests, intertribal political associations), act in a new, more perfect, stadially higher quality more intensely and rapidly, and over an incomparably wider area.

It should not be forgotten that the barbarism of the Antic tribes differed from the barbarism of the Russian tribes proper, primarily in that the latter was more perfect, the elements of the classes were more developed in it, which was explained, firstly, to a certain extent, by the preparation of all these phenomena in the previous , Antian era, and centuries of subsequent historical evolution of ancient Russian society, and, secondly, an incomparably larger territory, on which the process of creating a barbarian, and subsequently, in a short time, feudal society and state was going on. Do not forget that the barbarian society of the Ant tribes was created on the territory of the middle Dnieper region and in the areas adjacent to it from the west and mainly from the south-west; the barbarian society of Russian tribes, the forerunner of the feudal Kievan Rus of the Yaroslavichs and Vladimir Monomakh, developed over a vast territory from Ladoga to Ros, from the Oka to the Carpathians and had not one, but a number of political centers. / On the other hand, ϶ᴛᴏ the development of the military forces of Russia on

edges of the 8th and 9th centuries. could not help but pour out into a flurry

Russian campaigns and conquests, just as the birth of classes, characteristic of the barbarian world, could not but give rise to political formations of the type of barbarian states. And they were not slow to arise

The first performance of mighty Russia on the arena of world history was the attack of the Rus on Sourozh "The Life of Stefan Surozh" tells about the attack of the Novgorod prince Bravlin on the Crimea. Bravlin "capture" the whole earth from Khersones (Korsun) to Kerch and by storm,

“Having broken the iron gates by force,” Surozh took. It was

at the end of the 8th or at the very beginning of the 9th century.

In 813, the Russians attacked the island of Eghina. In the first

third of the ninth century Russians make a trip to the city of Amastrida (on the southern coast of the Black Sea, near Sinop) The impression made by these campaigns of Russian squads against Byzantium was enormous.

They learned about Russia, they started talking about it, they began to respect its weapons, they were forced to reckon with it. Russia was spoken about not only in Byzantium, but it was also well known in the East. In the 40s. 9th century Ibn-Khordadbeg writes as about something ordinary, long-established, about “the path of the Rus merchants, and they belong to the Slavs”, along the Black Sea to Byzantium (“Rum”), along the Don and Volga to Khazaria and further to the Caspian. In ϶ᴛᴏ at the same time, they learned about Russia in the West. And ϶ᴛᴏ happened because Russia is not only a “wild and rude” people, as the frightened “Romans” (Byzantines) characterize it, who were ready to reward militant Russia with any monstrous features, but also the people who create ϲʙᴏё, albeit still barbaric, primitive, but still a ϲʙᴏё state, and therefore resorting to diplomatic negotiations and agreements.

And it is precisely in this connection that the first mention of the state of the Russian people, dating back to the 30s of the 9th century, stands. On May 18, 839, in distant Ingelheim in Germany, Emperor Louis the Pious received the ambassadors of the Byzantine Emperor Theophilus. Together with them, the ambassadors of the "people of Ros" arrived in Ingelheim, the ruler of which was called "Kagan". Theophilus asked Louis to give them the opportunity to return to the ϲʙᴏyu country, since the paths along which they arrived in Byzantium were occupied by "inhuman and wild tribes."

This is how the Western European Vertinsky annals (chronicles) report the appearance of “certain people” from the “people of Ros” How did the dew data get into Ingelheim? The beginning of the 30s was marked by the appearance in the steppes of powerful and predatory nomads - the Pechenegs._ The Pecheneg danger worried both Khazaria and Russia. The Khazar Khagan sent ambassadors to Byzantium with a request to send engineers to build a fortress. And soon Byzantine engineers built the Sarkel fortress for the Khazars, in Russian Belaya Vezha (near the village of Tsymlyanskaya on the Lower Don)

at the same time, another kagan, the “kagan” of the “people of Ros”, about whom the Bertin annals speak, sent, in turn, ambassadors to Byzantium to conclude an agreement with the empire on a joint struggle against the Pechenegs.

The management of the Pechenegs in the steppes disrupted the trade relations of Byzantium with Russia, and, in addition, the Pechenegs could threaten the empire itself, which happened later. This explains the friendly welcome given to the Russian ambassadors in Byzantium, and the care of them by Emperor Theophilus.

The Russians arrived in Constantinople when the Pechenegs were just approaching the Dnieper. While they were negotiating, the nomadic hordes reached the Dnieper and cut the Dnieper route connecting the Middle Dnieper state of the Russian kagan with Byzantium.

For some reason, the Russians, the ambassadors, together with the Byzantines, had to go to Germany and try to get from there to the country by a roundabout way.

It is worth noting that they were diplomatic representatives of his sovereign, who, as mentioned earlier, according to the old custom, was called "kagan". Russian Khaganate - ϶ᴛᴏ the first major state formation of ancient Russia. It is worth noting that it conducts independent diplomatic negotiations, sends their ambassadors, concludes alliances, and organizes the defense of their borders.

But the Russian Khaganate in the middle Dnieper region is not the only ancient Russian state formation that preceded the Kievan state.

Arab writers Al-Jaigani (end of the 9th century), and after him Al-Istakhri, Al-Balkhi, Ibn-Khaukal and others, speak of three centers of Russia: Kuyava (Kuiab), Slavia and Artania (Arte, Tania, Artsania )

In Kuyava it is easy to see Kyiv, the middle Dnieper region, in Slavia - the region of the Ilmenian Slovenes. As for Artania, it lies somewhere in the south or southeast, and many researchers place it on Taman or in the Crimea.

Consequently, before us, pre-chronic Russia appears as a country with three political associations: northwestern Slavnya, southern Dnieper Kuya-voi and southern or southeastern Artania. Note that each of these pre-state political entities,

according to information reported by Arabic and Persian sources, he has his "king" and conducts an independent policy.

The chronicle also preserved the mention of the division of the east

many Slavs according to their political destinies into two groups

py: northwest and southeast.

The Tale of Bygone Years reports: “Imakh is a tribute. Do not forget that the Varangians from overseas are on Chudi and Slovenes, on Mary on All and on Krivichi; about Kozari imach on It is worth saying - glades, and in Severekh and Vyatichi ... ".

These two groups of tribes, ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ, shelter the Slavic and Kuyavian Arabs.

Slovene, Krivichi, Chud, Merya and the whole make up one political association - the northwestern one. In it, Ilmen Slovenes are of paramount importance. Hence the name of the country among the Arabs - "Slavia". By the way, this group of Slavic and Finnish tribes fell under the rule of the Varangians and paid tribute to them for the time being. This is, so to speak, the “Varangian group”, Varangian not by the cultural role of the Varangians, but by their connections with Do not forget that the Varangian sea, Bahr-Do not forget that the Varangian Arabs, with Do not forget that the Varangian West, by the fight against the Varangians, which united, as we will see later, all these Slavic and Finnish tribes into a political union, the first primitive semi-state formation on the banks of the Volkhov and Ilmen, near Lake Ladoga and on the coast of the Gulf of Finland.

The second political formation is made up of the meadows, together with the northerners, Radimichi and Vyatichi, who were part of the "Khazar group" of Slavs.

This is the southeastern association of Slavic tribes. Once they were connected by a common subordination to the Khazar kagan, later - the fight against the Khazars and the release from the power of the kagan. In the northwest, the "violence of deyakhu" is the Varangians, in the southeast - the Khazars. But when both Ilmenskaya Rus and Dnieper Rus accumulated strength, they threw off the dominion of the "finders" from the lower reaches of the Volga and from gloomy Scandinavia. This is how the Tale of Bygone Years reflected the existence of “Slavia” and “Kuyavia”, this is how “first two states arose: Kiev and Novgorod” (K.. Marx), and only later their history was closely intertwined, only later they merged into the Kievan state.

When and how were tributary relations established?

Vyansk and Finnish tribes of the Ilmenye and Ladoga area in relation to the Varangians? The harsh nature of their homeland - Scandinavia, the rapid growth of the population with limited resources of the country, the growth of centralization and the strengthening of royal power forced the disgruntled kings to gather Viking troops and rush to travel and campaigns for wealth, booty, land and power.

In the first half of the ninth century they appeared in "Gardarik", "Country of cities", as the Normans called Russia, and tried to make Ladoga - Aldeigoburg of the Scandinavian sagas - their stronghold. Here, among the local population - Karelians, Vodi, Slovenes, Vepsians ("people") - the first "finders" - the Varangians - appeared. These were warriors and robbers, robber merchants, hunters for furs and live goods, Arab dirhems, oriental jewelry, for the riches of the legendary Biarmia (Perm). It is worth noting that they broke far to the south and east to the Bulgars, the fabulously rich "Serkland" ( Itil) and the Caspian. In the north, they went as far as Biarmia, and their boats plied the White Sea. In the west, the famous city of Birka was the center of their trade.

Robbing, killing, enslaving, trading, imposing tribute, they swept through the lands of the Slavic and Finnish tribes like a storm.

They were more like robbers than merchants, more like enemies than rulers. And the absence of Scandinavian things of that time in the finds in Eastern Europe dating back to the 9th century suggests that the Scandinavian Vikings came here not for trade, but for robbery. Not without reason in Scandinavia, especially in Sweden, a huge number of oriental coins and things of the 8th-9th centuries were found.

Thus, the greedy and warlike Scandinavian “seekers of glory and prey” (K. Marx) began to break through the famous “eastern” or “Varangian road” to the Volga, and then to the Dnieper

Here is the period of the Norman raids and was reflected in the chronicler's story about how the Varangians "imali" tribute from the Slovenes, Krivichi, Chud, Mary and Vesi. But the Slavic and Finnish population of Gardarik was not going to endure the "violence" of the Varangians and their robbery in their native land.

It must be assumed that by the end of the first and by the beginning of the second half of the ninth century. the union of the tribes of the north-west, headed by the Slovenes, in whose land Ladoga, Novgorod and Staraya Russa already stood, as well as. in the land of their Krivichi neighbors

/images/5/905_image014.gif">the walls of Pskov and Izborsk have already risen, grown into a serious political force. Many Finnish tribes in a joint struggle against the Varangian robbers recognized the leading role of numerous and strong Slovenians (chud, merya, all), others already they simply began to merge with them (vod), losing both ϲʙᴏ and tribal names and more and more often speaking under the common name for all Finns - “chud". This took place primarily in the areas of ancient Slovene colonization, near Novgorod itself. They fell under the influence of Slovenes and neighboring Krivichi, the Pskov-Izborsk branch of the numerous Krivichi tribe.

The time of existence of individual tribal "volosts" receded into the realm of legends. A powerful tribal union was formed. The tribes that were part of it took up arms "and stasha Slovene and Krivitsi and Merya and Chud on Do not forget that the Varangians, and I drove out across the sea, and began to own myself and set up cities ...".

From this moment on, the very role of the Normans in Russia changes. These are no longer robbers seeking glory and prey, rapist warriors, robber merchants. Normans in Russia at the end of the 9th-10th centuries. they act as merchants, as evidenced by the abundance of imported Scandinavian things, since now they went to Gardarik not to rob (there was no longer any talk of a repetition of what had happened before, there could no longer be any talk of "violence" and tribute), but to trade. Trade in buckles and swords, in the latter case in the literal and figurative sense, when the Varangian offered as a commodity the ϲʙᴏth combat "Frankish" sword, and in addition to it ϲʙᴏu military prowess, ϲʙᴏth experience of the world warrior-tramp, ϲʙᴏyu devotion to the one who pays more .

At the end of the IX-X centuries. the Normans in Russia act as "Varangian" merchants trading with the East, West and Constantinople (Miklagard) and supplying goods of foreign origin1 to all countries of the East, South and West and, above all, Gardarik itself. It is worth noting that they act as mercenary warriors - “Varangians”, and in their ϶ᴛᴏm ϲʙᴏ capacity and under this name, as mercenaries serving under an agreement in Russia, in Gardarik, or in Byzantium, they act both in Russian and in Byzantine and Scandinavian sources.

Some Scandinavian leaders (jarls) are more successful and manage to seize power ϲʙᴏi.

hands in individual cities of Russia, as ϶ᴛᴏ happened in Polotsk, where the Varangian Rogvolod settled. It is important to know that most of the Norman Vikings acted as hired combatants of Russian tribal princes or the Russian kagan, together with other princely warriors or together with other princely “mozhes”, performing various assignments as “guests” - merchants and “words ”(ambassadors) of the prince, as noted by the Bertin annals, which indicated that the ambassadors of the kagan of the “people of Ros” were from the Swedes. Note that now the "finders" - Varangians had to play a different role. Wealth and power were with the local Russian nobility, who absorbed the top of the Finnish tribes in the north-west into the ϲʙᴏth composition. It is worth noting that it was she who invited the Varangian mercenary squads to protect their cities and lands, to protect trade routes, to protect, often, from the same Varangian mercenaries of the neighboring "principality" or "volost" or robber Norman freemen. In their familiar, socially related, environment, the Normans readily and quickly dissolved. Marrying Russians, these Scandinavian warriors irrevocably landed on Russian soil and were often Russified already in the second generation.

In the chapter "The Kyiv period in the history of the Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe" we will dwell in more detail on the role of the Varangians in the history of ancient Russia, but for now we will limit ourselves to the conclusion that from the middle of the 9th century. the Varangian freemen irrevocably enters the service of the Russian semi-patriarchal-semi-feudal nobility - the "great" and "bright" princes, although it tries, more than once, to become the leading force and seize power in ϲʙᴏ and hands in the cities of Russia.

"Slavia" turned out to be strong enough to force the Varangians to abandon their predatory raids on the areas of Slovenes, Krivichi, Meri, Vesi, Chud and act in a different role, the role of merchants and mercenary warriors.

But it was not yet sufficiently united and strong enough to prevent them from carrying out their adventurous plan to seize power in Slavia.

The chronicler reports about the struggle between the tribes and cities of the northwestern association of Slavic and Finnish tribes.

It is worth saying - having put an end to the predatory invasions of the Varangians, "more often in themselves, the Volodya", the princes and "elders" said

Veins and Krivichs, Chuds and Meri began an internecine struggle “and stand up kindred against peoples”, “stand up to fight for yourself, and there was great strife and strife between them, and hail to hail, and no more truth in them.”

In such a situation (and there is no reason to doubt that such a “strife” could actually take place), the invitation by the Slovenes is quite understandable, and with them, along with part of the Chud, Krivichi and other tribes, the Varangian mercenary squad. This invitation from the squad of the Norman king was reflected in the famous chronicle story about the calling of the Varangians.

The chronicle tells that supposedly the messengers of Slovenes, Chuds, Krivichs and Vess went “overseas to Do not forget that the Varangians”, to the tribe of Rus, and addressed them with a speech, indicating that their land is great and plentiful, and order not in it, and asked to come to reign and rule. And at the call of the envoys, three Varangian brothers from the Rus tribe appeared - Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, who laid the foundation for Russian statehood and the very name Rus and Russians, "before besha of Slovenia."

These lines, varying in various annalistic ϲʙᴏds, served as a pretext for the creation of countless Normanist and anti-Normanist theories about the Varangians, their invitation or conquest by them, about the origin of the term "Rus", etc., etc., i.e. all those problems that have worried researchers since the 18th century. and up to our days.

What events that took place in the north of Eastern Europe, reflected the story of the chronicler?

Comparing various annals, we come to the following conclusion. The vague legends preserved in Novgorod and found in the annals speak of the Novgorod “elder” Gostomysl. The folk "tale in its ϶ᴛᴏ form preserved the memory of those times when Novgorod was ruled by the "elders" until the time of the chronicler.

It is important to note that one of these lords invited some Varangian king to help in the fight against other “elders”, whom the chronicle legend called Rurik. ".

But the Varangian Viking seemed tempting to take possession of Holmgard Novgorod himself, and he, with

The squad, having appeared there, makes a coup, eliminates or kills the Novgorod "elders", which is reflected in the annalistic story about the death of Gostomysl "without inheriting", and seizes power in his hands. The Nikon Chronicle, which undoubtedly used some ancient sources, notes that the usurper met with prolonged and strong resistance from the Novgorod "husbands", and, as ϶ᴛᴏm is evidenced by later events, also related to the "violence" of the Varangians, given by the "husbands" there were Novgorod "best men" from the "Slovenskaya Thousand", the ancient Novgorod city military organization - thousands formed near the most ancient part of Novgorod - the Slavs, the Slavic Hill.

Shortly after the coup (Nikon chronicle gives and

date - 864) “Kill Rurik Do not forget that Vadim the Brave, and many others

beat the Novgorodians, his counsellors.” Fighting Varangian

by the usurper lasted a long time. Three years have passed and "... from-

fleeing from Rurik and "Novgorod to Kyiv, there are many Novgorod husbands."

News of the Nikon Chronicle about the struggle We should not forget that Vadim the Brave and his "advisers" with the Vikings of Rurik will become all the more understandable to us if we take into account that the reign of Rurik in Novgorod occurred as a result of a coup, in addition to the will and desire of the Novgorod "husbands" and even contrary to them, and ϶ᴛᴏ, naturally, gave rise to a struggle between the usurpers-Varangians and Novgorodians, who sought to throw off the power of the Varangian Viking imposed on them with weapons. In the annalistic narrative of various ϲʙᴏds, the invitation of the Varangian squad was reflected (which served as the motive for the annalistic story about the calling of the Varangians), and the seizure of power by the Varangians, and the fight against them, "which resulted in a message about Do not forget that Vadim the Brave and" the councilors him", who opposed Rurik.

The history of ancient Russia testifies that the Varangians more than once tried to do something similar to what happened in Novgorod.

So it was under Vladimir, when they, having captured Kyiv, declared to Vladimir: “this is our city, we will come and”, and only a skillful and cautious policy saved Kiev and Vladimir from repeating the Novgorod events of the previous century.

An almost similar phenomenon took place in Novgorod under Yaroslav, when the Varangian combatants robbed and raped the Novgorodians, which caused the latter to act against themselves and the massacre of the Varangians.

So there was a seizure of power by the Varangian king.

How did the chronicler's story about the calling of the Varangians come about? What is the meaning of the chronicler's concept?

The chronicler's story about the calling of the Varangians arose at a certain time, in a certain environment, under the influence of political factors of a certain order.

Attention is drawn to the fact that a similar kind of legend about the calling of three brothers was preserved among the Irish is found in the History of the Saxons by Widukind, which speaks of the calling of the Britons to the “great and abundant land” of princes from the Saxons. Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that the story of the vocation "from across the sea", being in general a wandering motif, specifically takes us to England. And Kievan Rus has been associated with England for a long time. Back in the 80s. 9th century King Alfred the Great learned from the words of Otter about the state of "Roshuasko", i.e. Russia. In Kyiv of the times of Yaroslav lived the sons of the English king Edmund the Iron Side - Edwin and Edward.

At the time of editing the Tale of Bygone Years, during the reign of Vladimir Monomakh, at the beginning of the 12th century, ties with England were even stronger, and Monomakh himself was married to the daughter of the English king, Gita Haraldovna.

From here, from the epic tales of England and Ireland, the form of the Chronicle story about the calling of the Varangians was borrowed.

Do not forget that the Varangian origin of the Rurik dynasty, their Scandinavian connections, the role that the Varangians played at the court of the Kievan princes, vague recollections of the times of the Vikings in Russia, the real Normans of the times of Yaroslavich and Monomakh - everything served as the soil on which the chronicler created The ϲʙᴏth story about the calling of the Varangians, linking Monomakh’s autocratic political tendencies, on his initiative, in favor of the concept of the “invited prince” and the unity of the princely line, was edited in the Vydubytsky monastery at the beginning of the 12th century. The Tale of Bygone Years, with the theory of the "calling of the Varangians", with the question of the role of the Varangians in Russia and, finally, with the origin of the term "Rus".

The south of the Dnieper, Kyiv, lived in ϶ᴛᴏ the time of ϲʙᴏ its own life and was still weakly connected with Novgorod. Relations with Byzantium continued.

There is no doubt that the “Romans” and Russians since the embassy of the Kagan of the “people of Ros” to Emperor Theophilus, and perhaps even earlier, were in constant communication with each other. The Russians traveled "slami" and "guests" to Constantinople, as was also the case later, during the time of the treaties of Oleg and Igor with Byzantium, traded and lived in Byzantium, encountered Greeks on the northern coast of the Black Sea, near the Dnieper and Bug estuaries and in Crimea. Relationships between Russians and Greeks were determined by agreements and treaties. But, obviously, shortly before 860, the Greeks violated the agreement "between Russia and the Greeks" and killed the Russian "words" and "guests" in Constantinople or Russian fishermen and fishermen somewhere near Beloberezhye or Berezan. In response to Byzantium's violation of the treaty on friendly relations with Russia and there was a campaign of the Russians in 860, - a campaign that sets the task of revenge for the violation of international agreements by the Greeks and the renewal of old contractual relations This is a war), and not a raid, a war pursuing its goal is to restore the trampled interests of Russia, and not a predatory campaign barbarians, war as a continuation of diplomacy, which only the state was capable of

On June 18, 860, 200 Russian ships unexpectedly attacked Constantinople. It is worth saying that the situation of the besieged Constantinople was very difficult. We note that now the emperor’s possessions, not Crimean or Asia Minor, were attacked by the Russians (although here, on the island, Note that terevint, near Sinop, the Russians acted): the suburbs of the capital were burning.

Emperor Michael had to return from the campaign and begin negotiations with the Russians.

The week-long siege of Constantinople, which lasted from June 18 to 25, was finally lifted to the great joy of the inhabitants of Constantinople. The Russians withdrew victorious, taking with them the treaty of "peace and love" - ​​evidence of their victory and triumph and defeat of a powerful empire.

By 866-867. relates to a new treaty between Russia and Byzantium. Emperor Do not forget that Basil the Macedonian succeeded in distributing rich gifts to the Russians To "friendship and agreement" and even to accept Christianity and "bishop-pastor" from Constantinople.

Our chronicles connect this campaign with the names of Askold and Dir.

Dir, “the first of the Slavic kings”, is also known by Masudi, who writes about him in their “Gold Laundries”.

Byzantine sources say that in 866-867. converted to Christianity and the leader of the Russ (or, as the Byzantines call it, "Roses")

Our chronicle reports that the church of St. Nicholas stood on the grave of Askold, emphasizing the data that Askold was a Christian.

Masudi's report about "many inhabited countries" subject to Dir, and the testimony of Photius that Russia, even before the campaign of 860, "subdued their neighbors", confirm the news of late Russian chronicles about the wars of Askold and Dir with neighboring peoples and tribes, and therefore , and about attempts to impose tribute on them and extend ϲʙᴏu power to their land.

By the time of Dir, the first campaigns of the Rus in Transcaucasia began.

According to Muhammad El-Khasan, who wrote the "History of Tabaristan" in the reign of Hasan, the son of Zeida (864-884), the Rus attacked Abesgun, but they were defeated in the fight against Hasan.

Askold and Dir were still remembered in chronicle times. Their graves were shown in Kyiv.

The Russia of Askold and Dir covers exclusively the region of the glades, the Kievan land.
It is worth noting that the rest of the tribes act more as allies (“talkers”) than subjects. But Russia is already imperiously entering the international arena. West and East are fighting for influence on Russia. The Byzantine emperor and the Patriarch of Constantinople enter into a struggle with the German emperor and the pope, who tried to spread Christianity in Russia as early as 854.

But she goes this way, independently solving the tasks facing her. By the way, this Russia is still divided into two parts: Novgorod and Kyiv.

We are at the threshold of the Kiev State. But it hasn't worked out yet. Its emergence is the result of the confluence of both Russian centers on the great waterway "from the Varangians to the Greeks" - Kiev and Novgorod.

And the event of the greatest importance in Russian history is connected by the chronicle with the name of Oleg.

Vladimir Vasilyevich Mavrodin was born on February 21, 1908 in Chisinau. Father, Vasily Konstantinovich Mavrodin (1856-1911), nobleman, officer of the border service, served as commander of the border post at the station. Graevo. Mother, Natalia Grigoryevna, taught at the gymnasium (d. 1929). After the death of Vasily Konstantinovich, Natalia Grigorievna and her son moved to the city of Mlawa (Poland). At the beginning of the First World War in 1914, she was evacuated to Moscow, then moved to Petrograd, and in the summer of 1917 - to the city of Rylsk, Kursk Province, where she worked as a teacher and educator in an orphanage. V.V. he began studying at a school at the orphanage where his mother worked, then until 1925 at a school of the second stage. After graduating from school, having worked as a forester in the local forestry, V.V. moved to Leningrad.

In 1926 V.V. entered the Leningrad State University at the Faculty of History and Linguistics. Pro-seminar classes for first-year students were led by B.D. Grekov. V.V. I also attended a special course by B.D. Grekov dedicated to Novgorod scribe books. General course of the history of Russia until the 18th century. read by A.E. Presnyakov. A.I.Andreev, S.N.Valk, B.A.Romanov, M.D.Priselkov taught at the department. May 24, 1930 V.V. graduated, as indicated in the certificate of graduation from the university, "the course of sciences of the history of Russia cycle of the historical department of the historical and linguistic faculty of the Leningrad State University in a pedagogical specialty."

V.V. was left at the graduate school of the Historical and Linguistic Institute (LILI), created in the same year on the basis of the Faculty of History and Linguistics of Leningrad State University, and graduated from it in 1932. In 1933, V.V. defended his dissertation on the topic “On the issue of large-scale corvée farming in the 17th century”, but did not become a candidate, since at that time they stopped awarding academic degrees. Opponents on defense were B.D. Grekov and M.M. Tsvibak. During his postgraduate studies, V.V. worked as an assistant to LILI, and since 1932 - an assistant professor. From 1933 to 1935, he successively held the positions of head of the historical department, deputy. Dean of the Faculty of History of the Leningrad Institute of History, Philosophy and Linguistics (LIFLI), formed on the basis of LILI.

At the same time, from December 1930 to October 1937, he worked at the State Academy of the History of Material Culture (GAIMK), first as a junior, then as a senior researcher. He came to GAIMK at the invitation of B.D. Grekov. From 1935 he taught at the Pedagogical Institute of LILI and at Leningrad State University.

February 21, 1938 V.V. enrolled in the Leningrad branch of the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences (LOII) as a senior researcher in the group of early feudalism.

May 17, 1938 V.V. was awarded the degree of candidate of historical sciences without defending a dissertation.

In LOII V.V. worked for a short time, for several months, without stopping at the same time teaching at Leningrad State University. He participated in the collective work on writing a multi-volume history of the peoples of the USSR. For the second and third volumes, he wrote the chapters "Principality of Tmutarakan" and "Principalities of the Dnieper region". In addition, V.V. began to develop a research topic on the history of Northern Ukraine.

The first monographic studies by V.V. came out one after another: 1939 - "The formation of the Russian national state", 1940 - "Essays on the history of the Left-bank Ukraine (from ancient times to the second half of the 14th century)". The monograph "Essays on the history of the Left-bank Ukraine ..." V.V. defended as a doctoral dissertation in May of the same year. Director of the Library of the USSR Academy of Sciences I.I. Yakovkin, V.I. Ravdonikas and B.D. Grekov, who acted as official opponents in the defense, highly appreciated the fundamental research prepared on the basis of a wide and varied range of sources.

Further scientific and pedagogical activity of V.V. associated with the Faculty of History of Leningrad State University, where he taught and worked until the end of his life. In October 1940, after the death of M.D. Priselkov, V.V. became head of the department of history of the USSR and dean of the historical faculty of Leningrad State University. During the Great Patriotic War, in the most difficult conditions of the blockade of Leningrad, V.V. continued to lead the history department. In February 1942, together with Leningrad State University, he was evacuated to Saratov, where classes began in April on the basis of Saratov University. After the blockade was broken, the university returned to Leningrad, and in October 1944 the academic year began.

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, there was a fierce struggle against "cosmopolitanism", the victims of which were many historians. In April 1949 V.V. was removed from the post of dean of the Faculty of History, in March 1951 he was relieved of the head of the department, and in August 1952 he was fired "due to the reduction in the volume of work at the Faculty of History."

June 1, 1953 V.V. was reinstated as a professor at the Department of History of the USSR, in February 1960 he was appointed dean of the Faculty of History. He headed the Department of History of the USSR until August 1983, resigning of his own free will and passing the department to his student I.Ya. Froyanov.

The range of scientific interests of the scientist was very wide: the history of ancient Russian statehood and the ethnic history of the Russian people, ancient Russian navigation, the formation of a unified Russian state, Peter I and his reforms, the foundation of St. Petersburg, the popular movement and peasant wars of the 17th-18th centuries. (For more on this, see Dvornichenko A. Yu. Vladimir Vasilyevich Mavrodin: Pages of life and creativity. SPb., 2001. 192 p.).

Vladimir Vasilyevich Mavrodin died on November 20, 1987 in Leningrad. He was buried at the cemetery in Zelenogorsk.

Biographical information is given according to the materials: SPF ARAN. F. 133. Op. 3. D. 5.

Main works

Formation of the Russian national state. L.; M., 1939. 196 p.
Essays on the history of Left-bank Ukraine (from ancient times to the second half of the 14th century). L., 1940. 320 p.
Formation of the Old Russian state. L., 1945. 431 p.
Ancient Russia (the origin of the Russian people and the formation of the Kiev state). M., 1946. 311 p.
Peter the Great (in the series: Life of Remarkable People). L., 1948. 480 p.
Essays on the history of feudal Russia. L., 1949. 204 p.
The beginning of navigation in Russia. L., 1949. 148 p.
Formation of a unified Russian state. L., 1951. 328 p.
Essays on the history of the USSR. ancient Russian state. A guide for teachers. M., 1956. 264 p.
Leningrad University (brief essay). L., 1957. 128 p. (Co-authored with N.G. Sladkevich and L.A. Shilov).
History of the USSR. Tutorial. M., 1961. Ch. IX, XIV-XVII. pp. 242-284, 383-457.
Popular uprisings in ancient Russia XI-XIII centuries. M., 1961. 118 p.
Peasant war in Russia in 1773-1775. Pugachev's uprising. In 3 vols. T. I. L., 1961. 587 p.
Class struggle and socio-political thought in Russia in the 18th century. (1725-1773) (course of lectures). L., 1964. 194 p.
Pugachev and his associates. M.; L., 1965. 183 p. (Co-authored with Yu.A. Limonov and V.M. Paneyakh).
Peasant war in Russia in 1773-1775. Pugachev's uprising. In 3 vols. T. II / Responsible. ed.: author: introduction, ch. I; II; III § 4; XII. L., 1966.
History of the USSR, part 1. (Textbook for pedagogical institutes), 2nd ed. M., 1966. Ch. I § ​​1-3, 6; ch. II § 2-6; ch. VIII; ch. XIII-XVI.
Boris Dmitrievich Grekov (1882-1953). L., 1968. 23 p.
Peasant war in Russia in 1773-1775. Pugachev's uprising. In 3 vols. T. III / Author: ch. XIII, § 3; ch. XXI, § 2, 4 (with A.I. Andrushchenko); ch. XXIII, § 2; ch. XXVIII (co-authored with Yu.I. Limonov and V.M. Paneyakh), conclusion. L., 1970.
History of the USSR. Tutorial. Ed. 3rd, add. Part I, Ch. 3-10. M., 1970. S. 29-123.
The formation of the Old Russian state and the formation of the Old Russian people. Textbook manual for historical faculties of universities. M., 1971. 192 p.
History of the USSR, part 1. Proc. allowance. Ed. 4th, add. M., 1973. Ch. 3-10, p. 29-123.
Under the banner of the Peasant War (Peasant War led by Emelyan Pugachev). M., 1974. 151 p.
Pugachev and the Pugachevites. L., 1974. 188 p. (Co-authored with Yu.A. Limonov and V.M. Paneyakh).
History of the USSR. Part 1. From ancient times to 1861. Textbook. for students of history. faculties of ped. in-comrade. Ed. 3rd, rev. M., 1974. Ch. I, § 1, 2, 3, 6; ch. II, §2, 3, 4, 5, 6; ch. VIII; ch. XIII-XVI.
Class struggle and socio-political thought in Russia in the 18th century. (1773-1790). Course of lectures for the historical. faculties of universities. L., 1975. 214 p.
Leningrad University during the Great Patriotic War. L., 1975. (Co-authored with V.A. Ezhov).
Origin of the Russian people. L., 1978. 184 p.
Foundation of Petersburg. L., 1978. 232 p.
The birth of a new Russia. L., 1988. 534 p.

Literature

Okun S.B. Vladimir Vasilievich Mavrodin // Problems of the history of feudal Russia. Sat. articles for the 60th anniversary of prof. V.V. Mavrodina. L., 1971. S. 7-15.
Ezhov V.A., Froyanov I.Ya., Shapiro A.L.. The history of feudal Russia in the writings of V.V. Mavrodin // From the history of feudal Russia. Articles and essays for the 70th anniversary of prof. V.V. Mavrodina. L., 1978. S. 5-15.
Genesis and development of feudalism in Russia. Problems of ideology and culture. Issue. 10. Sat. articles: To the 80th anniversary of prof. V.V. Mavrodina. L., 1987.
Dvornichenko A. Yu. Vladimir Vasilyevich Mavrodin: Pages of life and creativity. SPb., 2001. 192 p.
Froyanov I.Ya., Dvornichenko A.Yu.. Mavrodin Vladimir Vasilyevich (1908-1987) // Historians of Russia. Biographies / Comp. A.A. Chernobaev. M., 2001. S. 773-782.
To the 100th anniversary of the birth of Vladimir Vasilyevich Mavrodin // Problems of Russian History: Sources, Historiography, Research. Sat. scientific articles / Rep. ed. M.V. Druzin. SPb., Kyiv, Minsk, 2008. S. 7-56.
Krivosheev Yu.V. V.V. Mavrodin – scientist, teacher, person // Mavrodin V.V. Ancient and medieval Russia. SPb., 2009.
Mavrodin Vladimir Vasilyevich // Great Russian Encyclopedia. T. 18: Lomonosov-Manizer. M., 2011. S. 316.

M.N. Romanian

Mavrodin V.V. Origin of the Russian people. M., 1978.

Chapter 6 Origin of the names Rus, Russian, Russia.

Since time immemorial, Russian people have been interested in the question of the origin of the name of their homeland - Rus, Russia - and the very name of the people - Russian, Russians.

Even in The Tale of Bygone Years, we meet with an attempt to tell about “where the Russian land came from ... and from where the Russian land began to eat.” At the same time, the chronicler is interested not only in how the Old Russian state was formed, but also in the origin of the terms Rus, Rus.

A lot of time has passed since then! many scientists have tried to solve the exciting problem of the origin of the terms Rus, Russians, Ros, dews, Russia. A variety of assumptions were made, and most often they tried to find an answer, resorting to searching for the origins of the term Rus somewhere outside the lands of the Eastern Slavs. Thus, various theories of the origin of the term Rus appeared - Norman, Lithuanian, Finnish, etc.

In the course of the development of historical science, in the struggle of opinions, a huge amount of material was accumulated, which made it possible for Soviet researchers to write. N. Tikhomirov, S. V. Yushkov, B. D. Grekov, B. A. Rybakov, A. I. Nasonov, L. S. Tiberiadsky, A. I. Popov and others to study the problem of the origin of the terms Rus, Russians , Russia on a truly scientific basis.

The names of some modern countries and nations are not so difficult to explain. For example, the name of the American nation goes back to the name of Amerigo Vespucci, who proved that the land discovered by Christopher Columbus is not India, but a special continent, later named America in his honor. Australians (English-speaking) got their name from the mainland of Australia - the southern land of scientists and sailors of the era of great geographical discoveries. The same can be said about the New Zealander: - immigrants from England, who settled the islands of New Zealand discovered by the Dutch, so named by analogy and in honor of European Zel-Aidia; Afrikaners (Boers), who are descendants of the Dutch and French Huguenots who settled in southern Africa; Argentines, in whose name the memory of the fabulously rich country of silver Argentina, which the first conquistadors were looking for, was preserved. The Brazilians of almost one hundred million people of Brazil got their name from the legendary island of Brazil or Brazil, for which the northeastern part of South America was taken. The cold "country of ice" Iceland gave the name to its inhabitants, the Icelanders. Norway - "the road to the north" determined the name of the Norwegian inhabitants.

It is not difficult to explain the origin of such names as, for example, Uzbeks, which goes back to the name of the powerful Khan of the Golden Horde, Uzbek; the Nogai, whose name was given by Nogai, who led the horde that separated from the Golden Horde; Kazakh, which means a free rider in the Turkic languages; Karakalpaks, whose name "reflected the features of the national headdress. Bolivians owe the name of the country and people to the well-known leader of the liberation movement of the peoples of the Spanish colonies of South America against the metropolis Simon Bolivar; the Austrians - to the position of their country, which arose on the basis of the Eastern Mark (Ostmark, Ostereich). individual tribes, like some modern peoples, their self-name meant simply people, real people.Thus, the self-names of the Eskimos (Innults), some Indians (Dene) and others mean simply people in their language.

It is much more difficult to explain such names as France, England, Belgium, dating back to the names of the tribes of antiquity and the early Middle Ages - the Franks.

Anglo-Saxons, Belgae, etc., because, naturally, the question arises, how did these tribal names themselves come about, what do they mean, what are their roots, to what times do they lead us? The answers to these questions are very difficult, hypothetical, and sometimes completely impossible.

The same must be said in relation to the term Russia. It dates back to very ancient times, and if once it was not the proper name of a country and people, but had some semantic meaning similar to those given, then already in the era of Kievan Rus its original meaning was thoroughly forgotten.

In the history of mankind, there has been a transfer of the names of some tribes or peoples to others that are not related to each other and are different in language and culture. The name of the Germanic tribe of the Franks gave rise to the name of France and the French - the people of the Romance language. The nomadic Turkic Bulgarians gave their name to the settled Slavic population of the Lower Danube.

In this regard, it is impossible not to mention the Norman theory of the origin of the term Rus, and in this case we will not touch on either the formation of the Old Russian state, or the problem of the formation of the Old Russian nationality, that is, the initial stage of the formation of the Russian people. We are only interested in one thing - the origin and original meaning of the name Russian, Rus.

"The Tale of Bygone Years", following the tradition of the Varangian, Scandinavian origin of the Old Russian state, reports that since the invited Slovenes, Krivichi, Chud, Merey and the whole Varangians were from the Rus tribe, then "the Russian land was nicknamed from those Varangians"

Researchers have long paid attention to the fact that the chroniclers, for the sake of their biased concept of “calling” princes “from across the sea”, in many places in the Tale of Bygone Years diligently, although sometimes very naively, inserted the name “Rus” into the list of peoples of the Germanic languages and ranked "Rus" among the northern peoples. Often, when analyzing a chronicle text, we encounter corrections made in that part of it that precedes the story about the calling of the Varangians - "Rus". the chronicler had to adjust the previous information about her to the story of the calling of the Varangian brothers.

At the same time, both in The Tale of Bygone Years and in other Novgorod chronicles, very ancient in their origin, there are places that indicate that the chronicler has other data about “Rus” that contradict his story about the calling of princes. Under the year 852 in the "Tale of Bygone Years" we read that in the reign of the Byzantine emperor Michael "the land began to be called Ruska." This place in the chronicle cannot be regarded otherwise than as an indication of the existence of the Russian land, Russia, the Russian state before, according to chronicle legend, in 862 the notorious Varangian brothers Rurik were invited by the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes of Eastern Europe, Sineus and Truvor, whose belonging to "Rus" allegedly led to the spread of this name to all Eastern Slavs. .

In the Novgorod Chronicle, in the description of the Russian campaign against Constantinople in 1043, we encounter a direct opposition of “Rus” to the Varangians1-. In the story about the income to Tsargrad in 944, The Tale of Bygone Years mentions "Rus" along with the Varangians, Slovenes, Krivichi and other tribes.

In the ancient chronicles - Lavrentievskaya, Ipatievskaya, containing the early "Tale of Bygone Years" with some features that distinguish one text from another, it was about the fact that the Varangians were invited "Rus, Chud, Slovene, Krivichi, all", i.e. e. not the Varangians were "Rus", but "Rus", among other tribes, invited the Varangians to "reign and rule."

Finally, the Polish historian of the 15th century. Jan Dlugosh, who used in his works Russian chronicles of very ancient origin that have not come down to us, which makes his work especially valuable and interesting, reports on the invitation of three princes from the Varangians by the Russian tribes. Consequently, the names Rus, Russians existed before, according to the "Tale of Bygone Years", the Vikings - "Rus" - "Rus" began to rule the Slavs of Eastern Europe.

Why did the chroniclers need to introduce into the text of their presentation of the events of the initial Russian history a story about the Norman, Scandinavian, Varangian origin of both the Russian princes, and the Russian state, and the very name Rus?

The works of Soviet researchers (M. D. Priselkov, M. N. Tikhomirov, D. S. Likhachev) showed that the chronicle story about the calling of three Varangian brothers from across the sea is a legend that "although includes some historical features associated with the activities of the real Normans in Eastern Europe, but nevertheless, to a large extent, it is explained only by the conjecture of the chronicler, which had a certain political meaning.

It can be considered established that the story about the calling of the Varangians is overgrown with many conjectures and differs from the collection of local legends of the Russian north, reported to the chronicler Nikon, a Novgorodian by birth, the Kiev thousand Vyshayuy Ostromirich. Only in the later chronicler, Nestor, does the Varangian tribe "Rus" appear; Rurik, Sineus and Truvor turn out to be "Rus". And since there is no Russia, Scandinavia of the XI century. I didn’t even know according to legend, Nestor forced the three brothers to appear at the invitation of the Slovenes, Krivichi, etc. with all of Russia - “girding all of Russia by itself.”

Contrasting Russia with Byzantium, which aspired to "hegemony" (domination) over Russia, Nestor developed the idea of ​​Kyiv's independence from Constantinople and emphasized the "overseas", Varangian origin of the Russian state. Searching for the roots of the genealogy of the ruling dynasties "beyond the sea" and in general abroad was a medieval tradition.

Moreover, the political orientation of The Tale of Bygone Years will become clear to us if we remember the conditions under which that edition of it, which has come down to us as part of the Laurentian Chronicle, was created. Let us recall the turbulent 1113, the year of the most powerful uprising in Kyiv in the history of ancient Russia, the anger of the masses who cracked down on usurers, the “advice” of the Kiev nobility, who insistently demanded that Prince Vladimir Monomakh enter the city and reign in it; his categorical refusal to appear for the first time, for consent would mean a violation of the decision of the Lyubech Congress of Princes: "... each one does not keep his father." Kyiv was not his "father". Entering there meant violating by him, Monomakh, the dictated decision of the Lyubech Congress of Princes. He hesitates. The Kyiv nobility insists, threatening that the uprising will become even more formidable if he disobeys. And Monomakh in Kyiv. "The rebellion lies", that is, it has ceased.

Monomakh is forced to give his famous Charter, which somewhat alleviates the position of debtors and purchasers. And in the Mikhailovsky Vydubitsky Monastery, hegumen Sylvester begins editing - "The Tale of Bygone Years", and in it the chronicle story about the calling of the Varangians takes the form that modern researchers have to deal with.

In this regard, the persistent desire of the chronicler to draw the idea of ​​“inviting” princes to the throne as a red thread through the entire narrative becomes understandable, for Monomakh himself reigns in Kyiv, from the point of view of the princely law of the period of feudal fragmentation, illegally, and he can justify himself only by the fact that he is not himself "sat down at the table", and he was invited at a time when the city was torn apart by internal contradictions. And so, in order to establish "order" in Kyiv, they call for the reign of Vladimir Monomakh, who "sets" the Kiev land.

The activity of Monomakh had to be consecrated by historical tradition. And this is the work of the chronicler. Do not the times of Monomakh echo the chronicle legend about the calling of the Varangians? Isn't the chronicle legend about the calling of the Varangian brothers supposed to sanctify the "deeds and days" of Monomakh with the traditions of the distant past? Do we not see traces of "worldly passions and political interests" in the annalistic edition? And there was more than enough material to put this legend into a certain form.

Apparently, once in ancient times in the north of Russia, invited by the Slavic nobility, Varangian squads, mentioned in the later chronicles of the Novgorod elder Gostomysl, acted. These Normans hired by local tribal leaders, being themselves bearers of a culture that was by no means higher than Russian, could not become the creators of statehood.

However, this activity of the Norman mercenaries in the north of Russia was later clothed in the chronicler's writings in the legend of the vocation. Moreover (and this is typical for the feudal lords of different countries) in the Middle Ages, a tradition was established to breed one's family "from beyond the sea", "to distant lands", in order to emphasize the special generosity and aristocracy of one's origin, the authenticity of which was impossible to verify.

Thanks to the close ties between the Kiev princely court and the English royal house, the chronicler also had at his disposal the form in which this story was clothed. At the court of Vladimir Monomakh, married to Gita, the daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king Harold, there could be English bards who brought their song material to the banks of the Dnieper.

Presence in Kyiv XI-XII centuries. The Anglo-Saxon parallel of calling princes "from across the sea" can hardly be in doubt. These were the times of Edwin and Edward, the sons of King Edmund the Iron Side, expelled from England by the Danish king Canute and found refuge in Kyiv; Gita Haroldovna and those Anglo-Saxons who, as retinues and mercenary vigilantes, appeared at that time in Kyiv after the defeat of the British in the battle of Hastings; the time of the Scottish Irish, who established ties with Kiev; the time when the Anglo-Saxons expelled by the Normans appeared in Russia and Byzantium.

Together with them, epic motifs about the struggle of tribes and the calling of brothers to rule and reign from across the sea came to Russia, extremely close to the annalistic story about the three Varangian brothers, as well as those legends and materials that served as an Anglo-Saxon parallel to the “Instruction for Children” the husband of the Englishwoman Gita Haroldovna Vladimir Monomakh. And the Irish tradition of the three brothers, as well as the story of Widu-; kinda of Corveysky in his story of the Saxons about the summoning of princes by the Britons to their “great and abundant land”, from the Saxons of Gengist and Gorsa, apparently served as a prototype for the chronicler, who created his legend under the influence of stories and songs of the Anglo-Saxons of the Kiev court.

The Varangian origin of the Rurik dynasty, Scandinavian connections, the role that the Varangians played in the court of the Kiev princes, vague recollections of the times of the Vikings in Russia, the real Normans of the times of Yaroslavich and Monomakh - all this served as soil for the chronicler; and he created his own story about the calling of the "Varangians", reflecting the autocratic political tendencies of Monomakh, on whose initiative, for the sake of the concept of the "invited prince" and the unity of the princely line in the Mikhailovsky Vydubitsky Monastery, the Tale of Bygone Years was edited at the beginning of the 12th century. theory of the "calling of the Varangians", considered the question of their role in Russia and, finally, the origin of the term Rus.

What is the origin of the terms Rus, Russ. Russia? As we have already seen, the dispute about whether the Varangians should be identified with "Russian" and, consequently, the term Rus should be considered a word of Scandinavian origin, came from several places in the Tale of Bygone Years, in particular from the following two: a geographical introduction, in which indicates that “Rus”, along with the Swedes and Norwegians, is one of the North Germanic peoples, and the legend about the calling of the Varangians, where we find the same statement. The legend indicates that the name of the Russian land came from the summoned Varangian princes, who brought with them “all of Russia”. This also includes a remark of the same content, but only on a different occasion, placed in the Tale of Bygone Years under 898.

Studies of the chronicles have shown that the identification of the Varangians with "Rusyo" in both texts is not original. It was introduced by the compiler of the “Tale of Bygone Years” of the first edition of 1111, and according to the “Initial Code” of 1093 that preceded it, restored by A. A. Shakhmatov, the Varangian squads began to be called Rusyo only after they moved south to Kyiv.

Consider other sources that allegedly say that under the "Rus", "Dew" are the Normans, Scandinavians.

In the Vertinsky Annals there is a story about how Emperor Louis I the Pious received on May 18, 839 in Ingelheim the ambassadors of the Byzantine emperor Theophilus: people who said that their t.s. people. - V. / I.) are called Ros (K1yu8), and whom, as they said, their king, named Khakan, sent to him (Theophilus. - V. M.) for the sake of friendship.

Further, the Vertinsky Annals tell how Louis investigated the reason for the arrival of the Rus and, apparently not completely satisfied with the information provided to him, continued to inquire, “so that it would be possible to reliably find out whether they came to him with good intentions.” Something, either in the speech of the ambassadors of the Russian kagan, or in their behavior, or in their outward appearance, aroused suspicion in Louis.

And so, "having carefully investigated the reason for their arrival, the emperor learned that they belong to the Swedish people." It would seem that now there is no doubt that the “dews” turned out to be Swedes. But such a solution would be premature and wrong. The fact is - and this was another argument of supporters of the Scandinavian origin of the term Rus - that much later, in the time of Oleg and Igor, in the first "half of the 10th century, judging by the treaties of Russia with Byzantium, the ambassadors" from the Russian family, acting on behalf and on behalf of the prince of Kiev, bore names whose Scandinavian origin is beyond doubt: Karl, Inegeld, Farlaf, Ruald, Grim, etc.

But even this does not yet indicate the Scandinavian origin of the name of the “genus (people. - V. M.) of the Russian.” The Vertinsky annals call the head of state of the "people ... Ros" a kagan. Kagan is a term of undoubtedly Turkic origin, leading to the Khazar-Bulgarian world, to the Khazar Khaganate, the kingdom of the Kama Bulgarians, to the Bulgarian-Alanian population of the Don steppes and the interfluve of the Don and Dnieper. Russian sources also call princes Vladimir, Yaroslav, Svyatoslav kagans.

Consequently, the origins of the kingdom of the kagan of the "people ... Ros" should be sought not in Scandinavia, but somewhere in the Middle Dnieper and in the lands lying to the east of it. But representatives of the interests of the state of the “people ... Ros” both at the court of the Byzantine emperor Theophilus and at the court of the German emperor Louis turned out to be envoys belonging to the “Swedish people”.

They considered themselves "Roses", because they lived in the lands of the "people ... Ros" and served his kagan. They were Swedes because they belonged to the "Swedish people".

But maybe in Scandinavia there really was a country or region "Rus" and a people "Rus"?

The term Rus is not Scandinavian. Viking times do not know him. In runic inscriptions and in ancient northern literature, our country is called Gardar or Gardariki, that is, the country of cities. Russia is a relatively rare term, taken not from living speech, but bookish and came into use in the Scandinavian languages ​​only in the XIII-XIV centuries. In this case, there can no longer be any doubt that the term Rus came to Scandinavia from Slavic Rus, Kievan Rus.

Not a single source of medieval Europe points to any tribe or people "Rus" in Scandinavia. Nor does the oral folk art of the peoples of the European North, the poetry of the Scandinavian skalds

Some characteristic features of the "Rus", judging by the Arabic-language sources of the 9th-10th centuries, which can be considered signs characteristic of the Scandinavians, in fact only serve as evidence that among the Rus-Slavs who freely communicated in Asia Minor with their fellow Slavs , about which at the beginning of the 9th century. Ibn-Khordadbeg wrote, stating that "the Rus ... belong to the Slavs", there were also Scandinavians. They called themselves "Rus" because of their service to the princes of Russia.

Consider another argument put forward by supporters of the Norman origin of the term Rus. We are talking about the name of the Dnieper rapids. In the work of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (X century), the name of the Dnieper rapids is given in Russian and in Slavonic. Indeed, some names of the rapids in Russian are terms of Scandinavian origin (for example, Ulvorsi from Holmfors - waterfall island, Varufos from Varufors - wave threshold), while the names in Slavonic Ostrovuniprag, Vulniprag, Neyasyt and others are really Slavic.

How can this be explained? There is no doubt that the informants of Constantine Porphyrogenitus were people who knew well the navigation along the Great Waterway "from the Varangians to the Greeks." They handed over two geographical nomenclatures of the Dnieper rapids. At the same time, the Slavic informant called the words he understood Slavic, and incomprehensible, Scandinavian, he dubbed them “Russian”. After all, among the well-known ambassadors of the Russian princes in Constantinople, there were many Varangians who considered themselves Russian precisely because of their service to the Russian princes (“kings” of “Kenugard” - Kyiv and “Holmgard” - Novgorod). They, apparently, were among the informants of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, because thanks to them, Slavic Novgorod received the Scandinavian ending -gard ("Nemogard") in the work of the Byzantine emperor

By the way, we note the interpenetration of the Scandinavian and Slavic languages. Konstantin Bagryanorodny reports that the first threshold of the Dnieper was called Essupi, which in Russian and Slavic means the same thing - do not sleep. The Russian name for the seventh threshold, Strukun, sounds in Slavonic4. Consequently, in the Russian names of the Dnieper rapids, supporters of the Scandinavian origin of the term Rus cannot find solid support for their views / Presence among Russian ambassadors, merchants and warriors of the Normans, who considered themselves “Russians”, as already mentioned, due to their residence in Russia and service to Russian princes , no one denies.

Outside the state of the "people ... Ross" they, representatives of the Russian Kagan, naturally called themselves Russ, Ross, just as it was done not only by the ambassadors "from the Russian family" of the times of Oleg and Igor, all these Farlafs, Karls, Inegelds, Rualds, etc., but also Russian diplomats of foreign origin of the XV-XVIII centuries. (Greeks, Italians, Moldavians, Dutch, etc.): Trakhaniot and Fryazin, Spafariy and Vpnius, Kantemir and Shafirov.

In this regard, it is impossible not to return to the message of the Bertin Annals. Why, when the envoys of the kagan of the “people of Ros” in Ingelheim stubbornly called themselves Russians, did this arouse suspicion among the German emperor and, persistently interrogating them, he found out that they were Swedes? Apparently, because in Western Europe at that time they knew well not only the Normans, but also the “Rus”, who, in the view of Louis the Pious, as well as many of his contemporaries, differed from the Normans. And when the Swedes in Ingelheim declared that they were Russians, this aroused suspicion. They were considered those scouts whose detachments were sent by the Normans, preparing their invasions, predatory raids and conquests.

About Russia in the West have already heard something. We do not know when those legends took shape that served as the basis for the story of the “knights from the Russes”, “knights from the Kievan land” in the ancient German “Nibelungenlied”, but we are unlikely to be mistaken if we attribute them to the early, much earlier than XII century, era.

"Ruses" are mentioned in the early medieval epic work "The Song of Roland", which tells about the times of Charlemagne. Already at the beginning of the X century. Russia trades intensively with Raffstedten, and this implies a much earlier existence of commercial relations between Russia and the West.

Obviously, Louis and his entourage knew something about Russia and the "Rus", about the people "Ros". Soon, in the 80-90s of the 9th century, King Alfred the Great learned from the words of the Norwegian Otter about the distant, somewhere near the headwaters of the Don, the state and people of "Roshuasko" (Kpo-zpoiazko).

Russia was also well known in Byzantium at the beginning of the 9th century, i.e., in the times preceding the so-called “calling of the Varangians”: according to the Russian campaigns on the northern and southern, Asia Minor coast of the Black Sea, described in the “Lives” of Stefan Surozhsky (beginning of the 9th century .), George of Amastrida (not later than the 40s of the 9th century), according to the Russian campaign on the island of Aegina (in the Aegean Sea,! 813), described in the Life of Athanasius, they knew from the embassy, ​​which in 839 The city went from Constantinople to Ingelheim, by bargaining with merchants, "Rus", from whom, obviously, in Chersonesos, the "king of Rum" (i.e., Byzantium) took "tithe". Russians and "Romans" (Byzantines) encountered each other and communicated, met in Constantinople, on the Black Sea coast and at the mouth of the Dnieper, in the Danube arms and in Chersonese. Already in 855, the Russians were in the guards of the emperor. By 860, the campaign of the "Rus" against Constantinople dates back. Consequently, Russians were well known in Byzantium. And they knew not as the Normans, because for the latter there was a name that accurately defined them - "the peoples living on the northern islands of the Oken."

The Byzantines never confused the "Varangians" (Varangians), who came to serve in Russia from their "northern islands of the Ocean", with the "Roses" (Russians), the indigenous inhabitants of the lands located along the Great Waterway "from the Varangians to the Greeks." And these "dews" were Eastern Slavs, Russians.

Proponents of the Norman, Scandinavian origin of the term Rus operate on the fact that a number of Arab writers contrast the Rus with the Slavs (Ibn-Ruste, Masudi, al-Bekri). But the ethnographic ideas about Eastern Europe of travelers, writers and scientists of the Muslim world were more than modest, and the accuracy of the information they reported leaves much to be desired. They call Slavs (“as-sakaliba”) in general all fair-haired, fair-haired, including the Volga Finno-Ugrians, “Namchins” (i.e. Germans, by the way, the term, by the way, got into Arabic and Hebrew through the Eastern Slavs), "Turks" (Hungarians), etc. Oriental writers, including writing in the house in the 80s of the 9th century. well-informed and educated Ibn-Khordadbeh, they report that Russian merchants are “a kind of Slavs” and in far Baghdad they resort to the help of translators from Slavic slaves. Consequently, "Rus" and Slavs speak the same language. Ibn-Fakih uses Slavic merchants instead of Russians5. Finally, a distinctive feature is the very characteristic opposition of the Rus to the Slavs.

How are "Russians" characterized? “Ruses” have “neither real estate, nor villages, nor arable land” (Ibn-Roste); “Rus has no arable land and eats only what it produces in the land of the Slavs” (Ibn-Roste). But they have many cities, they are warlike, pugnacious, brave. "Ruses" constantly fight and attack the Slavs, capture them and enslave them, and also extract everything necessary for life in the land of the Slavs, obviously, collecting tribute. All their property was obtained by the sword. "Ruses" - warriors and merchants. They travel to Khazaria, Byzantium, Baghdad. Their trips made the Black Sea the Russian Sea. They live in cities, surround their khagans. "Ruses" are well-dressed, rich, they have a lot of slaves, jewelry, money, jewelry, .expensive weapons, fabrics, etc.

The Slavs pay the day and keep the "Rus" in their land. They serve the "Rus", who use the crops of the Slavs. "Ruses" attack the Slavs, turn them into slaves and sell them. Such opposition is not ethnic, but social, political. The fact is that the Arabs did not go to Russia, to the land of the Eastern Slavs. They dealt only with those rich, "noble Rus", merchant warriors who traveled to Khazaria, Bulgaria, and sailed along the Caspian Sea. They judged the Russians precisely by these “Rus”, who lived in the cities, collected tribute, went to the crowd, “were filled with servants”, fought, traded. Consequently, Arabic sources do not give grounds for recognizing only Scandinavians as "Rus".