Possibilities of vocabulary. Figurative and expressive means of language How to make your speech diverse and rich

Russian syntax, like Russian vocabulary, has great expressive possibilities. Most often, the expressiveness of sentences and the text as a whole can be achieved through the use of a variety of syntactic constructions. One-part or incomplete sentences with homogeneous members, as well as complex, complex and non-union complex sentences can give the text special expressiveness.

Non-union or multi-union, as a rule, is used with homogeneous members of the sentence, which, being an effective figurative tool, help to clarify the details of the overall picture, giving it a certain dynamics. In some cases, they may indicate static: “ Arkady Ivanovich was an unbearable person: he always had fun, always winked, never spoke directly, but in such a way that his heart skipped a beat.”(A.N. Tol hundredth).

In other cases, on the contrary, for activity:

The wagon rushes through the potholes.

Flickering past the booth, women,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,

Pharmacies, fashion stores,

Balconies, lions on the gates And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.

(A.S. Pushkin)

If in a sentence homogeneous members, connected to each other by the intonation of enumeration, give the character of a calm narrative, then the use of a repeating union and makes the enumeration more expressive: “I also knew the lanes where the houses were blind, like old people sitting right there on the benches, and the elegant Kuznetsky Bridge, and the wide Tverskaya - the houses there were large, spacious, almost all of them were two stories high.”(Yu.N. Tynyanov).

As a means of expressiveness of Russian syntax, such stylistic devices as inversion(violation of word order in a sentence) and parceling(violation of supply boundaries), i.e. singling out a member from a sentence - most often a secondary one - and arranging it after a dot in the form of an independent incomplete sentence.

Inversion example:

The forest drops its crimson dress,

Frost silvers the withered iole,

The day will pass, as if involuntarily,

And hide behind the edge of the surrounding mountains.

(A.S. Pushkin)

paraceleration divides the sentence into meaningful segments, which resembles telegraph style, these segments are located after the main phrase in the semantic sense. This method makes the text jerky, logical stress plays a big role in each of its segments. The parcellization technique reproduces the intonations of live speech, creating the effect of ease: “How courteous] Dobra] Mila Prosta!" (A.S. Griboyedov);

I want to get to the bottom of everything.

At work. Looking for a way. In heartbreak.

(B.L. Pasternak)

With segmentation, a significant segment, on the contrary, is in front of the main text: World fame - why do I need it now]

The use of one-component sentences as a means of expression is reminiscent of naracellation and often aims to create a static image, a specific background against which some action unfolds: "House. The street. Lamp. Pharmacy..."(A.A. Blok). Incomplete sentences, in which only key words that are important for conveying the meaning of the statement are preserved, are used to convey colloquial speech or deep emotional experiences (excitement, indignation, etc.): Woman with a hat Yes, you, come here. No, to me.

A complex sentence can also have expressive possibilities by including an enumeration in it using the same allied means: “Here is the one that scares and catches the tit, which often steals wheat, whichstored in a dark closet, in the house,whichbuilt by Jack(from English, a classic poem translated by S.Ya. Marshak).

Syntactic expressiveness is characteristic of journalism, pathetic speech. This means of expression is a rhetorical question. Its function is to draw attention to some moment of speech, to make listeners think.

The juxtaposition of sentences is the union of several sentences with the same type of meaning into a syntactic whole; the connection of sentences is usually parallel. Used most often in descriptions of the state of the environment: "It was night. Frost crackled throughout the forest. The tops of the age-old firs, ghostly lit by the stars, shone and smoked, as if they had been rubbed with phosphorus.(V.P. Kataev).

Using syntactic constructions in speech, you make the speech richer, more interesting, attract the attention of the interlocutor. Possession of the expressive possibilities of Russian syntax emphasizes literacy and education.

test questions

1. By what means is the expressiveness of sentences and the text as a whole achieved?
2. When are non-union and multi-union used in sentences?
3. Where is the juxtaposition of sentences most often used?

Workshop

Task 1. Read the text. Find the lexical and stylistic means of imagery used in it.

The night was dark, dark layers of shaggy clouds were moving across the sky, the sea was calm, black, and thick as butter. It breathed a moist, salty aroma and sounded kindly, splashing on the sides of the ships, on the shore, slightly rocking Chelkash's boat. The dark skeletons of ships rose from the sea to a distant space from the coast, piercing into the sky sharp masts with multi-colored lanterns on top. The sea reflected the lights of the lanterns and was dotted with a mass of yellow spots. They fluttered beautifully on his velvet, soft, matte black. The sea slept with a healthy, sound sleep of a worker who was very tired during the day ...

With a strong blow of the rudder, Chelkash pushed the boat into the strip of water between the barges, it quickly swam across the slippery water, and the water, under the blows of the oars, lit up with a bluish phosphorescent glow, its long ribbon, softly sparkling, twisted behind the stern ...

The boat sped off again, moving silently and lightly among the ships.

The lexical system of the language is complex and multifaceted. The possibilities of constant renewal in speech of principles, methods, signs of unification within the whole text of words taken from various groups hide in themselves the possibilities of updating speech expressiveness and its types.

The expressive possibilities of the word are supported and enhanced by the associativity of the reader's figurative thinking, which largely depends on his previous life experience and the psychological characteristics of the work of thought and consciousness as a whole.

The expressiveness of speech refers to such features of its structure that maintain the attention and interest of the listener (reader). A complete typology of expressiveness has not been developed by linguistics, since it would have to reflect the entire diverse range of human feelings and their shades. But we can quite definitely talk about the conditions under which speech will be expressive:

The first is the independence of thinking, consciousness and activity of the author of the speech.
The second is his interest in what he is talking about or writing about.
The third is a good knowledge of the expressive possibilities of the language.
Fourth - systematic conscious training of speech skills.

The main source of enhancing expressiveness is vocabulary, which gives a number of special means: epithets, metaphors, comparisons, metonymy, syn-ecdochi, hyperbole, litotes, personifications, paraphrases, allegory, irony. Syntax, the so-called stylistic figures of speech, have great opportunities to enhance the expressiveness of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion (reverse word order), polyunion, oxymoron, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora.

The lexical means of a language that enhance its expressiveness are called in linguistics paths (from the Greek tropos - a word or expression used in a figurative sense). Most often, the paths are used by the authors of works of art when describing nature, the appearance of heroes.

These figurative and expressive means are of the author's nature and determine the originality of the writer or poet, helping him to acquire the individuality of style. At the same time, there are general language tropes that arose as author's, but over time became familiar, entrenched in the language: “time heals”, “battle for the harvest”, “military thunderstorm”, “conscience spoke”, “curl up”, “like two water drops ".

In them, the direct meaning of words is erased, and sometimes completely lost. Their use in speech does not give rise to an artistic image in our imagination. A trope can become a cliché if used too often. Compare the expressions that determine the value of resources using the figurative meaning of the word "gold" - "white gold" (cotton), "black gold" (oil), "soft gold" (furs), etc.

Epithets (from the Greek epitheton - application - blind love, foggy moon) artistically define an object or action and are expressed by a full and short adjective, noun and adverb: “Do I wander along noisy streets, enter a crowded temple ...” ( A.S. Pushkin)

“She is anxious, like sheets, she, like a harp, is multi-stringed ...” (A.K. Tolstoy) “The frost-voivode patrols his possessions ...” (N. Nekrasov) “Uncontrollably, uniquely, everything flew far and past ... "(S. Yesenin). Epithets are classified as follows:

1) constant (characteristic of oral folk art) - “good fellow”, “beautiful maiden”, “green grass”, “blue sea”, “dense forest”, “mother earth”;

2) pictorial (visually draw objects and actions, make it possible to see them as the author sees them) - “a crowd of variegated fast cat” (V. Mayakovsky), “grass is full of transparent tears” (A. Blok);

3) emotional (convey the author’s feelings, mood) - “Evening brought black eyebrows ...” - “A blue fire rushed ...”, “Uncomfortable, liquid moonlight ...” (S. Yesenin), “... and the young city ascended magnificently, proudly ”(A. Pushkin).

Comparison is a comparison (parallelism) or opposition (negative parallelism) of two objects on one or more common grounds: “Your mind is as deep as the sea. Your spirit is as high as the mountains” (V. Bryusov) - “It’s not the wind that rages over the forest, it’s not the streams that ran from the mountains - the governor’s frost patrols his possessions” (N. Nekrasov). Comparison gives the description a special clarity, descriptiveness. This trope, unlike others, is always binomial - it names both juxtaposed or opposed objects. In comparison, three extremely important existing elements are distinguished - the object of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity. For example, in the line of M. Lermontov “White than snowy mountains, clouds go to the west ...” the object of comparison is clouds, the image of comparison is snowy mountains, a sign of similarity is the whiteness of clouds - Comparison can be expressed:

1) a comparative turnover with the unions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, “than ... by that”: “The fun that has faded away from crazy years is hard for me, like a vague hangover," But, like wine - the sadness of bygone days In my soul, the older, the stronger ”(A. Pushkin);

2) the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb: “there is no beast worse than a cat”;

3) a noun in the instrumental case: “A white snowdrift rushes along the ground like a snake ...” (S. Marshak);

“Dear hands - a pair of swans - dive in the gold of my hair ...” (S. Yesenin);

“I looked at her with might and main, as children look ...” (V. Vysotsky);

“I can’t forget this fight at all, the air is saturated with death.

And stars fell from the firmament like silent rain” (V. Vysotsky).

“These stars in the sky are like fish in ponds ...” (V. Vysotsky).

“Like an Eternal Flame, the peak sparkles with emerald ice during the day ...” (V. Vysotsky).

Metaphor (from the Greek. metaphora) means the transfer of the name of an object (action, quality) based on similarity, this is a phrase that has the semantics of a hidden comparison. If the epithet ~ is not a word in the dictionary, but a word in speech, then the statement is all the more true: metaphor ~ is not a word in the dictionary, but a combination of words in speech. You can drive a nail into the wall. You can hammer thoughts into your head ~ a metaphor arises, rude, but expressive.

The verbal actualization of the semantics of the metaphor is explained by the extreme importance of such guessing. And the more effort a metaphor requires in order for consciousness to turn a hidden comparison into an open one, the more expressive, obviously, the metaphor itself. Unlike a two-term comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared is given, a metaphor contains only the second component. This gives the imagery and compactness of the path. Metaphor is one of the most common tropes, since the similarity between objects and phenomena can be based on a wide variety of features: color, shape, size, purpose.

The metaphor may be simple, expanded and lexical (dead, erased, petrified). A simple metaphor is built on the convergence of objects and phenomena according to some common feature - “the dawn is burning”, “the sound of the waves”, “the sunset of life”.

An expanded metaphor is built on various associations by similarity: “Here the wind embraces a flock of waves with a strong hug and throws them on a grand scale in wild anger on the rocks, breaking emerald bulks into dust and spray” (M. Gorky).

Lexical metaphor - a word in which the initial transfer is no longer perceived - "steel pen", "clock hand", "door handle", "sheet of paper". Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) is close to the metaphor - the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another on the basis of an external or internal connection between them. Communication can be

1) between the object and the material from which the object is made: “Amber smoked in his mouth” (A. Pushkin);

3) between the action and the instrument of this action: “His pen breathes revenge” (A. Tolstoy);

5) between the place and the people in this place: “The theater is already full, the boxes are shining” (A. Pushkin).

A variety of metonymy is syn-ekdoha (from the Greek synekdoche - co-implying) - the transfer of meaning from one to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them:

1) a part instead of a whole: “All flags will visit us” (A. Pushkin); 2) a generic name instead of a specific one: “Well, why, sit down, luminary!” (V. Mayakovsky);

3) a specific name instead of a generic one: “Most of all, take care of a penny” (N. Gogol);

4) singular instead of plural: “And it was heard before dawn” how the Frenchman rejoiced” (M. Lermontov);

5) plural instead of singular: “Even the bird does not fly to him, and the beast does not go” (A. Pushkin).

The essence of personification consists in attributing to inanimate objects and abstract concepts the qualities of living beings - “I will whistle, and bloodied villainy will obediently, timidly creep in to me, and will lick my hand, and look into my eyes, they are a sign of my, reading will” (A. Pushkin); “And the heart is ready to run from the chest to the top ...” (V. Vysotsky).

Hyperbole (from Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - stylistic

a figure consisting in a figurative exaggeration - “they swept a haystack above the clouds”, “wine flowed like a river” (I. Krylov), “At one hundred and forty suns the sunset burned” (V. Mayakovsky), “The whole world in the palm of your hand ...” (V Vysotsky). Like other tropes, hyperbolas are author's and common language. In everyday speech, we often use such general language hyperbole - I saw (heard) a hundred times, “be scared to death”, “strangle in my arms”, “dance until you drop”, “repeat twenty times”, etc. The opposite hyperbole is stylistic reception - litote (from the Greek. litotes - simplicity͵ thinness) - a stylistic figure, consisting in an underlined understatement, humiliation, reticence: "a boy with a finger", "... You need to bow your head on a thin blade of grass ..." (N. Nekrasov) .

Litota is a kind of meiosis (from the Greek meiosis - decrease, decrease).

Meiosis is a trope of minimizing

intensity of properties (features) of objects, phenomena, processes: “wow”, “will do”, “decent”, “tolerant” (about good), “unimportant”, “hardly suitable”, “leaving much to be desired” (about bad ). In these cases, meiosis is a mitigating option for the ethically unacceptable direct naming: cf. "old woman" - "a woman of Balzac's age", "not the first youth"; "ugly man" - "hard to call handsome." Hyperbole and litotes characterize the deviation in one direction or another of the quantitative assessment of the subject and can be combined in speech, giving it additional expressiveness. In the comic Russian song “Dunya the Thin-Spinner” it is sung that “Dunyushka spun a kudelyushka for three hours, spun three threads”, and these threads are “thinner than a knee, thicker than a log”. In addition to the author's, there are also general language litotes - "the cat cried", "at hand", "not to see beyond one's own nose".

Periphrasis (from the Greek periphrasis - from around and I say) is commonly called

a descriptive expression used instead of a particular word (“who writes these lines” instead of “I”), or a trope, consisting in replacing the name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their characteristic features (“the king of animals is a lion” , "foggy Albion" - England, "Northern Venice" - St. Petersburg, "the sun of Russian poetry" - A. Pushkin).

Allegory (from the Greek. allegoria - allegory) consists in the allegorical depiction of an abstract concept with the help of a specific, life image. In literature, allegories appear in the Middle Ages and owe their origin to ancient customs, cultural traditions and folklore. The main source of allegories is animal tales, in which the fox is an allegory of cunning, the wolf is malice and greed, the ram is stupidity, the lion is power, the snake is wisdom, etc. From ancient times to our time, allegories are most often used in fables, parables, and other humorous and satirical works. In Russian classical literature, allegories were used by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.S. Griboedov, N.V. Gogol, I.A. Krylov, V.V. Mayakovsky.

Irony (from the Greek eironeia - pretense) - a trope, which consists in the use of a name or a whole statement in an indirect sense, directly opposite to the direct one, this is a shift in contrast, in polarity. Most often, irony is used in statements containing a positive assessment that the speaker (writer) rejects. “From where, smart, are you wandering, head?” - asks the hero of one of the fables of I.A. Krylov at the Donkey. Praise in the form of censure can also be ironic (see A.P. Chekhov's story "Chameleon", characterization of a dog).

Anaphora (from the Greek anaphora -ana again + phoros bearing) - monotony, repetition of sounds, morphemes, words, phrases, rhythmic and speech structures at the beginning of parallel syntactic periods or poetic lines.

Bridges demolished by a thunderstorm, A coffin from a blurred cemetery (A.S. Pushkin) (repetition of sounds) ... A black-eyed girl, A black-maned horse! (M.Yu. Lermontov) (repetition of morphemes).

Not in vain did the winds blow, Not in vain did the storm go. (S.A. Yesenin) (repetition of words)

I swear by the odd and even, I swear by the sword and the right battle. (A.S. Pushkin).

The lexical diversity of a language The richness of a language is judged by: its vocabulary and the available expressive possibilities. In all the dictionaries of the Russian language of the Soviet era, published over 70 years, a total of about 125 thousand words are given. For comparison: in the Dictionary of V. Dahl there are 200 thousand words. There are approximately 750 thousand words in modern English: in the third edition of Webster's (1961) 450 thousand, in the complete Oxford (1992) 500 thousand, and more than half of the words in these dictionaries do not match. In modern German, according to various estimates, from 185 to 300 thousand words.

Synonyms Synonyms are words that have the same meaning and differ in additional semantic shades or stylistic coloring. The use of synonyms allows you to avoid repetition of words and make speech expressive, vivid, diverse. Example: walk, wander, wander, stagger, wander Enemy, adversary, enemy.

Polysemantic words The polysemy of a word (polysemy) is the ability of a word to be used in different meanings About 80% of Russian words are polysemantic The word can have a primary and a derivative meaning Name the primary and derivative meanings of the adjective "quiet"

Homonyms Homonyms are words that coincide in sound and spelling and are different in meaning Varieties of homonyms: Homophones sat - turned gray Homoforms of pigeons (r.p. from the word dove) and pigeons (cf. the degree of the adjective blue) Homographs castle-castle, mugs-mugs

Play on words Using the meanings of words to create paradoxical and unexpected expressions Pun - playing on the meaning of a word Newspaper headlines: "Veterans shook the string", "Political meat combination" Radio wakes up the thought even at those hours when you really want to sleep Children are the flowers of life, don't let them , however, unravel. But the atmosphere of unprecedented warmth (it was already under +30°C) reigned in the ranks of the official delegations. Occasionalism

Antonyms Antonyms are words that are opposite in meaning Good - bad, true - false Oxymoron - the creation of a new concept by combining words that are contrasting in meaning For example: sworn friend

Paronyms Paronyms are single-root words that are similar in sound, but do not match in meaning For example: put on - put on, signature - painting, businessman - businessman Characteristic lexical error: confusion of words of paronyms Reason: indistinguishability of the meanings of words This is an outstanding political figure

Emotionally expressive coloring of words Emotionally expressive coloring is an element of the meaning of a word. Containing certain emotions or giving the word additional expressiveness For example: white, blond, blond, white, lilac. Cry, sob, roar Varieties of emotionally expressive coloring: solemn poetic scornful ironic, playful contemptuous vulgar swearing familiar, etc.

Stylistic coloring of words Stylistic coloring is an element of the meaning of a word that limits its use in a certain area. For example: say, announce, proclaim, blurt out, blurt out

Paths An epithet is a word that defines an object or action, and emphasizes some characteristic property or quality in them. For example: The ship fought like a living being. Snow dust stands in a column in the air Metaphor - a word or expression that is used in a figurative sense based on the similarity in some respect of two objects or phenomena. for example: Here the wind covers a flock of waves with a strong hug.

Tropes Metonymy is a word or expression that is used in a figurative sense on the basis of an external or internal connection between two objects or phenomena. For example: I ate three plates. Synecdoche is a kind of metonymy based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. For example: Most of all, take care of a penny. Everything is asleep - man, beast, and bird. An allegory is an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept with the help of a specific life image. For example, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed is shown in the form of a wolf, cunning is shown in the form of a snake, etc.

Stylistic figures Anaphora and epiphora - the repetition of individual words or turns at the beginning or end of the passages that make up the statement. I swear by the first day of creation, I swear by its last day, I swear by the shame of crime And the triumph of eternal truth Parallelism is the same syntactic construction of neighboring sentences or segments of speech. The young are dear to us, the old people are everywhere honored Antithesis and oxymoron - a turn in which opposing concepts are sharply contrasted to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Where there was food on the table, there is a coffin. Silence - a deliberate break in the statement, giving emotionality, excitement to speech and suggesting that the reader himself will guess what exactly was left unsaid.

Stylistic figures Inversion - the arrangement of the members of the sentence in a special order that violates the usual order, in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech. For example: He set excellent dinners. The soul reaches for the high. A rhetorical question is a figure that consists in the fact that the question is not posed in order to get an answer, but to attract the attention of the reader. For example: Do you know the Ukrainian night? Parcellation is the syntactic separation of individual parts or words of a phrase (most often homogeneous members) as independent sentences in order to enhance their semantic weight and emotional load in the text. For example: "And his shadow dances in the window // Along the embankment. In the autumn night. // There. Beyond the Araks. In that country" (P. Antokolsky). Gradation is a stylistic figure consisting in such an arrangement of words, in which each subsequent one contains an increasing meaning of the impression they make. For example: In autumn, the feather grass steppes completely change and get their own special, original, incomparable look.

1. Lead.

2. Expressive means of language

3. Conclusion

4. References

Introduction

The word is the subtlest touch to the heart; it can become a tender, fragrant flower, and living water, restoring faith in goodness, and a sharp knife that has picked at the delicate fabric of the soul, and red-hot iron, and clods of dirt ... A wise and kind word brings joy, stupid and evil, thoughtless and tactless - brings trouble, a word can kill - and revive, hurt - and heal, sow confusion and hopelessness - and spiritualize, dispel doubts - and plunge into despondency, create a smile - and cause tears, give rise to faith in a person - and instill mistrust, inspire to work - and lead to a stupor of the strength of the soul.

V.A. Sukhomlinsky

Expressive means of language

The lexical system of the language is complex and multifaceted. The possibilities of constant renewal in speech of principles, methods, signs of association within the whole text of words taken from various groups hide in themselves the possibility of updating speech expressiveness and its types.

The first is the independence of thinking, consciousness and activity of the author of the speech.

The second is his interest in what he is talking about or writing about. The third is a good knowledge of the expressive possibilities of the language. Fourth - systematic conscious training of speech skills.

The main source of enhancing expressiveness is vocabulary, which gives a number of special means: epithets, metaphors, comparisons, metonymy, synecdoches, hyperbole, litotes, personifications, paraphrases, allegory, irony. Syntax, the so-called stylistic figures of speech, have great opportunities to enhance the expressiveness of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion (reverse word order), polyunion, oxymoron, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora.

The lexical means of a language that enhance its expressiveness are called tropes in linguistics (from the Greek tropos - a word or expression used in a figurative sense). Most often, the paths are used by the authors of works of art when describing nature, the appearance of heroes.

These figurative and expressive means are of the author's nature and determine the originality of the writer or poet, help him to acquire the individuality of style. However, there are also general language tropes that arose as author's, but over time became familiar, entrenched in the language: “time heals”, “battle for the harvest”, “military thunderstorm”, “conscience spoke”, “curl up”, “like two drops water ".

Epithets (from the Greek epitheton - application - blind love, foggy moon) artistically define an object or action and can be expressed by a full and short adjective, noun and adverb: “Do I wander along noisy streets, enter a crowded temple ...” (A.S. Pushkin)

1) constant (characteristic of oral folk art) - “good
well done”, “beautiful girl”, “green grass”, “blue sea”, “dense forest”
"mother cheese earth";

2) pictorial (visually draw objects and actions, give
the opportunity to see them as the author sees them) -

“a crowd of motley-haired fast cat” (V. Mayakovsky), “the grass is full of transparent tears” (A. Blok);

3) emotional (transmit feelings, mood of the author) -

“Evening drew black eyebrows ...” - “A blue fire swept up ...”, “Uncomfortable, liquid moonlight ...” (S. Yesenin), “... and the young city ascended magnificently, proudly” (A. Pushkin ).

Comparison is a comparison (parallelism) or

opposition (negative parallelism) of two objects on one or more common grounds: “Your mind is as deep as the sea. Your spirit is as high as mountains"

(V. Bryusov) - “It’s not the wind that rages over the forest, it’s not the streams that run from the mountains - the governor’s frost patrols his possessions” (N. Nekrasov). Comparison gives the description a special clarity, descriptiveness. This trope, unlike others, is always binomial - both juxtaposed or opposed objects are named in it. 2 In comparison, three necessary existing elements are distinguished - the object of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity.

1 Dantsev D.D., Nefedova N.V. Russian language and speech culture for technical universities. - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2002. p. 171

2 Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / ed. V.I. Maksimova - M.: 2000 p. 67.

For example, in M. Lermontov’s line “Whiter than snowy mountains, clouds go to the west ...” the object of comparison is clouds, the image of comparison is snowy mountains, a sign of similarity is the whiteness of clouds - The comparison can be expressed:

1) comparative turnover with unions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “as
as if", "exactly", "than ... by that": "Crazy years of extinct fun

It's hard for me, like a vague hangover, "But, like wine - the sadness of bygone days In my soul, the older, the stronger" (A. Pushkin);

2) the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb: “there is no beast worse than a cat”;

3) a noun in the instrumental case: “A white snowdrift rushes along the ground like a snake ...” (S. Marshak);

“Dear hands - a pair of swans - dive in the gold of my hair ...” (S. Yesenin);

“I looked at her with might and main, as children look ...” (V. Vysotsky);

“I can’t forget this fight, the air is saturated with death.

And stars fell from the firmament like silent rain” (V. Vysotsky).

“These stars in the sky are like fish in ponds ...” (V. Vysotsky).

“Like an eternal flame, the peak sparkles with emerald ice during the day ...” (V.

Vysotsky).

Metaphor (from Greek metaphora) means transferring the name of an object

(actions, qualities) on the basis of similarity, this is a phrase that has the semantics of a hidden comparison. If the epithet ~ is not a word in a dictionary, but a word in speech, then the statement is all the more true: metaphor ~ is not a word in a dictionary, but a combination of words in speech. You can drive a nail into the wall. You can hammer thoughts into your head ~ a metaphor arises, rude, but expressive.

There are three elements in a metaphor: information about what is being compared; information about what it is compared to; information about the basis of comparison, i.e., about a feature that is common in the compared objects (phenomena).

Speech actualization of the semantics of metaphor is explained by the need for such guessing. And the more effort a metaphor requires in order for consciousness to turn a hidden comparison into an open one, the more expressive, obviously, the metaphor itself. Unlike a two-term comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared is given, a metaphor contains only the second component. This gives character and

trail compactness. Metaphor is one of the most common tropes, since the similarity between objects and phenomena can be based on a wide variety of features: color, shape, size, purpose.

1) between the object and the material from which the object is made: “Amber smoked in his mouth” (A. Pushkin);

3) between the action and the instrument of this action: “The pen is his revenge
breathes"

5) between the place and the people in this place: “The theater is already full, the boxes are shining” (A. Pushkin).

A variety of metonymy is synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - co-implying) - the transfer of meaning from one to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them:

1) a part instead of a whole: “All flags will visit us” (A. Pushkin); 2) a generic name instead of a specific one: “Well, why, sit down, luminary!” (V. Mayakovsky);

3) a specific name instead of a generic one: “Most of all, take care of a penny” (N. Gogol);

4) singular instead of plural: “And it was heard before
dawn, as the Frenchman rejoiced” (M. Lermontov);

5) plural instead of singular: “Even a bird does not fly to him, and
the beast does not come” (A. Pushkin).

Hyperbole (from Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - stylistic

a figure consisting in a figurative exaggeration - “they swept a haystack above the clouds”, “wine flowed like a river” (I. Krylov), “At one hundred and forty suns the sunset burned” (V. Mayakovsky), “The whole world in the palm of your hand ...” (V Vysotsky). Like other tropes, hyperbolas can be authorial and general language. In everyday speech, we often use such general language hyperbole - I saw (heard) a hundred times, “be scared to death”, “strangle in my arms”, “dance until you drop”, “repeat twenty times”, etc. The opposite of hyperbole is a stylistic device - litote (from the Greek litotes - simplicity, thinness) - a stylistic figure, consisting in an underlined understatement, humiliation, reticence: “a boy with a finger”, “... You need to bow your head to a thin blade of grass ...” (N. Nekrasov).

Litota is a kind of meiosis (from the Greek meiosis - decrease, decrease).

MEIOSIS is a trope of understatement

intensity of properties (features) of objects, phenomena, processes: “wow”, “will do”, “decent *, “tolerant” (about good), “unimportant”, “hardly suitable”, “leaving much to be desired” (about bad ). In these cases, meiosis is a mitigating option for the ethically unacceptable direct naming: cf. "old woman" - "a woman of Balzac's age", "not the first youth"; "ugly man" - "hard to call handsome." Hyperbole and litotes characterize the deviation in one direction or another of the quantitative assessment of the subject and can be combined in speech, giving it additional expressiveness. In the comic Russian song “Dunya the Thin-Spinner” it is sung that “Dunyushka spun a kudelyushka for three hours, spun three threads”, and these threads are “thinner than a knee, thicker than a log”. In addition to the author's, there are also general language litotes - "the cat cried", "at hand", "not to see beyond one's own nose".

A periphrasis (from the Greek periphrasis - from around and I say) is called

Irony (from the Greek eironeia - pretense) - a trope, which consists in the use of a name or a whole statement in an indirect sense, directly opposite to the direct one, this is a shift in contrast, in polarity. Most often, irony is used in statements containing a positive assessment that the speaker (writer) rejects. “From where, smart, are you wandering, head?” - asks the hero of one of the fables of I.A. Krylov at the Donkey. Praise in the form of reprimand can also be ironic (see A.P. Chekhov's story "Chameleon", characterization of the dog).

Storm-blown bridges

A coffin from a blurry cemetery (A.S. Pushkin) (repetition of sounds) ... A black-eyed girl, a black-maned horse! (M.Yu. Lermontov) (repetition of morphemes)

The winds did not blow in vain,

The storm was not in vain. (S.A. Yesenin) (repetition of words)

I swear by odd and even

I swear by the sword and the right fight. (A.S. Pushkin)

Conclusion

In conclusion of this work, I would like to note that the expressive means, stylistic figures that make our speech expressive, are diverse, and it is very useful to know them. The word, speech is an indicator of the general culture of a person, his intellect, his speech culture. That is why mastering the culture of speech, its improvement, especially at the present time, is so necessary for the current generation. Each of us is obliged to cultivate in ourselves a respectful, reverent and careful attitude to our native language, and each of us should consider it our duty to contribute to the preservation of the Russian nation, language, and culture.

List of used literature

1. Golovin I.B. Fundamentals of speech culture. St. Petersburg: Slovo, 1983.

2. Rosenthal D.E. practical style. Moscow: Knowledge, 1987.

3. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B. Secrets of Stylistics: Rules for Good Speech, Moscow: Knowledge, 1991.

4. Farmina L.G. We learn to speak correctly. M.: Mir, 1992.

5. Dantsev D.D., Nefedova N.V. Russian language and speech culture for technical universities. - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2002.

6. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / ed. V.I. Maksimova - M.: Gardariki, 2000.

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Grammatical means of expressiveness are less significant and less noticeable in comparison with lexico-phraseological ones. Grammatical forms, phrases and sentences correlate with words and to some extent depend on them.

Therefore, the expressiveness of vocabulary and phraseology comes to the fore, while the expressive possibilities of grammar are relegated to the background.

The main sources of speech expressiveness in the field of morphology are forms of a certain stylistic coloring, synonymy and cases of figurative use of grammatical forms.

A variety of expressive shades can be conveyed, for example, by using one form of the number of nouns instead of another. Thus, the forms of the singular number of personal nouns in the collective sense vividly convey the generalized plurality. This use of singular forms is accompanied by the appearance of additional shades, most often ¾ negative: Moscow, burned by fire, is given away to French (M. Lermontov). Expressiveness is characteristic of plural forms, collective names used metaphorically to refer not to a specific person, but to a typified phenomenon: We all look at the Napoleons (A. Pushkin); Molchalins are blissful in the world (A. Griboyedov). Usual or occasional use of plural nouns singularia tantum can serve as a means of expressing disdain: I decided to run courses, study electricity, all sorts of oxygen! (V. Veresaev).

Pronouns are characterized by richness and variety of emotional and expressive shades. For example, the pronouns some, some, some, used when naming a person, introduce a tinge of disdain into speech (some doctor, some poet, some Ivanov).

The uncertainty of the meaning of pronouns serves as a means of creating a joke, a comic. Here is an example from V. Pikul's novel "I have the honor": When his wife had an Astrakhan herring. I think ¾ why would a lady with our smelly herring drag around Europe? He cut her belly (not a lady, of course, but a herring), so from there, dear mother, diamond after diamond ¾ fell down like cockroaches.

Special expressive shades are created by contrasting the pronouns we ¾ you, our ¾ yours while emphasizing two camps, two opinions, views, etc.: Millions of you. We are ¾ of darkness, and darkness, and darkness. Try it, fight with us! (A. Blok); We stand against the society whose interests you are ordered to defend, as irreconcilable enemies of it and yours, and reconciliation between us is impossible until we win ... You cannot give up the oppression of prejudices and habits, ¾ of the oppression that spiritually killed you , ¾ nothing prevents us from being internally free, ¾ the poisons with which you poison us are weaker than those antidotes that you ¾ unwittingly ¾ pour into our consciousness (M. Gorky).

Verbal categories and forms with their rich synonymy, expression and emotionality, and the ability to use figuratively have great expressive possibilities. The possibility of using one verb form instead of another makes it possible to widely use in speech synonymous replacements of some forms of tense, aspect, mood or personal forms of the verb with others. The additional semantic shades that appear in this case increase the expression of the expression. So, to indicate the action of the interlocutor, the forms of the 3rd person singular can be used, which gives the statement a disparaging connotation (He is still arguing!), 1st person plural (Well, how are we resting? ¾ in the meaning of 'resting, resting') with a touch of sympathy or special interest, an infinitive with a particle would have a touch of desirability (You should rest a little; You should visit him).

The past perfect tense when used in the meaning of the future expresses a special categorical judgment or the need to convince the interlocutor of the inevitability of action: ¾ Listen, let me go! Drop off somewhere! I disappeared completely (M. Gorky).

There are many expressive forms of inclinations (May there always be sunshine!; Long live peace in the world!). Additional semantic and emotionally expressive shades appear when some mood forms are used in the meaning of others. For example, the subjunctive mood in the meaning of the imperative has a connotation of a courteous, cautious wish (You would go to your brother)", the indicative mood in the meaning of the imperative expresses an order that does not allow objections, refusal (You will call tomorrow!); the infinitive in the meaning of the imperative mood expresses categoricalness (Stop arms race!; Prohibit testing of atomic weapons!). The particles yes, let, well, come on, etc. contribute to the strengthening of the expression of the verb in the imperative mood: ¾ Well, is it sweet, my friend. // Judge in simplicity ( A. Tvardovsky); Shut up!; Well, tell me!

The expressive possibilities of syntax are primarily associated with the use of stylistic figures (turns of speech, syntactic constructions): anaphora, epiphora, antitheses, gradation, inversion, parallelism, ellipsis, silence, non-union, multi-union, etc.

The expressive possibilities of syntactic constructions, as a rule, are closely connected with the elephants that fill them, with their semantics and stylistic coloring. Thus, the stylistic figure of antithesis, as noted above, is often created by using antonyms; the lexical basis of the antithesis is ¾ antonymy, and the syntactic ¾ is the parallelism of the construction. Anaphora and epiphora are based on lexical repetitions:

In silence and, essence of the forest

I think about life under the pine.

That pine is clumsy and old,

That pine is harsh and wise,

That pine is sad and calm,

Quieter than the jets in the big, big river,

Like a mother

me with a coniferous palm

Gently caresses his cheek.

(V. Fedorov)

The stringing of synonymous words can lead to gradation, when each subsequent synonym strengthens (sometimes weakens) the meaning of the previous one: She [German] was there, in a hostile world, which he did not recognize, despised a l, n e n a v i d e l (Yu. Bondarev).

The expressiveness of speech depends not only on the semantic volume and stylistic coloring of the word, but also on the methods and principles of their combination. See, for example, how and what words V. Vysotsky combines into phrases:

Trusting Death was wrapped around the finger, She lingered, forgetting to wave her scythe.

They no longer caught up with us and the bullets lagged behind.

Will we be able to wash ourselves not with blood, but with dew ?!

Death ¾ trusting; death was wrapped around a finger (i.e. deceived); bullets did not catch up, but lagged behind; wash with dew and wash with blood.

The search for fresh, well-aimed combinations, expansion, renewal of lexical compatibility are characteristic primarily of artistic and journalistic speech: She is a young woman, a Greek woman, suspected of loving freedom (from newspapers). The phrase suspected of loving freedom gives a clear idea of the situation in which love of freedom is considered a very suspicious quality.

Since the time of Ancient Greece, a special semantic type of phrases has been known - ¾ oxymoron (Greek.

Oxymoron ¾ witty-silly), i.e. "a stylistic figure consisting in the combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another" (hot snow, ugly beauty, truth of lies, ringing silence). Oxymoron allows you to reveal the essence of objects or phenomena, emphasize their complexity and inconsistency. For example:

(V. Fedorov)

An oxymoron is widely used in fiction and journalism as a bright, catchy title, the meaning of which is usually revealed by the content of the whole text. So, in the newspaper "Soviet Sport" a report from the World Team Chess Championship is entitled "Original Template". Grandmaster Polugaevsky's attempt to make wider use of the typical positions that appeared on the board analyzed in detail in manuals on chess theory, the knowledge of which makes it easier for an athlete to find a way out, is called an original template.

According to the apt definition of A.S. Pushkin, "language is inexhaustible in the combination of words", therefore, its expressive possibilities are also inexhaustible. Updating links between words leads to updating verbal meanings. In some cases, this is manifested in the creation of new, unexpected metaphors, in others, in an almost imperceptible shift in verbal meanings. Such a shift can be created not by close, but by distant connections of words, separate parts of the text, or the entire text as a whole. This is how, for example, a poem by A.S. Pushkin "I loved you", which is an example of expressiveness of speech, although it mainly uses words that do not have a bright expressive coloring and semantic connotations, and only one paraphrase (Love, perhaps, // In my soul has not completely died out). The poet achieves extraordinary expressiveness by combining words within the entire poem, organizing its speech structure as a whole and individual words as elements of this structure.

The syntax of the Russian language, in addition, has a lot of emotionally and expressively colored constructions. So, infinitive sentences with a colloquial coloration are characterized by various modal-expressive meanings: You will not see such battles (M. Lermontov); Do not hide, // Do not hide amazement // Neither for horns, nor for masters (V. Fedorov).

An emotional and evaluative attitude to the content of the statement can be expressed with the help of exclamatory sentences: How beautiful life seems to me when I meet restless, caring, enthusiastic, searching, generous-hearted people in it! (V. Chivilikhin); sentences with inversion: Fate's sentence has come true! (M. Lermontov), segmented and packaged structures: Winter ¾ is so long, so endless; Tal, where we will live, is a real forest, not like our grove ... With mushrooms, with berries (V. Panova), etc.

It enlivens the narrative, allows you to convey the emotional and expressive features of the author's speech, more clearly show his inner state, attitude to the subject of the message, direct and improperly direct speech. It is more emotional, expressive and convincing than indirect. For example, let's compare an excerpt from the story of A.P. Chekhov "Dear Lessons" in the first and second editions:

They give liveliness to the statement, emphasize the dynamism of the presentation of a definitely personal proposal; nominative ones are distinguished by great semantic capacity and expressiveness; various emotions express vocative and other sentences: People of the whole earth // Let the alarm sound: // Let's protect the world! // Let's stand up as one, ¾ // Let's say: we won't let // Re-ignite the war (A. Zharov); Eh, roads! // Dust and fog, // Cold, anxiety // Yes, steppe weeds (L. Oshanin); ¾ Verochka, tell Aksinya to open the gate for us! (Pause.) Verochka! Don't be lazy, get up, dear! (A. Chekhov).

The expressive possibilities of syntactic (as well as other) means of the language are updated due to various stylistic methods of using them in speech. Interrogative sentences, for example, are a means of expression if they not only contain an incentive to receive information, but also express a variety of emotionally expressive shades (Is it morning?; So you won’t come?; Again this nasty rain?); arouse the addressee's interest in the message, make them think about the question posed, emphasize its significance: How far will you sail on the wave of the crisis?; Is the postman's bag heavy?; Does it give us warmth?; Will the CIS strengthen its position? (these are some of the titles of the articles). Rhetorical questions widely used in public speeches contribute to attracting the attention of the addressee and strengthening the impact of speech on his feelings: Don't we have overflowing creativity? Don't we have a smart, rich, flexible, luxurious language, richer and more flexible than any of the European languages?

Why should we boringly creak with feathers when our ideas, thoughts, images should rattle like a golden trumpet of a new world"? (A.N. Tolstoy).

In the practice of oratory, a special technique has been developed for using interrogative sentences - a question-answer move (the speaker puts questions and answers them himself): How did these ordinary girls become extraordinary soldiers? They were ready for a feat, but they were not ready for the army. And the army, in turn, was not ready for them, because most of the girls went voluntarily (S. Aleksievich).

The question-answer move dialogizes monologue speech, makes the addressee the interlocutor of the speaker, activates his attention. Dialogization enlivens the narrative, gives it expressiveness.

Thus, the expressiveness of speech can be created by the most common, stylistically unmarked language units due to their skillful, most appropriate use in the context in accordance with the content of the statement, its functional and stylistic coloring, general expressive orientation and purpose.

As a means of speech expressiveness in a certain situation, deviations from the norms of the literary language are deliberately used: the use of units of different stylistic coloring in one context, the collision of semantically incompatible units, non-normative formations of grammatical forms, non-normative construction of sentences, etc. This use is based on a conscious choice of language means based on a deep knowledge of the language.

It is possible to achieve speech expressiveness only with the correct ratio of the main aspects of speech - logical, psychological (emotional) and linguistic, which is determined by the content of the statement and the author's goal setting.

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