Native English words are mostly composed of ancient elements - Indo-European, Germanic and West Germanic. The main body of Old English words remains, although many have fallen into disuse. When we talk about the role of native elements in the English lexical composition, linguists usually refer to a small part of the Anglo-Saxon words, which make up 25-30% of the entire vocabulary.
Almost all words of Anglo-Saxon origin belong to very important semantic groups. They include auxiliary and modal verbs ( shall, will, should, would, must, can, may, etc.), pronouns ( I, you, he, my, your, his, who, whose, etc.), prepositions (in, out, on, under, etc.)), numerals ( one, two, three, four, etc.), unions ( and, but, till, as, etc.). Significant parts of speech of Anglo-Saxon origin designate parts of the body ( head, hand, arm, back, etc.), family members and close relatives ( father, mother, brother, son, wife), natural and planetary phenomena ( snow, rain, wind, frost, sun, moon, star, etc.), animals ( horse, cow, sheep, cat), qualities and properties ( old, young, cold, hot, heavy, light, dark, white, long), normal actions ( do, make, go, come, see, hear, eat, etc.), etc.
Most of the original words have undergone significant changes in semantic structure, and as a result they are now highly polysemic, for example, the word finger not only means part of a hand, as in Old English, but also 1) part of a glove for one finger, 2) a finger as part of a mechanism, 3) a clock hand, 4) a pointer, 5) a unit of measure. The words man, head, hand, go, etc. are highly polysemic. Most native words are stylistically neutral.
Due to their semantic characteristics and high stability, most native words have lexical and grammatical valency (compatibility). Many are part of phraseological units: heel of Achilles- Achilles' heel (weak spot) heel over head/ head over heels - upside down cool one’ s heels- to wait show a clean pair of heels - show heels turn on one’ s heels- turn around sharply, etc.
Word-building ability of native words in English
High stability and semantic features of Anglo-Saxon words explain their derivational ability. Most native words have large clusters of derivatives and compound words in modern language, eg. wood was the source for the formation of the words: wooden, woody, wooded, woodcraft, woodcutter, woodwork. The formation of new words is facilitated by the fact that most Anglo-Saxon words are root words.
New words were formed from Anglo-Saxon roots by means of affixation, compounding and conversion. Such affixes of primordial origin as - er, - ness, - ish, - ed, un-, mis- have been widely used throughout the history of the English language to create new words, although many have changed their meaning or become polysemic. For example, agent suffix – er, which in Old English was added mainly to the noun stem, is now attached to the verb stem, in addition, it forms the names of tools, people with a certain position or performing some action at the moment.
Some native words were used as components of compound words so often that over time they acquired the status of derivational affixes (-dom, -hood, -ly, over-, out-, under-), others became semi-affixal morphemes.
The semantic characteristics, stability and wide compatibility of native words explain their wide distribution and frequency of use in speech. However, there are words that have fallen out of use (archaisms and historicisms, poeticisms). Some words are monosemic, some have limited derivational ability.
2. During the period of the New Time, an active process of borrowing vocabulary from the leading languages of that time took place - from French, German, Dutch, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese.
New English, that is, the same English that is spoken at the present time, initially remained approximately in the same limits that limited the spread of Middle English. But already in the 16th century, the systematic colonization of Ireland began, which entailed the introduction of the English language into this country. At the very beginning of the 17th century, English settlements appeared in North America, and during the 18th-19th centuries, the English language spread to most of this continent. In the 18th-19th centuries, the English language penetrated, along with English colonization, to other countries within its scope. In Great Britain itself, its territory also continued to expand in the New English period - at the expense of the Celtic languages, and the number of English speakers increased there during this period by about 10 times.
So, the formation of the national English language is basically completed. This happened in the so-called early modern English period - approximately until the middle of the 17th century. During this time, the national English language, in general, acquired its modern character. The vocabulary was enriched with a huge number of words borrowed not only from classical languages, such as, for example, Latin or Greek, which reflected, as if in a mirror, the development of scientific thought in the Renaissance, not only from the Latinized French language of the old times, but also from numerous modern languages - European and exotic.
Borrowings from French.
In the New English period, the relationship between England and France does not stop and contributes to the appearance of a number of French words in the English language. The largest number of new French borrowings enters English in the second half of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century. At this time, England was undergoing tremendous upheavals - the bourgeois revolution, the overthrow of the royal Stuart dynasty, and then its restoration. The English aristocrats, who were exiled in France with their king Charles II, took a lot from the French culture of that time, and therefore, after the Restoration in England, which took place in 1661, a lot of everything French began to take root in British life. Naturally, France has left many very significant traces in the English vocabulary. First of all, these are the realities of salon culture, for example, ball - ball, ballet - ballet, beau - dandy, billet-doux - love note, bizarre - artsy, cajole - flatter, caprice - whim, caress - caress, chargin - chagrin, coquette - coquette. Along with this, there are also words of a more general nature, for example, grotesque - grotesque, gazette - newspaper, miniature - miniature, naive - naive, raillery - mockery, reprimand - reprimand, ridicule - ridicule. A large group of borrowings of this time are military terms, for example, pilot - pilot, sally - sortie, brigantine - brigantine, rendez-vous (do not be surprised, at first this word was a military term meaning the gathering of troops in a designated place), partisan - a supporter, partisan, cache - a secret warehouse of weapons, provisions, corsar - a pirate, volley - a volley, machine - a machine, a mechanism.
Later, in the 17th century, the active introduction of military and commercial terms into the vocabulary of the English language continues. An example is such words as dragoon - dragoon, stockade - fortification, fort, parole - password, double-entendre - ambiguity, cortege - tuple, demarche - demarche, rapport - report. And here is the business terminology of that time: contretemps - an unforeseen complication, par excellence - par excellence, metier - occupation, profession, craft, muslin - muslin (fabric) and champagne - champagne.
The 18th century also enriched the English language with French words - the terms of war, diplomacy and revolution (the Great French Revolution just happened at that time), for example, emigre is a political emigrant, guillotine is a guillotine, regime is a regime, corps is a corps, military branch, manoevre - maneuver, sortie - sortie, espionage - espionage, tricolor - tricolor flag, depot - storage, fusillade - execution, salon - reception, bureau - bureau, canteen - dining room, critique - criticism, nuance - nuance, cul-de-sac - dead end, belles-lettres - journalism, brochure - brochure, etiquette - etiquette, police - police and many more words.
The 19th century is perhaps the most significant in the New English period of the development of the English language, since it brought a truly huge number of borrowings that can be divided into several semantic groups:
Military terms: barrage - barrier, communique - official message, chassis - chassis;
Furnishings: portiere - curtain, chiffonier - chiffonier, reticule - mesh, parquet - parquet, bric-a-brac - trinkets;
Art and literature: resume - resume, litterateur - literature, cliche - cliché, rococo - rococo style, Renaissance - Renaissance, matinee - daytime performance or concert, motif - motif, macabre - gloomy, terrible, premiere - premiere;
Clothing and accessories: rosette - rosette, fichu - lace scarf, lornette - lorgnette, crepe - crepe (fabric), negligee - home dress, beret - beret, suede - suede, cretonne - cretonne (fabric);
Food and nutrition industry: restaurant - restaurant, menu - menu, chef - chef, saute - saute, souffle, mousse - mousse, fondant - fudge;
Social terms: chauffeur - driver, roue - rake, libertine, habitue - regular, elite - elite, high society, debutante - debutant, fiancee - bride, chic - chic, risque - risk;
Diplomatic terms: attache - attache, clientele - clientele, prestige - prestige, impasse - stalemate.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, all borrowings were predominantly of a bookish nature. However, in the period immediately following the end of the Second World War, English also borrows colloquial French words as a result of the living communication of the army with the French people. The following words can serve as examples of borrowings of this period: garage - garage, revue - review, review, fuselage - fuselage, camouflage - disguise, camouflage, hangar - hangar, limousine - limousine.
Borrowings from French continue to replenish the vocabulary to this day. Especially vivid and interesting is the influence of French words on the vocabulary of the English language in recent times, at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st. French borrowings appear in many areas of life: in politics and social life, in sports and recreation. They saturate the English language with colors, make it special, alive. Here are some of the latest borrowings from French: cinemateque - cinematheque, discoteque - disco, anti-roman - anti-novel, petit dejeuner - light breakfast.
French borrowings of the New English period are distinguished by some characteristic features.
Loanwords retain the original French stress on the final syllable (e.g., gri'mace);
The vowels retain their French pronunciation (eg in naive, fatigue, police);
Some letter combinations have retained the original French reading, for example: -eau in chateau, beau reads like; ch- in chargeine, chemise is read as ; -et in ballet, bouquet is read as ; -s in corps, pas, apropos is not read; -que is read as [k] in grotesque; -age in corsage, mirage is read as (in earlier borrowings - as).
These orthographic specific features indicate that the words in question have not yet had time to assimilate into the English language.
No culture, no language develops in isolation, and any national culture and language is the fruit of both internal development and complex interaction with the cultures of other peoples, and the interaction between cultures, economic, political and everyday contacts are the common basis for all processes. borrowing.
The object of our research is the ways of reflecting French realities in the Russian language. In the course of the study, the purpose of which is to collect and analyze French words included in the Russian language, we will try to trace the history of the appearance of words denoting French realities in Russian. Previously, France was called the "capital of the world", and the French language throughout the planet was imbued with respect and treated with special trepidation. Today, France does not occupy such a strong position. French as a classic is always relevant and will be fashionable out of time. Russia and France have been bound by close mutually beneficial ties of cooperation for more than one century. The beginning of Russian-French relations was laid by the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, Anna, who, at a middle-aged age (25 years old) in 1051, married King Henry I of France. By the 19th century, the French language had become almost native for most nobles, who spoke, wrote and even thought in the language of Voltaire. The clearest confirmation of this is the works of art by Russian classics, in which, at times, you can find entire paragraphs written in French. For example, the work of L. N. Tolstoy "War and Peace".
Formation of the vocabulary of the Russian language:
The lexical composition of the Russian language was influenced by borrowed words from other languages.
BORROWING - a process as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is fixed in the language (first of all, a word or a full-valued morpheme); also such a foreign language element itself. Borrowing is an integral part of the process of functioning and historical change of the language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment. Borrowing can be direct or indirect.
When borrowing, the meaning of a word often shifts and the word adapts to the phonological system of the borrowing language, i.e., the sounds missing in it are replaced by the closest ones.
Phonetic adaptation- this is a change in stress, a change in the pronunciation of foreign sounds. For example, in French, the stress always falls on the last syllable, while in Russian it is movable: autographe - autograph (accent will move from the last syllable to the second). In addition to phonetic, the borrowed word also undergoes grammatical (morphological) adaptation. Another example: adventure - adventure, during assimilation, the French word loses its nasal sound [ã], which will turn into “an”, and the graded [r] will turn into Russian “r”.
Grammar adaptation- this is a change in gender, the disappearance of the article. The nature of this adaptation depends on how the external appearance of the borrowed word corresponds to the morphological models of the borrowing language. Words such as “sport” or “station” easily entered the Russian language, immediately falling into the morphological class of masculine words of the 2nd declension (which includes the words “table”, “house”, etc.) For example: un-chaise longue- deck chair (in French this word is feminine, and in Russian it is masculine, in French the article shows the gender and number, and in Russian it shows the ending). Or the word "shampoo" - shampooing, having got into the Russian language, did not immediately acquire a stable gender category, having as a sample both masculine words like “horse” or “fire”, and feminine words like “fabric” or “wormwood”; accordingly, the instrumental form was both “shampoo” and “shampoo” (subsequently, the masculine gender was assigned to this word).
Semantic adaptation- changing the meaning of a borrowed word. For example: in the 19th century, the Russian language borrowed the word from French cotelette(cutlet), where it originally meant "chopped fried meat on the bone", later this word changed its meaning and began to mean "fried minced meat", which means that the word assimilated.
It should be noted that of all the borrowed words included in the Russian language, gallicisms occupy a special role. Gallicisms (from lat. gallicus - Gallic) - words and expressions borrowed from French or formed according to the model of French words and expressions. Many French words were borrowed in the Petrine and especially in the post-Petrine era. Thematically borrowed French vocabulary is diverse. Words that came into Russian from French can be divided into several thematic groups:
Vocabulary related to war: The word "avant-garde". It was borrowed in the era of Peter I, where avant-garde merge 2 words advanced"ahead" + garden"Guard, Squad" The words lieutenant. It was borrowed in the 18th century, from the word "lieutenant" = military rank or rank. The word "musketeer". It was borrowed in the 16th-18th centuries. And meant infantry armed with mousquetaires muskets. Arsenal - arsenal, rearguard - arryè re- garden,attack - attaque, battalion -bataillon,deserter - dé serteur, cavalry - cavalry, maneuvers - manoeuvres, marshal - maré chal, partisan - partisan, patrol - Patrouille, gun - pistolet, sapper - sapeur, trench - tranché e, trophy - trophé e and others
Vocabulary related to art:
Word "ballet". It was borrowed in the 17th century from the word ballet = to dance. This is a type of theatrical art that combines choreography, music and dramatic design. The words "entertainer". For the first time, entertainers appeared in the 60s of the XIX century in Parisian cabarets. In Russia, the first professional entertainers appeared in the 1910s. Entertainer - a variety artist who announces the numbers of the concert program.
The words "waltz". It was borrowed in the 2nd half of the 19th century, from the word valse = pair dance. Having gained popularity, he had a great influence on the entire ballroom repertoire.
Word "still life". It was borrowed in the 17th century, from the word "naturemorte" = the first is nature, the second is dead. This is dead nature in the visual arts - images of inanimate objects. Akter - acteur, bas-relief- bass- relief,genre - genre, impressionism- impressionisme, plein airPlein Air, pointe shoes- points, pedestal- pié destal, play- piè ce, novel- roman, spectacle - spectacles, prompter -souffleur, troubadour- troubadour and others
Vocabulary related to professions :
The words "admiral". It was borrowed in the Petrine era, through the verb admirer. The words "aviator". It was borrowed in the 20th century, from the word aviateur = aviator, pilot. The words "illusionist". It was borrowed in the 13th century. From the word illisionner = to mislead. This is a performance art that uses manual dexterity. Advocate - avocat, inspector - inspector, mechanic - mé canicien, Professor - professeur, sculptor - sculpteur, driver - chauffeurand t. d.
Vocabulary related to adjectives:
The words "aggressive". From the word agressif = offensive, conquering, aggressive. The words "banal". From the word banal = ordinary. That is, what characterizes the full measure of outlawing, a person devoid of originality, beaten.
Vocabulary related to kitchen and food :
The words "delicacy". It was borrowed in the 20th century, from the word "delicatesse" = tenderness, subtlety, grace.
Aperitif - aperitif,loaf-bâ tone, broth - bouillons, dessert- desserts,jelly - gelee, cognac - cognac, cutlet -cô telette, lemonade - lemonade, omelette - omelette, stew - ragoyt, salad - salade, sausages - saucises, sauce - sauce, Cafe - café, restaurant - restaurant and t. d.
Vocabulary related to clothes : Word " scarf" borrowed from French in the 19th century, where cache-nez derived from the verb cacher"hide" and words nez“nose”, literally, is where you can “hide your nose”. Veil - voile, jacket - jaquette, vest - gilet, overalls - combinaison, corsage - corsage, corset - corset, suit - costume, coat - manteau, pleated - plisse, clog - Sabots, tulle - tulle t. d.
Vocabulary related to premises: Word "wardrobe". It was borrowed in the 20th century from garde = to store and robe = dress. These are clothes storage areas.
The words "bank". It was borrowed in the 18th century, from the word banque = financial enterprise. This is an enterprise that concentrates temporarily free cash. The words "the Bureau". It was borrowed in the 18th century. From the word bureau = collegiate body or desk. The words "gallery". It was borrowed in 1705 under Peter I. From the word galerie = indoor space, separated by parts of the building. The words "garage". From the word "garage" = shelter. These are premises for parking, refueling and maintenance of vehicles.
Vocabulary of a household nature (name of household items): Word "shade". It was borrowed in the 20th century, from the word abat-jour = part of a lamp made of glass, fabric, metal ... Words "interior". From the word "interieur" = internal. This is the architectural and artistic interior of the building.
can - bidon, wineglass - glass, sconce - bras, blinds - jalousie, planters - cache- pots, purse - porte monnaie, briefcase - portefeuille, chandelier - lustre, travel bag - né cessaire, stool - tabouret, vial - bottle, deck chair -Chaise- longue and etc
Vocabulary related to animals: The words "cheetah". From the word guepard = cheetah. This is a predatory mammal of the "feline" family living in Africa.
The words "zebra". From the word zebra = a group of species of odd-toed ungulates of the "horses" family with black stripes over a light background of the body, which are common in Africa.
Summing up, I would like to say that no culture, no language develops in isolation. Any national culture and language is the result of not only internal, independent development, but also a complex process of interaction with the cultures and languages of other peoples. It is cultural, economic, political interaction, business and everyday contacts that are the common basis for all borrowing processes.
In conclusion, it is appropriate to quote L. N. Tolstoy: “ You don’t need to disown foreign words, you don’t need them and abuse".
Literature:
- Dictionary of foreign words Moscow, "Russian language", 2010
- Gak K. A. Ganshina K. A. New French-Russian Dictionary. M. "Russian language" 1997
- O. Ilyina, Semantic Assimilation of Foreign Language Lexical Innovations by the Russian Language. Novosibirsk, 1998
- Linnik T. G. "Problems of language borrowing". Kyiv, 1989
There are more than 2,000 French words in the Russian language, which we use almost every day, without even knowing about their ideologically wrong roots. And, if we gave the Fifth Republic at least one word - "Bistro" (thanks to the Cossacks who reached Montmartre in 1814 and drank all the champagne there: "Bring it quickly! Whom did I say? Quickly, your mother!"), they took a lot more. The reason for this, most likely, is the incredible popularity of French in the 18th-19th centuries. Even the guardian for the purity of the Russian language, the Dane Vladimir Dal, did not save. With an attache, lampshades and a scarf (cache-nez, by the way - to hide your nose) - everything is clear, but did you know, for example, that the words "turn" and "fairy" are also French?
On duty - from de jour: assigned to some day. For example, the classic French, seen by tourists in many cafes and bistros plat de jour - “dish of the day”, has turned into an “ordinary dish” with us.
Steering wheel, steer - from rouler: ride, rotate. There is nothing to explain here. Roll, yes, from here.
Nightmare - cauchemar: comes from two words - the old French chaucher - "to crush" and the Flemish mare - "ghost". Here is such a “ghost that comes at night, which loves to gently lean against the sleeping ones.”
Jalousie - from jalouse (jalousie): envy, jealousy. The Russians never got along with this word. Most stubbornly emphasize "a" instead of "and". The etymology of the word is quite simple: so that the neighbors do not envy, the French simply lowered the blinds. Such subtleties of mental organization were not characteristic of the broad Russian character, so we simply built a fence higher and stronger.
Blowjob - minette: kitty. Well, how could it be without him! The French have a stable expression “make a cat”, but it means exactly the opposite than in Russian - literally “make cunnilingus”. It could be assumed that the word came from minet - a kitten m.r., but it would only sound like “mine”, although who knows how our ancestors read it.
Coat - paletot: almost no longer used in France, the definition of outerwear for men: warm, wide, with a collar or hood. Anachronism, so to speak.
Tuzhurka - from toujour: always. Just everyday, "always" clothes.
Kartuz - from cartouche: literally "cartridge". Actually, in the meaning of “a bag of gunpowder”, this word appeared in Russia in 1696, but “turned” into a headdress only in the 19th century in a way completely unknown to science.
Galoshes - galoche: shoes with wooden soles. The most unloved word of V. Dahl. He suggested calling them "wet shoes", but it did not take root, did not take root. Although, here, in St. Petersburg, probably not without the efforts of the same Dahl, the French word curb is stubbornly called "curb" - although even this word has Dutch roots. But we are not talking about that now. By the way, galoche has another meaning in French: a passionate kiss. Think what you want.
Frock coat - from surtout: on top of everything. Oh, don't ask, we don't know and don't wear. But yes, once the frock coat was really outerwear.
Hat - from chapeau: derived from the old French chape - cap.
Panama - panama: no need to explain. But, surprisingly, Paris is often called Paname, although local residents in such headdresses were not seen on the streets.
Masterpiece - from chef d'œuvre: a master of his craft.
Chauffeur - chauffeur: originally a stoker, stoker. The one who throws firewood. But that was a long time ago, before the advent of internal combustion engines. And by the way…
Podshofe - from the same word chauffer: warm, warm up. It took root in Russia, thanks to the French tutors, who were not averse to slapping a glass or two. The preposition "under" is purely Russian, often used to denote a state: under a degree, under a hop. Or ... "warmed up", if you want. And, continuing the theme of alcohol ...
Kiryat, nakiryatsya - from kir: an aperitif of white wine and sweet low-grade berry syrup, most often currant, blackberry or peach. They, out of habit, can really quickly “snack”, especially if they are not limited to one or two glasses, but according to the old Russian tradition, they start to abuse it as expected.
adventure - adventure: adventure. In French, it does not have that negative connotation that the word has acquired in Russian, as, in fact, ...
Scam - from à faire: (to) do, do. In general, just do something useful. Not what you thought.
Wall up - from mur: wall. That is, in the literal sense, "to fix into the wall." Catchphrase "Bricked up, demons!" could hardly have existed during the time of Ivan the Terrible, but to appear in the 17th century, thanks to Peter the Great - quite like the word ...
Work - from raboter: to finish, grind, plan, engage in, in short, manual labor. What is strange, until the 17th century, such a word was not really used in Russian texts. Do not forget that it was during the time of Peter the Great that many architects, engineers and artisans from Western Europe really came to Russia. What can I say, St. Petersburg was conceived exactly according to the Parisian model. They designed, the Russians "worked". We must also not forget that many talented and handy guys, on the orders of the same Peter, went to study the craft in other countries and could well “capture” the word with them to their homeland.
Dozen - douzaine: well, twelve, as it is.
Equivoki - from equivoque: ambiguous. No, well, really, you couldn’t seriously think that such a strange word appeared in Russian just like that, from nothing to do?
Barrack - baraque: a shack. From the common Romance word barrio - clay. And this is not an invention of the times of the New Economic Policy.
Throw out entrechat - from entrechat: borrowed from Latin, and means - to weave, braid, weave, cross. According to a serious academic dictionary, entrecha is a kind of leap in classical ballet dance, when the dancer's legs quickly cross in the air.
Zealous - from retif: skittish. It seems to be one of the oldest borrowed words from French. Probably back in the days of Yaroslavna.
Vinaigrette - vinaigrette: vinegar sauce, traditional salad dressing. It has nothing to do with our traditional dish of beets, sauerkraut and boiled potatoes. For the French, in general, such a combination of products seems almost fatal, just as they are not delighted with the traditional Russian borsche or, say, kvass (how can you drink this muck?).
Sausage is from saucisse, just like shrimp is from crevette. Well, about the broth, in general, it seems there is no point in talking. Meanwhile, bouillon - "decoction", comes from the word bolir - "boil". Yeah.
Soup - soupe: borrowing from French in the 18th century, derived from the Latin suppa - "a piece of bread dipped in gravy." About canned food? - from concerver - "to preserve". There is no point in talking about the word "sauce".
Cutlet - côtelette, which in turn is formed from côte - rib. The fact is that in Russia they are used to designating the word cutlet as a dish of minced meat, and the French designate a piece of meat on the bone, or rather pork (or lamb) on the ribs.
Tomato - from pomme d'or: golden apple. Why this phrase has taken root in Russia, history is silent. In France itself, tomatoes are called corny - tomatoes.
Compote - from componere: to fold, compose, compose, if you like. That is, to collect together a bunch of all sorts of fruits.
By the way, the phraseological unit is “not at ease”, a literal, but not too correct translation of the phrase ne pas etre dans son assiette. The fact is that assiette is not only a plate from which they eat, but the basis, the mood. So, in the original, this phrase meant "to be out of sorts, not in the mood."
Restaurant - restaurant: literally "restoring". There is a legend that in 1765 a certain Boulanger, the owner of a Parisian tavern, posted an inscription on the doors of his newly opened establishment: "Come to me, and I will restore your strength." The Boulanger tavern, where the food was tasty and relatively cheap, soon became a fashionable place. As is often the case with fashionable places, the institution received a special name from the regulars, understandable only to the initiated: “Tomorrow we will meet again at the Restorative!”. By the way, the first restaurant in Russia, Slavyansky Bazaar, was opened in 1872 and, unlike taverns, they ate more than banal booze.
Discourage - from courage: courage, courage. Courage in Russian also acquired a not entirely obvious meaning. Meanwhile, having acquired a prefix, a suffix and an ending, the word began to mean, in fact, what was meant: to deprive someone of confidence, courage, to lead into a state of confusion.
Shuffle - from toucher: touch, touch. Mmm ... I think, once upon a time, decent girls blushed and were embarrassed, shaded, so to speak, when especially arrogant young people grabbed their knees and other parts of the body.
Trick - truc: a thing, a contraption whose name they cannot remember. Well... it's... like him...
Routine - from route, routine: road, path, and routine derived from it: habit, habit. And you, often walking along the same path, from work to home and vice versa, have not set your teeth on edge? Maybe quit everything and do downshifting (the English word is not about him now)?
Keychain - breloque: pendant on a watch chain.
Furniture - meuble: literally, what moves can be moved, moved to another place, as opposed to immeuble - real estate. Once again, thanks to Peter the Great for the opportunity not to indicate what kind of household items are in your property, for example, the same French ones: bureau, wardrobe, dressing table, wardrobe or stool.
All-in - from va banque: literally "the bank is coming." An expression used by card players when they suddenly suddenly began to “shove” sharply. Therefore, "go for broke" means to take risks, hoping that you can get a lot.
Klyauza - from clause: condition of the contract, article of the agreement. How the slander acquired such a negative connotation is hard to say how and why...
District - rayon: ray. Became a place on the map, not a source of light.
Gauze - from marly: a thin fabric, after the name of the village of Marly, now - Marly-le-Roi (Marly-le-Roi), where it was first produced.
Debauche - débauche: debauchery, debauchery, revelry.
Galimatya - from galimatias: confusion, nonsense. There is a beautiful story that once upon a time there was a lawyer who had to defend in court a client named Mathieu, whose rooster was stolen. At that time, the meetings were conducted exclusively in Latin, the lawyer, like any Frenchman who speaks another language, delivered his speech indistinctly, confusedly, and managed to mix up the words in places. Instead of "gallus Matias" - Mathieu's rooster, he said "galli Matias" - that is, Mathieu of the rooster (Mathieu belonging to the rooster).
And a few stories that you probably know:
Chantrap - from chantera pas: literally - will not sing. They say that it was in the 18th century in the estate of Count Sheremetyev, famous for the creation of the first serf theater in Russia. Of course, future opera divas and divas were recruited from local Matryonas and Griszeks. The procedure for creating the future Praskovy Zhemchugovs took place as follows: a French (rarely Italian) teacher gathered peasants for an audition, and if a big brown bear walked over the ear, he confidently declared - Chantera pas!
Shval - from cheval: horse. Also according to legend, the retreating French troops, severely frostbitten by the harsh Russian winter and tortured by partisans (also, by the way, the French word), were very starving. Horse meat, which is still considered a delicacy in France, has become almost the only source of food. For Russians, who still had a memory of the Tatar-Mongols, eating horse meat was completely unacceptable, therefore, when they heard the French word cheval - a horse, they did not find anything smarter than assigning this name in a pejorative sense to its consumers.
Sharomyzhnik - from cher ami: dear friend. And again a story about the war of 1812. French deserters roamed the villages and villages, begging for at least a piece of food. Of course, they caved in completely, referring to the Russian natives only as "dear friend." Well, how else could the peasants christen the unfortunate half-frozen creature, dressed in the devil knows what? That's right - a shambler. By the way, the stable idiom "sherochka with a masher" also appeared from cher et ma cher.
But the word "puzzle" came from the reverse translation of the word brass knuckles (cassetete) - from casse: to break and tete - head. That is, literally.
These are just fifty words familiar to us from childhood. And how many there are - you can't even imagine! Only - shh! - do not tell the satirist-historian Zadornov, otherwise, you never know what he will come up with.
Scientific society of students "POISK"
MOU "Alekseevskaya secondary school"
Done by: 10th grade student
Kuzik Anna
supervisor: teacher
French
Kutsobina Galina Ivanovna
2009
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….3
Chapter I. History of the French language on the example of Russian-French relations. …………………………………………………………………………. 4
Chapter II. Formation of Russian vocabulary. ……………………………………...6
Chapter III. French borrowed words in the vocabulary of the Russian language. ……………………………………………………………………………… …… nine
Chapter IV. French language in the works of A. S. Pushkin. …………… thirteen
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………18
Literature …………………………………………………………………………20
You don't need to disown foreign words, you don't need to abuse them either.
L. N. Tolstoy
Introduction
No culture, no language develops in isolation, and any national culture and language is the fruit of both internal development and complex interaction with the cultures of other peoples, and the interaction between cultures, economic, political and everyday contacts are the common basis for all borrowing processes. .
The object of our research is the ways of reflecting French realities in the Russian language.
Realia are words and phrases that name objects characteristic of the life (everyday life, culture, social and historical development) of one people and alien to another, which are carriers of national and historical color, and, as a rule, do not have exact matches (equivalents) in other languages.
The relevance of the chosen topic is due to the fact that the study of realia words is one of the problems of modern linguistic science. The term "realia" appeared in linguistics only at the end of the 50s, and until now, researchers have not come to a consensus about which words refer to realities.
In the course of the study, the purpose of which is to collect and analyze French words in works of fiction, the following tasks are solved:
1.Trace the history of the appearance of words denoting French realities in Russian.
2. Determine ways of borrowing French words.
To solve the tasks in the work, the following methods are used:
- method of observation, i.e. extracting certain facts of interest from the text and including them in the desired category.
- encyclopedic method, i.e. the study of the meaning of a word in close connection with the objects and phenomena that they designate.
- comparative typological method, i.e. the study of the similarities and differences of languages, the vocabulary of these languages.
The material for the study was French words that entered the Russian language, identified by analyzing works of literature of the 19th century, as well as data from dictionaries of modern French.
Chapter I. History of the French language on the example of Russian-French relations.
French is a beautiful melody played with words. Previously, France was called the "capital of the world", and the French language throughout the planet was imbued with respect and treated with special trepidation, and in the 18th century it was considered practically international. Today, France does not occupy such a strong position, but still remains a place where foreigners dream of relaxing, working and studying. French as a classic is always relevant and will be fashionable out of time.
According to the VKS-Globus public center, today 36% of Russian citizens study French for communication and travel. Work is the main stimulus for learning French for 24%, study - for 23% of students. International certificate and self-education received 7% and 6% respectively. Students planning to move to a French-speaking country account for 4%.
Students account for the largest percentage of French learners at 27%, followed by schoolchildren at 13%. To move up the career ladder, knowledge of French is more often required for middle managers (6%) and senior managers (4%). Lawyers, bankers, journalists, accountants, teachers, scientists make up half of all professions that require knowledge of the French language.
Russia and France have been bound by close mutually beneficial ties of cooperation for more than one century. The beginning of Russian-French relations was laid by the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, Anna, who, at a middle-aged age (25 years old) in 1051, married King Henry I of France. She became the first and only Russian woman to become a French queen.
The first correspondence between the French and Russian thrones dates back to 1518, when the confrontation with Poland forced Vasily Ioannovich to seek help from the French monarch Francis I. However, at that time, the linguistic carrier of the correspondence was by no means French, but Russian and German.
The reign of Boris Godunov opened up European countries for Russian students, among whom was France (where they received their education), and for the French - the possibilities of the Russian State. Jacques Margeret was one of the first French subjects who managed to get a job in Russia. Stay in the country was reflected in the book "The State of the Russian Empire and the Grand Duchy of Moscow."
French fashion trends storm the wardrobes of the then fashionistas in 1605. What is the French dress of Maria Mnishek, tied in a belt, with which she shocked not a single Muscovite!
The first exchange of embassies between the Russian Empire and France took place in 1615.
The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich is a new milestone in the history of Russian-French relations. In 1668, the first visit of the Russian embassy headed by Prince P.I. Potemkin. Russian ambassadors were impressed by local tapestry factories, galleries and parks, and especially theaters. Already in 1672, the first court theater appeared in Russia, which began its activity with the plays of Molière.
A new round of enthusiasm for France and its culture takes place under Peter I. An observer from Russia appears in the capital of France, who helped the Russians to get a job or study in France.
During this period, France becomes the standard of education, culture, morals. The Russian nobility admires the ability of the French to hold masquerades, balls, and receptions.
During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, outstanding artists, architects, and sculptors began to be invited from France. It was believed that among foreigners in Russia, the French were the vast majority. The time of the cult of everything that could be connected with France begins. Russians from young to old were fluent in French, dressed in French clothes, lived surrounded by French interiors, read books in French, and used the services of tutors from France. It was not uncommon for people to speak French better than their native Russian.
Catherine II, who replaced Elizabeth Petrovna, tried unsuccessfully to fight the dominance of fashion for French words, for which she even introduced a system of fines. However, by the 19th century, French had become almost native to most of the nobles who spoke, wrote and even thought in it. This is confirmed by the imperishable works of Russian classics, in which one can often find paragraphs in French. Higher Russian society greedily absorbed everything new that appeared in France. Ballet, fashion, cooking, art, theater - in each of these areas, the French style dominated, which instantly began to be considered distinctively Russian.
In our time, it is difficult to imagine Russia of that era without touching flies, powdered hairpieces and wigs, umbrellas and fans, as well as business cards, without which not a single business, and even romantic date could do. And each of these features was introduced by French culture. At the same time, France becomes the European legislator in the production of cosmetics and perfumes. The recipe for French perfume was kept in the strictest confidence, which contributed to the cultivation of fashionable passions among Europeans. France also received the palm of leadership thanks to the production of cosmetics, including decorative ones - powder, blush, etc. And the famous Madame Pompadour, who introduced the fashion for the so-called "talking bouquets", conquered the whole of Europe with a new trend. These were golden times for France.
Chapter II. Formation of Russian vocabulary.
The lexical composition of the Russian language was influenced by borrowed words from other languages.
BORROWING - a process as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is fixed in the language (first of all, a word or a full-valued morpheme); also such a foreign language element itself. Borrowing is an integral part of the process of functioning and historical change of the language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment. Borrowing can be direct or indirect.
When borrowing, the meaning of a word often shifts. So, the French word chance means "good luck" (Tu a de la chance! - "You're lucky!"), While the Russian word "chance" means only "the possibility of luck." The Russian word "excitement" comes from the French hazard "case"; the semantic transition occurred due to the phrase jeu d "hazard -" gambling ", literally -" a game of chance ". It also happens that a borrowed word returns in its new meaning back to the language from which it came. Such, apparently , the history of the word "bistro", which came into the Russian language from French, where it arose after the war of 1812, when parts of the Russian troops ended up on French territory - probably as a transmission of the replica "Quickly!"
Generally speaking, a language that finds itself in the face of a foreign word denoting some necessary concept that is missing in it (this can be either a new “object” or a new “idea”) has three possibilities: 1) to borrow this word itself: in this way borrowings in a narrow sense appear in the language, for example, the Russian “fair” is a borrowing from German. Jahrmarkt, "choir" - other Greek. , "quorum" from lat. quorum, "idyll" from it. Idylle, "poetry" from the French. poesie, "high" from Arabic. kejf, "design" from English. design, etc.; 2) to create a new word from their morphemes following the model of a foreign one: thus, word-building tracing papers appear in the language: for example, the Russian word “linguistics” is modeled after the German Sprachwissenschaft, “oxygen” is modeled after the Latin oxygenium, “subject” is modeled after objectum, etc.; 3) to use an already existing word to express the desired meaning, giving it a new meaning following the model of a foreign word that has the same polysemy or the same internal form (this is called semantic tracing); for example, the Russian verb “to touch” acquired the figurative meaning “to excite feelings” under the influence of the French “toucher”, which has both meanings (direct and figurative); The Russian words influence and inspiration acquired their modern "abstract" meaning under the influence of the French language "influence" and "inspiration". Words and meanings created according to the second and third models are called borrowings in a broad sense.
In scientific terminology, tending to unambiguity, the first and second mechanisms are more often used. The second and third mechanisms constitute the most important sources of enrichment of the literary language. Thus, the vocabulary of a generally significant nature includes borrowings of all three types. The main stream of borrowings in the narrow sense (i.e., foreign words) comes through the colloquial speech of professional spheres and jargons of various social groups.
Often words coexist in a language that are identical in their internal form, but one of them is a direct borrowing, and the other is a tracing paper; at the same time, they usually do not completely coincide, and sometimes differ very significantly in meaning, for example: subject and subject, opposition and opposition, composition and addition, position and position, positive and positive, president and chairman, biography and biography, etc. Such doubletness is very typical for Russian, to a lesser extent for German, and is not typical for French and English.
In order to become a borrowing, a word that came from a foreign language must gain a foothold in a new language for itself, firmly enter its vocabulary - as many foreign words entered the Russian language, such as bread, a mug, an umbrella, a store, a cat, a horse, dog, monkey, tie, compote, tractor, tank, harbor, sail, icon, church, choir, sports, market, bazaar, music, station, car, goal, hut, glass, herring, soup, cucumber, tomato, cutlet, potatoes, a saucepan, a plate, tea, sugar, etc., many of which turned out to be so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign language origin.
When borrowing, the word is adapted to the phonological system of the borrowing language, i.e. the missing sounds in it are replaced by the closest ones. This adaptation can occur gradually: sometimes foreign words for some time retain sounds in their pronunciation that are absent in this language, as, for example, in the German words “chance”, “restorant” borrowed from the “prestigious” French language (both words are pronounced "in the French manner" with a nasal vowel). In the borrowed from the same French Russian word “jury”, a sound absent in Russian is also pronounced - soft j. In the word resume, before the final spelling "e", a consonant sound is pronounced, intermediate between hard and soft. More recently, a similar sound was pronounced, for example, in the word "cafe"; now in this word, as in many others that came from French earlier (pince-nez, scarf, etc.), a hard consonant is pronounced. Thus, adaptation to the phonological system of the borrowing language takes place. The next stage of this process of mastering a foreign word is to replace hard consonants before the spelling "e" with soft ones. With a hard consonant, for example, the words decollete, phoneme, timbre, tempo, etc. are pronounced; with soft - more "mastered" Russian words theme, decree, flight, theater, telephone, safe, etc. Many words allow fluctuations in pronunciation (i.e. are "halfway"): computer, dean, mayonnaise, tent, etc.
In addition to phonetic, the borrowed word also undergoes grammatical (morphological) adaptation. The nature of this adaptation depends on how the external appearance of the borrowed word corresponds to the morphological models of the borrowing language. Words such as sport or station easily entered the Russian language, immediately falling into the morphological class of masculine words of the 2nd declension (which includes the words table, house, etc.). But, for example, the word “shampoo”, having entered the Russian language, did not immediately acquire a stable gender category, having as a model both masculine words like horse or fire, and feminine words like “rubbish” or “wormwood”; accordingly, the instrumental form was both “shampoo” and “shampoo” (subsequently, the masculine gender was assigned to this word). It is precisely because of the existence of a powerful mechanism of assimilation to existing models that such resistance from the Russian language meets the notorious masculine gender of the word coffee prescribed by the norm, which is automatically likened to words of the middle gender - such as “field” or “woe”.
Of the stream of foreign words that floods the language in eras of social upheaval and scientific and technological revolutions, only a certain part is retained. The process of adaptation of foreign words, controlled, like all linguistic processes, primarily by intralinguistic factors, can be regulated to some extent by extralinguistic forces - at least, the possibility of human and society intervention in this process is greater than in the case when speech is about phonetic and especially grammatical changes. There are always conservative forces in the language community that prevent the penetration of foreign words that "clog" it into the language - as well as all innovations in general (changes in pronunciation, including stress, shifts in meaning, penetration of jargon, professionalism, etc. into the literary language). ). The defense of a language from foreign words usually also has a pronounced ideological connotation. However, regardless of the ideological aspirations that gave rise to them, such conservative forces objectively perform a very important social function of maintaining the natural balance between the old and the new, which is necessary for the normal functioning of the language. For example, the authority of A.I. Solzhenitsyn, who is an opponent of the use of foreign words and proposes to replace them with words of Russian origin, may turn out to be great enough to have some influence on the fate of certain foreign words. Sometimes the language community even takes administrative measures. So, in France, in order to fight, first of all, with anglicisms, a list of approximately 3,000 words was recently introduced, limiting the use of foreign words in texts created in French intended for the media (television, advertising, etc.).
Chapter III. French
borrowed words in the vocabulary of the Russian language.
There is not a single language on our planet that does not have borrowings. The share of borrowed vocabulary can range from 10% to 80-90%.
In different historical periods (common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper), words from other languages penetrated into the original Russian language. The main reason was that the Russian people constantly entered into cultural, economic, political ties with other peoples.
A significant part of borrowings in the Russian language are gallicisms.
Gallicisms (from lat. gallicus - Gallic) - words and expressions borrowed from French or formed according to the model of French words and expressions.
In the 18th century, borrowings from the French language began to settle densely in Russian speech. In order to promote the development of literature and the literary language, as well as to direct development in the direction necessary for the government, a special higher scientific institution is being created - the Russian Academy (in imitation of the French Academy in Paris). French - the language of the great enlighteners: Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau - at that time was the most lexically rich and stylistically developed language in Europe.
Gallicisms reflected the characteristic features of the French language: pronons (prononcer), grass (grasseyer).
An interesting feature is the following assimilation of Gallicisms:
He was not comme il faut (comme il faut).
Let me engage you (engager) to dance.
Courtesy (courtois) behavior must not be violated.
In the 18th - early 19th centuries, words truly saturated with the French spirit entered the Russian vocabulary: charm (charme), adultery (aduletere), visitor (visiteur), tutor (gouverneur), cavalier (cavalier), cocotte (cocotte), compliment (compliment ), curtsy (reverence), favorite (favorite).
Gallicisms penetrate into all spheres of life and activity of people. Vocabulary related to clothing has been replenished with especially French borrowings: accessory (accessoire), bijouterie (bijouterie), veil (voile), jabot (jabot), manto (manteau), negligee (peignoir) and food: meringue (baiser), puree (puree ), mayonnaise (mayonnaise). A curious detail is that words such as gourmand (gourmand) and delicacy (delicatesse) are of French origin. For example, this could be a gourmet menu:
Asparagus
Lobster with garnish (homard), (garnir)
Grilled meat under bechamel (griller), (bechamel)
And for dessert - biscuit (biscuit) and jelly (gelee), meringue (meringue) and soufflé (souffle), as well as liquor (liqueur) and cruchon (cruchon).
I would like to pay special attention to gallicisms that are associated with art - theater, music, painting. For example, the following words are associated with music: accordion (accordeon), ensemble (ensemble), vocal (vocal), clarinet (clarinette), nocturne (nocturne), overture (ouverture). There are a lot of gallicisms associated with the theater: actor (acteur), intermission (entracte), applause (applaudissments), poster (affiche), vaudeville (vaudeville), make-up (grimer), debut (debut), pirouette (pirouette); as well as with painting: gallery (galerie), vernissa, w (vernissage), gouache (gouache), palette (palette), impressionism (impressionnisme).
In the 19th - early 20th centuries, more and more new Gallicisms appeared in the Russian language. Many of them were connected with public life, with the economy, with politics. Examples of such words: capitalism (capitalisme), bourgeoisie (bourgeoisie), budget (budget), press (presse), diplomat (diplomate), attache (attache), democrat (democrat), shareholder (actionnaire), bureaucracy (bureaucratisme). These words are known to everyone and are often used in everyday life. Gallicisms are such words as indexation (indexation), alliance (alliance), assets (avoir), clique (cligue). Quite often, the following borrowings from French are found in speech: authoritarian (autorgtaire), shareholder (actionnaire), run (balloter), debate (debattre), importer (importeur), exaggerate (mousser).
There are times in the history of a society when a foreign culture is chosen as a role model. Its language becomes prestigious, and words are borrowed from it especially actively. The influence of the French language on Russian vocabulary was observed both in the 18th and 19th centuries. The attitude towards borrowed words as more “beautiful” and prestigious is typical of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. For example, the word boutique. In French, boutique simply means “small shop,” but in Russian soil, the word boutique has come to mean “expensive fashion store.” Interestingly, in the French language itself, it was replaced by the noun magasin (shop) from Arabic, which became especially widespread in the first half of the 19th century, when French trade was being restructured on new industrial grounds and the old shops (boutiques) now ceased to suit sellers who more spacious and capacious stores were needed. In Russian, this word "increased in rank" began to mean a fashion store, that is, a word that in the source language called an ordinary, ordinary object, in the borrowing language is attached to a more significant and prestigious object.
There are quite a lot of similar borrowings in modern Russian. Here are some of them: perfume (parfum), nouveau riche (nouveau riche), purse (porte-monnaie), wardrobe trunk (coffre), travel bag (necessaire), voyage (voyage), concierge (concierge), volunteer (volontaire), camouflage ( camouflage), grand iris (Grand Prix), carte blanche (carte blanche).
Interestingly, it is from the French language that the words that characterize the high society are borrowed: elite (elite), bohemia (boheme), beau monde (beaumonde).
As in the XVIII-XIX centuries, today there is an interesting assimilation of Gallicisms in Russian speech:
Rest in plein air
In the evening they made a promenade (promenade)
Have you decided to go to a rendezvous? (rendez-vous)
At the resort we jouir
Speaking of borrowings from the French language, one cannot fail to mention the "winged" words and phraseological units. They can be conditionally divided into three groups: historical, literary and secular. The historical group includes "winged" words once uttered by a famous political or historical figure: a king, commander, politician and others. Historical and political events left their mark on the French vocabulary. Some of them switched to Russian:
Accuracy (accuracy) is the courtesy of kings. (L "exactitude est la politesse des rois) This expression is attributed to the French king Louis XVIII.
All is lost except honor. The expression belongs to the French king Francis I. Defeated by the troops of Charles V and captured at Pavia, he
sent a letter to his mother containing only this phrase.
The expression "State within a State" arose during the era of the religious wars in France.
"Golden youth". So they call the rich bourgeois-noble youth, winding money, burning through life. Initially, it was the nickname of the Parisian counter-revolutionary youth, grouped after IX Thermidor.
"Art for Art's sake". The slogan proclaimed in France by the supporters of the so-called "pure", "free" art. The idea of this direction was first expressed by the French idealist philosopher Victor Cousin.
"Old Guard". This expression goes back to the name of the elite units of Napoleon's troops. The French Guard was in 1807 divided into "old" and "young"; The "old guard", which included the best soldiers and officers, hardened in battles, who played a large role in the Napoleonic wars, was surrounded by an aura of "invincibility".
The literary group includes phraseological units that were once mentioned in a particular work of art:
"Balzac Age". The expression arose after the release of Honore Balzac's novel The Thirty-Year-Old Woman.
"Pulling chestnuts out of the fire." This expression came into Russian speech from the fable of the French fabulist Jean La Fontaine "The Monkey and the Cat".
The last group - secular, includes expressions that were used by the people or were said by a person who was close to ordinary people:
He is at ease (N "est pas dans son assiette). If we translate this phraseological unit literally, then it should sound something like this: "to be in an unenviable position." What does the plate have to do with it? The French word assiette is translated as "position" and how "plate".
I would like to note one curious detail - the similarity and difference between the idioms of the Russian and French languages. These idioms have the same meaning, for example:
A ram on five legs. Un mouton a cinq pattes.
etc.................
Taken vocabulary in the Russian language
Words of non-original origin are called taken. Borrowings arise both as a result of specific territorial contacts and as a result of the exchange of cultural information, when, together with new objects, concepts, native speakers receive words that designate them. Borrowings are used not only to name new realities, but also to rename old ones.
The following borrowings in the Russian language are distinguished:
Note. This answer is dedicated to borrowings from non-Slavic languages. There is detailed information about borrowings from Slavic languages in the answer "What is the composition of the vocabulary of the Russian language?".
The words taken can really be distinguished from the eternally Russian words by a number of features.
A. Phonetic signs:
1. The presence of the original letter "a": lampshade, april, red, army, pharmacy. Russian words with the original "a", in that case, do not count the words formed on the basis of borrowings, are rare. In the main, these are interjections, onomatopoeia and words formed on their basis: aha, ah, ah, ah, gasp, ay, go around etc.
2. The presence of the letter "e" in the root of the word: mayor, aloe, emotions, chaise. In the eternal Russian words, the letter "e" is found in the words of interjection and pronominal nature - hey, eh, this one, because, also in words formed in Russian on the basis of borrowings ( some, ensky, socialist-revolutionary).
3. The presence of the letter "f" in the word: decanter, spacesuit, February. The exception is interjections, onomatopoeia - phew, phew, phew, also the word owl.
4. The presence of combinations of 2 or more vowels in the roots of words: diet, duel, halo, poem, guard.
5. The presence of combinations of consonants "kd", "kz", "gb", "kg" in the roots of words: joke, station, barrier, warehouse.
6. The presence of combinations "ge", "ke", "heh" in the root: legend, sneakers, trachea. In Russian words, such combinations usually occur at the junction of the base and the ending: on the way, to the daughter-in-law, in the sand.
7. Having a combination "byu", "vu", "kyu", "mu" in word roots: bureau, engraving, ditch, communiqué.
8. The presence of double consonants in the roots of words: villa, progress, profession, session, bath. In eternally Russian words, double consonants are found only at the junction of morphemes.
9. Pronunciation of a solid consonant sound before the vowel [e] (letter "e"): model[de], test [te].
10. The original "e" distinguishes mainly Greekisms and Latinisms: era, epoch, ethics, examination, violence, effect, floor.
B. Morphological features:
1. Inflexibility of nouns: coffee, jury, depot, hummingbird, kangaroo.
2. Morphological inexpressibility of the number and gender of nouns: coat, taxi.
B. Word-forming features:
1. Foreign prefixes: inter shaft, de induction, in dividualism, re gress, archi mandrite, counter admiral, anti christ.
2. Foreign suffixes: dean at, stud ent, technician intelligence, editor torus, literary ur ah, proletarians at, popul ism, social ist, controversy irate etc.
3. The presence of some class roots aqua-, marine-, geo-, grapho- etc.: aquarium, marine painter, surveyor.
Apart from "interethnic" signs, there are also signs that help to find from which particular language the word was taken.
1. To Greek borrowings ( Greekisms) include, for example:
Features of borrowings of this group:
2. Borrowing from Latin(Latinisms):
3. in the middle Turkic borrowings ( Turkisms) most of all words from the Mongolian language, which is explained by historical criteria (long-term Tatar-Mongolian yoke):
A sign of words of Turkic origin is the harmony of vowels ( synharmonism) - the regular use in one word of vowels of only the 1st row: back [a], [y] or frontal [e], [i]: chieftain, caravan, pencil, shoe, lasso, chest, sundress, drum, heel, sash, ulus, mosque, beads.
4. Scandinavian borrowings (Swedish, Norwegian) in the Russian language are comparatively slightly. Words of trade vocabulary, maritime definitions, household words penetrated, also:
5. To Germanic borrowings ( Germanisms) relate:
Features of Germanisms:
6. Dutch are some nautical definitions taken in the era of Peter I: boat, shipyard, pennant, harbour, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, flag, fleet,cruiser and etc.
7. From British language ( anglicisms) included, for example:
technical ( computer, screen, file, byte),
sports ( bobsleigh, overtime, fighter),
monetary and commercial barter, broker, dealer, distributor, leasing),
art ( remake, talk show, underground, thriller),
Phonetic features of anglicisms:
8. To French borrowings ( Gallicisms) relate:
Phonetic features of gallicisms:
9. From Italian borrowings stand out:
10. A small number of words came from Spanish language (vocabulary related to art): serenade, castanets, guitar, mantilla, caravel, caramel, cigar, tomato and etc.
11. Few borrowings are from Finnish language: walrus, dumplings, snowstorm; from Hungarian: bekesha, farm and other languages.
Information about the origin of words can be obtained in etymological dictionaries and in dictionaries of foreign words.
Additionally:
Sources:
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