Hello reader! In this article I will tell you what governs our emotions and desires. You will find out why the second candy is not as sweet as the first, and why you so want to reach the frontal lobes of the brain of that mu… ko… de… who took three parking spaces at the supermarket with his SUV, and how to deal with this feeling. So…

limbic system

The ancient brain structure that Homo had but not yet sapiens (we inherited) is a system of interconnected smaller brain structures. The organization of the limbic system includes three complexes:

1 Ancient bark - olfactory bulbs, olfactory tubercle, transparent septum.

2 Old cortex - hippocampus, dentate fascia, cingulate gyrus.

3 Structures of the insular cortex, parahippocampal gyrus.

Also, the limbic system includes subcortical structures: amygdala, nuclei of the transparent septum, anterior thalamic nucleus, mastoid bodies.

All structures of the limbic system have many connections with each other, both simple bilateral and complex pathways. These connections form so-called circles. The multitude of connections connecting the limbic system and the central nervous system makes it difficult to isolate individual structures of the limbic system in participation in certain processes.

But there is no limit to the succulent zeal of scientists! What could be more exciting than poking around in someone else's already dead brain or making fun of still living rats. It's fun! This is to keep you awake 🙂

Functions of the limbic system

So… limbic system has many functions. It is related to the regulation of emotional and motivational activity, the regulation of attention, the reproduction of emotionally significant information. Determines the choice and implementation of adaptive forms of behavior, the dynamics of innate forms of behavior. It also provides the creation of an emotional background, the formation and implementation of the processes of higher nervous activity and participates in the regulation of the activity of internal organs.

The main and largest structure of the limbic system is the hippocampus. It is he who is responsible for memory, attention, learning. But now we are more interested in the hypothalamus. He is the conductor of this orchestra. The hypothalamus has a large number of connections with the central nervous system and with almost all structures of the limbic and sensory systems. Here is such a little puppeteer.

Functions of the hypothalamus

Due to the large number of connections and polyfunctionality of its structures, the hypothalamus performs an integrating function of autonomic, somatic and endocrine regulation. In the hypothalamus there are centers of homeostasis, thermoregulation, hunger and satiety, thirst and its quenching, sexual desire, fear, rage, regulation of the wakefulness-sleep cycle. The most annoying thing is that all these functions, including motivational and behavioral ones, are performed unconsciously. The fact is, we are not in control of ourselves.

Having connections with the sensory apparatus, the hypothalamus receives a lot of data about the state of the external and internal environment. Analyzing this data, he gives commands to the pituitary gland (this is a small endocrine gland, which is the command center of the endocrine system). The pituitary gland, in turn, gives commands to the endocrine system to produce certain hormones to activate the necessary processes in the body. Having many connections with the central nervous system, the hypothalamus issues commands to activate behavior patterns that are formed with experience. Also, the hypothalamus, having connections with pleasure centers (nucleus accumbens, some structures of the hippocampus and the hypothalamus itself), motivates us to implement an already programmed behavior model. And when positive results are achieved, he encourages us with short bursts of joy, keeping us on a short leash. And the funny thing is… The time interval between the decision-making by the brain and the awareness of this decision by our "I" can reach 30 seconds! The brain has already made a decision and reports to our “I” after 30 seconds!!! I think it's just bullying.

We think we are in control of something. Or even worse, we think what we think, but in fact it is not quite so. We are just toys for our brains. A tool in achieving his selfish goals.

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Hello, friends! Unfortunately, now, due to a heavy workload, there is no way to publish articles more often than we would like. A drunk driver, whose criminal activity was legalized by the state, again filed a lawsuit against me for 200 thousand rubles, and this is another waste of time, money and effort. I am glad that in the Ministry for the Development of the Far East they paid attention to my book "My Story for a Million" and gave a positive review to its publication, and the petition for the cancellation of the unjust decision quickly began to gain momentum. In the meantime, let's move on to the main topic of our conversation - deep limbic system of the brain. It was with putting the limbic system of the brain in order that my rehabilitation after a severe CBI began. Neurorehabilitation was at the heart of the idea of ​​the site and I think now is the time to start sharing your knowledge and life experience in this direction. However, first we need to understand how our brain works and what aspects of life the deep limbic system is responsible for.

limbic system- this is one of the most important parts of the brain, thanks to which a person lives his daily life. It is responsible for many key processes, from regulating emotions to processing information and storing memories. The main structures of the deep limbic system are amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, lumbar gyrus and basal ganglia. It is these parts that help a person to be active in society and establish social relationships. Emotions originate in the limbic system, and then travel along neural pathways to the frontal cortex, where they are interpreted and cause appropriate physical responses. Therefore, any physical injury or disease of the limbic system is invariably accompanied by serious behavioral and emotional changes in a person. So it was very difficult for me to translate myself from negative to positive, and even more difficult to “start” my motivation to perform actions that lead a person to success.

It should be noted that some modern researchers do not like the concept of the "limbic system". They believe that the theory is outdated and misleading, as each component of the deep limbic system works individually and performs its own unique function. Therefore, in scientific research, it is best to focus on the study of each component of the brain separately.

The hardest thing in the world is to think with your own head. That's probably why so few people do it.

Henry Ford

Neurophysiology of emotions

Everything starts in the brain and ends there. No matter how many theologians of the past and present wish it, it is the physical work of our brain that almost 100% determines the very course and quality of our life (the ability to feel a sense of satisfaction and happiness; to communicate with others; to be successful in our affairs, etc.) From work brain also depends on how a person will study at school, what kind of spouse he will become, whether he will be able to be consistent in achieving his goals, how he will raise his children, and so on.

The brain is the organ of the mind. Modern anatomists describe the brain in terms of the evolutionary path we are on. We have parts of the so-called ancient brain, the mid-brain and the newborn, each of which has different properties. This model was developed and developed by the inventor of the very term "limbic system" American physician and neuroscientist Dr. Paul D. MacLean. He identified three brain systems:

• old reptilian brain;
• midbrain (nucleus of the limbic system);
• neocortex (newborn brain).

The work of the old "modules" remains unchanged for thousands of years. New structures grow from older brain modules, and the biological equivalent of wiring and digital interfaces connects them. Their interaction is still relatively unstable, so human behavior is never exactly the same and predictable. Bye limbic system is in a delicate balance - a person as a whole remains adequate, reasonable and striving for active daily activities. If the balance is disturbed, there is a "failure" in the work of the biocomputer, which in fact is the human brain, resulting in significant changes in the mental and emotional sphere.

Children are not born with new brain programs. The old programs are already built into us and do not need to be learned. If we talk about examples, then the most pronounced "old programs" include such negative qualities as greed (the desire to take possession of the thing you like in a predatory way), territorial aggression, anger and jealousy. Of course, there are also positive innate qualities, such as the desire to form new social cells and altruistically help its members for the common good.

Simply put, the limbic system is the link that makes all the “modules” of the brain interact effectively, ensuring survival and interaction with society.

This, by the way, largely justifies women who enter the PMS period. Now it is clear that their ability (from the point of view of many men) to become simply unbearable depends not only on their innate harmfulness and character traits, but also on chemical changes in the brain associated with hormonal changes in the body. Moreover, in the deep limbic system of the brain there is the highest concentration of estrogen receptors, which is why they are more sensitive to changes associated with the menstrual cycle, childbirth or menopause. Their brain is purely physically unable to cope with such a strong release of hormones.

The Deep Limbic System and Emotions

Many are familiar with the state when everything around is considered exclusively in a negative way. This state haunted me for the first two years of my life. Negative emotions turn into a continuous veil of negativity and completely envelop a person. Only those lucky ones whose limbic system is well developed and does its job perfectly have not experienced anything like this. Everyone else has it worse because the limbic system includes three brain structures that can cause symptoms of depression and anxiety. This is the hypothalamus amygdala oh and the hippocampus.

The deep limbic system governs our emotions.

As for the general functions of the limbic system, in short, it is responsible for the following:

• Sense of smell.

The amygdala directly intervenes in the process of olfactory sensation.

• Appetite and food habits.

The hypothalamus and the amygdala work in this direction. The latter contributes to obtaining emotional pleasure from eating, and the hypothalamus is responsible for a sense of proportion.

• Sleep and dreams.

During dreams, the limbic system is one of the most active areas. This has been repeatedly proven by scientists from different countries using neuroimaging methods.

• Emotional reactions.

The limbic system modulates emotional responses. This process includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, lumbar gyrus and basal ganglia.

• sexual behavior.

The limbic system is also involved in sexual behavior through the hypothalamus and various neurotransmitters, notably dopamine.

• Addiction and motivation.

That is why a thorough understanding of how the limbic system works is so important to know in the treatment of depression and drug addiction. After all, the recurrence of these problems is usually associated with the release of excitatory neurotransmitters in responsible areas of the brain (hippocampus, amygdala).

• Memory.

As we already know, emotional responses are associated with the limbic system. But emotions are also involved in the search and consolidation of memory, so one of the functions of the limbic system is emotional memory.

• Social Cognition and Interaction.

It refers to the thought processes involved in understanding and interacting with other people. Social cognition includes direct perception of others, basic communication skills, emotional processing, and working memory. This is where the limbic system assists the complex behaviors required for social interactions.

The influence of the limbic system on emotional coloring

In this case deep limbic system assumes the role of a prism through which people perceive everything that happens. Thanks to her work, any event acquires an emotional coloring (the emotions themselves depend on the emotional state of a person). When the activity of the limbic system increases and the system is in overexcited state, this leads to exhaustion and oppression of the work of all its structures. And then even the most simple and harmless things will be perceived through the negative.

A simple example: a conversation between a conditionally normal person and a person with a hyperactive limbic system (already tuned negatively). In this case, the interlocutor will interpret almost everything said in a negative way. The characteristic fears of a person will be the fear that something is not being told to him or that they are telling a lie. The effect of “reading between the lines” is also possible (when irony or insult is heard in harmless speech turns). If this situation continues long enough, it causes a reaction of rejection from society and a desire to retire from everything that hurts.

Motivation and aspiration

Aspirations and motivation - these are also areas of work of the deep limbic system. Everyone can feel her work in this direction by “turning on” in the morning and finding incentives every day to get out of a comfortable bed and do the necessary and useful work throughout the day. The hypothalamus plays a key role here. As the structure responsible for sleep and appetite, it is he who is responsible for 80% of motivation disorders and many other emotional problems. Now you understand why you cannot become who you want to be until you put the deep limbic system in order in the brain. You won't get far with low motivation.

The limbic system controls human motivation.

Communication and Formation of Attachments

A person's ability to communicate and form attachments is a direct result of the deep limbic system. This fact has been repeatedly proven by experiments on animals. For example, experimental rats that had this part of the brain removed showed complete indifference to their relatives. Mothers no longer fed their babies, perceiving them as inanimate objects.In other experiments, normal and operated rats were placed in the center of a maze, in the center of which a lot of food was hidden. Healthy rats, having eaten, began to actively call their relatives so that they would take part in the meal. Rats with brain structures removed did nothing of the kind. They only ate, defecated and slept.

There is a statement that says that humans are just one type of social animal. And it's hard to deny it. After all, regardless of the characteristics of a personal worldview, without maintaining connections, a person cannot feel truly positive.

Smell

The limbic system and the sense of smell are directly related. Of the five senses, only the olfactory system is directly connected to the brain's "computing center". Other sense organs (hearing, sight, taste, touch) use an intermediate "crutch" that redistributes the received data to the desired areas of the brain. It is with such an interesting feature that such a strong influence of smells on the emotional state of a person is associated. And today it is actively used by marketers involved in the sale of deodorants and various perfumes. After all, a beautiful and fresh aroma causes a positive and attracts, and an unpleasant smell, on the contrary.

Sexuality

The activity of the limbic system also directly affects a person's sexuality. Mutual sexual attraction and arousal triggers a chain of neurochemical reactions in the brain that dull the critical and stimulate the emotional perception of each other. Actually, because of this feature of the limbic system, the very surge of emotions occurs, which often ends in “casual sex” and its unplanned results. Why do women become more attached to a partner after such a relationship? Scientists have an answer to this question too. This reaction is the result of the fact that the limbic system in women is larger than in men, therefore, the limbic attachment formed by it will also be stronger. On the one hand, this makes them stronger (higher empathy and easy personal connections), but the benefits come at the cost of increased susceptibility to hormonal changes and a tendency to depression. Forward

Sadness, disgust. Emotions. Despite the fact that we sometimes feel overwhelmed by their intensity, but in fact, life without them is impossible. What would we do, for example, without fear? Perhaps we would turn into reckless suicides. This article explains what the limbic system is, what it is responsible for, what its functions, components and possible states are. What does the limbic system have to do with our emotions?

What is the limbic system? Since the time of Aristotle, scientists have been exploring the mysterious world of human emotions. Historically, this area of ​​science has always been the subject of much controversy and intense debate; until the scientific world came to recognize that emotions are an integral part of human nature. Indeed, science is now confirming that there is a brain structure, namely the limbic system, that regulates our emotions.

The term "limbic system" was proposed by the American scientist Paul D. McLean in 1952 as a neural substrate for emotions (McLean, 1952). He also proposed the concept of a triune brain, according to which the human brain consists of three parts, planted one on top of the other, like in a nesting doll: the ancient brain (or reptile brain), the midbrain (or limbic system) and the neocortex (cerebral cortex).

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Components of the limbic system

What is the limbic system of the brain made up of? What is its physiology? The limbic system has many centers and components, but we will focus only on those that have the most significant functions: the amygdala (hereinafter referred to as the amygdala), and the cingulate gyrus.

“The hypothalamus, the nucleus of the anterior cingulate gyrus, the cingulate gyrus, the hippocampus and its connections are a well-coordinated mechanism that is responsible for central emotional functions, and also takes part in the expression of emotions.” James Peipets, 1937

Functions of the limbic system

Limbic system and emotions

The limbic system in the human brain performs the following function. When we talk about emotions, automatically we have a feeling of some rejection. We are talking about the association that still takes place from the time when the concept of emotions looked like something dark, clouding the mind and intellect. Some groups of researchers have argued that emotions bring us down to the level of animals. But in fact, this is absolutely true, because, as we will see later, emotions (not so much in themselves, but in the system that they activate) help us survive.

Emotions have been defined as interrelated responses evoked by situations of reward and punishment. Rewards, for example, promote responses (satisfaction, comfort, well-being, etc.) that attract animals to adaptive stimuli.

• Autonomic reactions and emotions depend on the limbic system: the relationship between emotions and autonomic responses (body changes) is important. Emotions are essentially a dialogue between the brain and the body. The brain detects a significant stimulus and sends information to the body so that it can respond to these stimuli in the appropriate way. The last step is that the changes in our body happen consciously, and thus we acknowledge our own emotions. For example, fear and anger responses start in the limbic system, which causes a diffuse effect on the sympathetic nervous system. The body's response, known as "fight or flight," prepares a person for threatening situations so that he can defend himself or flee, as the case may be, by increasing his heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure.
• Fear depends on the limbic system: fear reactions are formed as a result of stimulation of the hypothalamus and amygdala. That is why destruction of the amygdala eliminates the fear response and its associated bodily effects. The amygdala is also involved in fear-based learning. Similarly, neuroimaging studies show that fear activates the left amygdala.
• and calmness are also functions of the limbic system: anger reactions to minimal stimuli are observed after removal of the neocortex. Destruction of some areas of the hypothalamus, as well as the ventromedial nucleus and septal nuclei, also causes an anger response in animals. Anger can also be generated through stimulation of wider areas of the midbrain. Conversely, bilateral destruction of the amygdala impairs anger responses and leads to excessive calmness.
• Pleasure and addiction originate in the limbic system: the neural networks responsible for pleasure and addictive behavior are part of the structure of the amygdala, nucleus accumbens, and hippocampus. These circuits are involved in the motivation to use drugs, determine the nature of impulsive consumption and possible relapses. Learn more about the benefits of cognitive rehabilitation for addiction treatment.

Non-Emotional Functions of the Limbic System

The limbic system is involved in the formation of other processes associated with survival. Its neural networks are widely described in the scientific literature, specializing in functions such as sleep, sexual behavior, or memory.

As you might expect, memory is another important function we need to survive. Although there are other types of memory, emotional memory refers to stimuli or situations that are vital. The amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus are involved in the acquisition, maintenance, and removal of phobias from our memory. For example, the fear of spiders that people have in order to ultimately make it easier for them to survive.

The limbic system also controls eating behavior, appetite, and the olfactory system.

Clinical manifestations. Limbic system disorders

1- Dementia

The limbic system is associated with causes, in particular Alzheimer's disease and Pick's disease. These pathologies are accompanied by atrophy in the limbic system, especially in the hippocampus. In Alzheimer's disease, senile plaques and neurofibrillary plexuses (tangles) appear.

- the widest set, which is a morphofunctional association of systems. They are located in different parts of the brain.

Consider the functions and structure of the limbic system in the diagram below.

System structure

The limbic system includes:

• limbic and paralimbic formations
• anterior and medial nuclei of the thalamus
• medial and basal parts of the striatum
• hypothalamus
• the oldest subcrustal and mantle parts
• cingulate gyrus
• dentate gyrus
• hippocampus (seahorse)
• septum (partition)
• amygdala bodies.

There are 4 main structures of the limbic system in the diencephalon:

Then we have the hypothalamus, which is a vital part of the limbic system that is responsible for the production of several chemical messengers called hormones. These hormones control body water levels, sleep cycles, body temperature, and food intake. The hypothalamus is located under the thalamus.

The flexural gyrus, meanwhile, serves as a pathway that relays messages between the inner and outer parts of the limbic system. The amygdala is one of two almond-shaped clusters of nerve cells in the temporal lobe of the brain. Both amygdala are responsible for preparing the body for emergencies, such as being scared, and for storing memories of events for future recognition. The amygdala helps in the development of memories, especially those associated with emotional events and emergencies.

• habenular nuclei (leash nuclei)
• thalamus
• hypothalamus
• mastoid bodies.

main functions of the limbic system

Connection with emotions

The limbic system is responsible for the following activities:

• sensual
• motivational
• vegetative
• endocrine

Instincts can also be added here:

Michelds are also associated with the development of emotions of fear and can be the cause of extreme expressions of fear, as in the case of panic. In addition, the amygdala plays an important role in pleasure and sexual arousal and may vary with a person's sexual activity and maturity.

Components of the limbic system

The hippocampus is another section of the temporal lobe, which is responsible for converting short-term memories into long-term memories. The hippocampus is thought to work with the amygdala for memory storage, and damage to the hippocampus can lead to amnesia.

• food
• sexual
• defensive

The limbic system is responsible for regulating the wake-sleep process. It develops biological motivations. They predetermine complex chains of efforts to be made. These efforts lead to the satisfaction of the above vital needs. Physiologists define them as the most complex unconditioned reflexes or instinctive behavior. For clarity, we can recall the behavior of a newborn baby when breastfeeding. It is a system of coordinated processes. With the growth and development of the child, his instincts are increasingly influenced by consciousness, which develops in the course of study and education.

Finally, we have the basal ganglia, which are the collection of nerve cell bodies that are responsible for coordinating muscle movement in posture. In particular, the basal ganglia help block unwanted movements from occurring and communicate directly with the brain for coordination.

Speculation about the development of the limbic system

It is assumed that the limbic system developed from primitive mammals during human evolution. Therefore, many of the functions of the limbic system deal with instincts rather than the study of behavior. Scholars are debating whether this system should be considered a single unit biologically, as many of the original ideas that were used to develop this concept are considered obsolete. While they do not dispute the functions of the individual parts, many do not agree on whether the paths associated with these primitive functions are related.

Interaction with the neocortex

The limbic system and neocortex are tightly and inextricably interconnected with each other, and with the autonomic nervous system. On this basis, it connects two of the most important activities of the brain - memory and feelings. As a rule, the limbic system and emotions are tied together.

However, the limbic system is still discussed in many traditional biology and physiology courses as part of the nervous system. The limbic system structures are involved in many of our emotions and motivations, especially those related to survival. Such emotions include fear, anger, and emotions associated with sexual behavior. The limbic system is also connected to feelings of pleasure that are associated with our survival, such as those experienced from food and sex.

Functions of the limbic system

Certain structures of the limbic system are also involved in memory. The two large structures of the limbic system play an important role in memory. The amygdala is responsible for determining which memories are stored and where the memories are stored. This definition is thought to be based on how much of an emotional response an event elicits. The hippocampus sends memories to the appropriate part of the brain hemisphere for long-term storage and retrieves them when needed. Damage to this area of ​​the brain can lead to an inability to form new memories.

Deprivation of a part of the system leads to psychological inertia. The urge leads to psychological hyperactivity. Strengthening the activity of the amygdala triggers ways to provoke anger. These methods are regulated by the hippocampus. The system triggers eating behavior and arouses a sense of danger. These behaviors are regulated by both the limbic system and hormones. Hormones, in turn, are produced by the hypothalamus. This combination significantly influences life activity through the regulation of the functioning of the autonomic nervous system. Its meaning is hugely called the visceral brain. Determines the sensory-hormonal activity of the animal. Such activity is practically not subject to brain regulation either in an animal, or even more so in humans. This shows the relationship between emotions and the limbic system.

The part known as "also" is included in the limbic system. The thalamus is involved in sensory perception and regulation of motor functions. It connects areas that are involved in sensory perception and movement with other parts of the brain that also play a role in sensation and movement. The hypothalamus is a very small but important component of the diencephalon. It plays an important role in regulation, body temperature, and many other vital activities.

Almond-shaped mass of nuclei involved in emotional reactions, hormonal secretions and memory. Myggdala is responsible for the harnessing of fear, or the associative learning process by which we learn to be afraid of something. a fold in the brain associated with sensory input to emotions and the regulation of aggressive behavior. - arches, bands of axons that connect the hippocampus to the hypothalamus. - a tiny noob that acts as a memory indexer - sends memories to the appropriate part of the brain hemisphere for long-term storage and retrieves them when needed. - about the size of pearls, this structure directs many important functions. The hypothalamus is also an important emotional center, controlling the molecules that make you feel excited, angry, or unhappy. - receives sensory information from the olfactory bulb and is involved in the identification of odors. - a large, double-lobed mass of cells that transmit sensory signals in and out. It wakes you up in the morning and gives you an adrenaline rush. . Thus, the limbic system is responsible for controlling various functions in the body.

System functions

The main function of the limbic system is to coordinate actions with memory and its mechanisms. Short-term memory is usually associated with the hippocampus. Long-term memory - with the neocortex. The manifestation of personal skill and knowledge from the neocortex occurs through the limbic system. For this, sensual-hormonal provocation of the brain is used. This provocation brings up all the information from the neocortex.

Some of these functions include interpreting emotional responses, storing memories, and regulating. More recently, Paul McLean, taking the basic foundations of Papez's proposal, created the demonative limbic system and added new structures to the schema: the orbitofrontal and medial-frontal cortex, the paraftopacambic gyrus, and important subcortical groupings such as the amygdala, medial thalamic nucleus, septal region, prosencephalic basal nuclei and several brain stems.

The main areas associated with emotions. It is important to emphasize that all these structures are intensely connected to each other, and none of them is responsible for any particular emotional state. However, some of them contribute more than others to certain emotions. Below we consider, one by one, the most well-known structures of the limbic system.

The limbic system also performs the following significant function - the verbal memory of incidents and the experience gained, skills, and knowledge. All this looks like a complex of effector structures.

In the works of specialists, the system and functions of the limbic system are depicted as an "anatomical emotional ring". All aggregates are connected to each other and other parts of the brain. Connections with the hypothalamus are especially multifaceted.

Damage or stimulation of the medial dorsal and anterior nuclei of the thalamus is associated with changes in emotional reactivity. However, the importance of these nuclei in regulating emotional behavior is not due to the thalamus itself, but to the connection of these nuclei to other structures in the limbic system. The medial dorsal nucleus connects with the cortical zones of the prefrontal region and with the hypothalamus. The anterior nuclei connect to the mammillary bodies, and through them, through the plunger, to the hippocampus and dentate gyrus, thus participating in the Papez circuit.

It defines:

• sensual mood of a person
• his motivation to work
• behavior
• processes of acquiring knowledge and memorization.

Violations and their consequences

In case of violation of the limbic system or a defect in these sets, amnesia progresses in patients. However, it should not be defined as a place where certain information is stored. It combines all the separate parts of memory into generalized skills and incidents that are easy to reproduce. Disturbance of the limbic system does not destroy individual fragments of memories. These damages destroy their conscious repetition. In this case, various pieces of information are preserved and serve as a guarantee for procedural memory. Patients with Korsakov's syndrome can learn some other new knowledge for themselves. However, they will not know how and what exactly they learned.

This structure has extensive connections with other proencephalic areas and mesencephaly. Lesions in the hypothalamic nuclei interfere with several autonomic functions and some of the so-called motivated behaviors such as thermal regulation, sexuality, alertness, hunger, and thirst. The hypothalamus is believed to play a role in emotions. In particular, its lateral parts seem to be associated with pleasure and rage, while the median part seems to be associated with disgust, displeasure, and a tendency to uncontrollable and loud laughter.

Defects in its activities lead to:

• brain injury
• neuroinfections and intoxications
• vascular pathologies
• endogenous psychoses and neuroses.

It all depends on how significant the defeat was, as well as the limitations. Quite real:

• epileptic convulsive states
• automatisms
• changes in consciousness and mood
• derealization and depersonalization
• auditory hallucinations
• taste hallucinations
• olfactory hallucinations.

It is no coincidence that with the predominant defeat of the hippocampus by alcohol, a person suffers from memory in relation to recent incidents. Patients undergoing treatment for alcoholism in the hospital suffer from the following: they do not remember what they ate for lunch today and dined at all, or not, and when they last took medication. At the same time, they perfectly remember the events that took place in their lives for a long time.

The role of the limbic system in the formation of motivations, emotions, memory organization

However, in general terms, the hypothalamus is more associated with the expression of emotions than with the genesis of affective states. When the physical symptoms of emotions appear, the threat they pose returns through the hypothalamus to the limbic centers and therefore to the anterior frontal nuclei, increasing anxiety. This negative feedback mechanism can be strong enough to create a panic situation. As will be seen later, knowledge of this phenomenon is very important for clinical and therapeutic reasons.

Already scientifically substantiated - the limbic system (more precisely, the amygdala and the transparent septum) is responsible for processing certain information. This information is taken from the olfactory organs. At first, the following was stated - this system is capable of exclusively olfactory function. But over time, it became clear: it is also well developed in animals without smell. Everyone knows the importance of biogenic amines for leading a full life and activity:

Humans show the largest network of connections between the prefrontal area and traditional limbic structures. Perhaps, therefore, among all species, they represent the greatest variety of feelings and emotions. Although some signs of attachment can be perceived in birds, the limbic system only began to develop, in fact, after the first mammals, it is practically non-existent in reptiles, amphibians and all other previous species.

Paul McLean uses to say that "it's very hard to imagine a lonely and more emotionally empty creature than a crocodile." Two behaviors with affective connotations that have appeared in mammals deserve special attention because of their peculiarity.

• dopamine
• norepinephrine
• serotonin.

The limbic system has them in huge quantities. The manifestation of nervous and mental ailments is associated with the destruction of their balance.

The structure and functions of the limbic system are largely unknown. Conducting new research in this area will make it possible to determine its real place among other parts of the brain and will allow our practitioners to treat diseases of the central nervous system with new methods.

The more a mammal develops, the more accentuated these behaviors are. Ablation of important parts of the limbic system of any animal causes it to completely lose both maternal affection and lunar interest. And the evolution of mammals leads us to humanity. Of course, our hominid ancestor could already distinguish between the sensations he experienced on occasion, such as being in his cave, polishing a stone or bone, running after a weak animal, running away from a stronger one, hunting a female of his own kind, etc. P.

Cytoarchitectonics of the limbic system cortex

With the development of language, specific names were given to these sensations, allowing them to be identified and communicated with other members of the group. Because there is an important subjective component that is difficult to convey, even today there is no consensus on the best terminology to be used to refer to many of these sensations in particular.

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A set of nervous structures and their connections located in the mediobasal part, involved in the control of autonomic functions and emotional, instinctive behavior, as well as influencing the change in the phases of sleep and wakefulness.

Non-Emotional Functions of the Limbic System

Therefore, the words "affect", "emotion" and "feeling" are used interchangeably and imprecisely, almost as synonyms. However, we believe that each of these words deserves a precise definition, for the sake of their etymology and because of the physical and mental reactions they evoke.

Curiously, there is a worldwide tendency to regard only positive experiences as affecting. Opposite emotions and feelings can be used to refer to both positive and negative phenomena: “she has good feelings; I had painful emotions." According to Nobre de Melo, denominations influence, in general, events experienced by emotions or feelings. Emotions, as their etymology shows, show reactions to those emotional states that, due to their intensity, turn to some kind of action.

The limbic system is the most ancient part of the cerebral cortex, located on the inside of the cerebral hemispheres. It includes: hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, amygdala nuclei, piriform gyrus. Limbic formations are among the highest integrative centers for the regulation of the autonomic functions of the body. The neurons of the limbic system receive impulses from the cortex, subcortical nuclei, thalamus, hypothalamus, reticular formation and all internal organs. A characteristic property of the limbic system is the presence of well-defined circular neural connections that unite its various structures. Among the structures responsible for memory and learning, the main role is played by the hippocampus and the associated posterior frontal cortex. Their activity is important for the transition of short-term memory to long-term memory. The limbic system is involved in afferent synthesis, in the control of the electrical activity of the brain, regulates metabolic processes and provides a number of vegetative reactions. Irritation of various sections of this system in an animal is accompanied by manifestations of defensive behavior and changes in the activity of internal organs. The limbic system is also involved in the formation of behavioral responses in animals. It contains the cortical section of the olfactory analyzer.

Structural and functional organization of the limbic system

Great Circle of Peipes:

• hippocampus;
• vault;
• mamillary bodies;
• mamillary-thalamic bundle Wikd "Azira;
• thalamus;
• gyrus.

Small circle of Nauta:

• amygdala;
• end strip;
• partition.

Limbic system and its functions

Consists of phylogenetically old parts of the forebrain. In the title (limbus- edge) reflects the peculiarity of its location in the form of a ring between the new cortex and the final part of the brain stem. The limbic system includes a number of functionally integrated structures of the middle, diencephalon, and telencephalon. These are the cingulate, parahippocampal and dentate gyrus, the hippocampus, the olfactory bulb, the olfactory tract, and adjacent areas of the cortex. In addition, the limbic system includes the amygdala, anterior and septal thalamic nuclei, hypothalamus, and mamillary bodies (Fig. 1).

The limbic system has multiple afferent and efferent connections with other brain structures. Its structures interact with each other. The functions of the limbic system are realized on the basis of the integrative processes taking place in it. At the same time, more or less defined functions are inherent in individual structures of the limbic system.

Rice. 1. The most important connections between the structures of the limbic system and the brainstem: a - the circle of Paipez, b - the circle through the amygdala; MT - mammillary bodies

The main functions of the limbic system:

• Emotional-motivational behavior (with fear, aggression, hunger, thirst), which may be accompanied by emotionally colored motor reactions
• Participation in the organization of complex behaviors, such as instincts (food, sexual, defensive)
• Participation in orienting reflexes: reaction of alertness, attention
• Participation in the formation of memory and the dynamics of learning (the development of individual behavioral experience)
• Regulation of biological rhythms, in particular, changes in the phases of sleep and wakefulness
• Participation in maintaining homeostasis by regulating autonomic functions

cingulate gyrus

Neurons cingulate gyrus receive afferent signals from the association areas of the frontal, parietal and temporal cortex. The axons of its efferent neurons follow the neurons of the associative cortex of the frontal lobe, the hipiocampus, the septal nuclei, the amygdala, which are connected with the hypothalamus.

One of the functions of the cingulate gyrus is its participation in the formation of behavioral responses. So, when its anterior part is stimulated, aggressive behavior occurs in animals, and after bilateral removal, the animals become quiet, submissive, asocial - they lose interest in other individuals of the group, not trying to establish contact with them.

The cingulate gyrus can exert regulatory influences on the functions of internal organs and striated muscles. Its electrical stimulation is accompanied by a decrease in respiratory rate, heart contractions, a decrease in blood pressure, increased motility and secretion of the gastrointestinal tract, pupil dilation, and a decrease in muscle tone.

It is possible that the effects of the cingulate gyrus on the behavior of animals and the functions of internal organs are indirect and mediated by connections of the cingulate gyrus through the frontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala and septal nuclei with the hypothalamus and brainstem structures.

It is possible that the cingulate gyrus is related to the formation of pain sensations. People who underwent a cingulate gyrus dissection for medical reasons experienced a reduction in pain.

It has been established that neural networks of the anterior part of the cingulate gyrus are involved in the operation of the brain error detector. Its function is to identify erroneous actions, the progress of which deviates from the program of their execution and actions, at the completion of which the parameters of the final results were not achieved. Error detector signals are used to trigger mechanisms for correcting erroneous actions.

Amygdala

Amygdala located in the temporal lobe of the brain, and its neurons form several subgroups of nuclei, the neurons of which interact with each other and other brain structures. Among these nuclear groups are the corticomesial and basolateral subgroups of the nuclei.

The neurons of the corticomesial nuclei of the amygdala receive afferent signals from the neurons of the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, nuclei of the thalamus, septal nuclei, gustatory nuclei of the diencephalon, and pain sensitivity pathways of the pons, through which signals from the large receptive fields of the skin and internal organs arrive at the amygdala neurons. Taking into account these connections, it is assumed that the corticomedial group of tonsil nuclei is involved in the control of the implementation of the vegetative functions of the body.

The neurons of the basolateral nuclei of the amygdala receive sensory signals from the neurons of the thalamus, afferent signals about the semantic (conscious) content of signals from the prefrontal cortex of the frontal lobe, the temporal lobe of the brain and the cingulate gyrus.

The neurons of the basolateral nuclei are associated with the thalamus, the prefrontal cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, and the ventral striatum of the basal ganglia, so it is assumed that the nuclei of the basolateral group of the tonsils are involved in the implementation of the functions of the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain.

Amygdala neurons send efferent signals along axons predominantly to the same brain structures from which they received afferent connections. Among them are the hypothalamus, the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus, the prefrontal cortex, the visual areas of the temporal cortex, the hippocampus, and the ventral striatum.

The nature of the functions performed by the amygdala is judged by the consequences of its destruction or by the effects of its irritation in higher animals. Thus, the bilateral destruction of the tonsils in monkeys causes a loss of aggressiveness, a decrease in emotions and defensive reactions. Monkeys with removed tonsils are kept alone, do not seek to make contact with other animals. In diseases of the tonsils, there is a disconnect between emotions and emotional reactions. Patients may experience and express great concern for any reason, but at this time the heart rate, blood pressure and other autonomic reactions are not changed. It is assumed that the removal of the tonsils, accompanied by a rupture of its connections with the cortex, leads to a disruption in the processes of normal integration of the semantic and emotional components of efferent signals in the cortex.

Electrical stimulation of the tonsils is accompanied by anxiety, hallucinations, past experiences, and SNS and ANS reactions. The nature of these reactions depends on the localization of irritation. When the nuclei of the cortico-medial group are irritated, reactions from the digestive organs prevail: salivation, chewing movements, bowel movements, urination, and when the nuclei of the basolateral group are irritated, reactions of alertness, raising the head, pupil dilation, search. With strong irritation, animals can develop states of rage or, conversely, fear.

In the formation of emotions, an important role belongs to the presence of closed circles of circulation of nerve impulses between the formations of the limbic system. A special role in this is played by the so-called limbic circle of Paipez (hippocampus - fornix - hypothalamus - mamillary bodies - thalamus - cingulate gyrus - parahippocampal gyrus - hippocampus). The streams of nerve impulses circulating along this circular neural circuit are sometimes called the "stream of emotions."

Another circle (almond - hypothalamus - midbrain - amygdala) is important in the regulation of aggressive-defensive, sexual and nutritional behavioral reactions and emotions.

The tonsils are one of the structures of the CNS, on the neurons of which there is the highest density of sex hormone receptors, which explains one of the changes in the behavior of animals after bilateral destruction of the tonsils - the development of hypersexuality.

Experimental data obtained on animals indicate that one of the important functions of the tonsils is their participation in establishing associative links between the nature of the stimulus and its significance: the expectation of pleasure (reward) or punishment for the actions performed. The neural networks of the amygdala, ventral striatum, thalamus, and prefrontal cortex are involved in the implementation of this function.

Hippocampal structures

hippocampus along with the dentate gyrus subiculun) and the olfactory cortex forms a single functional hippocampal structure of the limbic system, located in the medial part of the temporal lobe of the brain. There are numerous bilateral links between the components of this structure.

The dentate gyrus receives its main afferent signals from the olfactory cortex and sends them to the hippocampus. In turn, the olfactory cortex, as the main gateway for receiving afferent signals, receives them from various associative areas of the cerebral cortex, the hippocampal and cingulate gyrus. The hippocampus receives already processed visual signals from the extrastriate areas of the cortex, auditory signals from the temporal lobe, somatosensory signals from the postcentral gyrus, and information from polysensory associative areas of the cortex.

The hippocampal structures also receive signals from other areas of the brain - the stem nuclei, the raphe nucleus, and the bluish spot. These signals perform a predominantly modulatory function in relation to the activity of hippocampal neurons, adapting it to the degree of attention and motivations that are crucial for the processes of memorization and learning.

The efferent connections of the hippocampus are organized in such a way that they follow mainly those areas of the brain with which the hippocampus is connected by afferent connections. Thus, the efferent signals of the hippocampus go mainly to the association areas of the temporal and frontal lobes of the brain. To perform their functions, the hippocampal structures need a constant exchange of information with the cortex and other brain structures.

One of the consequences of a bilateral disease of the medial part of the temporal lobe is the development of amnesia - memory loss with a subsequent decrease in intelligence. At the same time, the most severe memory impairments are observed when all hippocampal structures are damaged, and less pronounced - when only the hippocampus is damaged. From these observations, it is concluded that the hippocampal structures are part of the structures of the brain, including the medial halamus, cholinergic neuronal groups of the base of the frontal lobes, the amygdala, which play a key role in the mechanisms of memory and learning.

A special role in the implementation of memory mechanisms in the hippocampus is played by the unique property of its neurons to maintain a state of excitation and synaptic signal transmission for a long time after they are activated by any influences (this property is called post-tetanic potentiation). Post-tetanic potentiation, which ensures long-term circulation of information signals in closed neural circuits of the limbic system, is one of the key processes in the mechanisms of long-term memory formation.

Hippocampal structures play an important role in learning new information and storing it in memory. Information about earlier events is stored in memory after damage to this structure. At the same time, hippocampal structures play a role in the mechanisms of declarative or specific memory for events and facts. The mechanisms of non-declarative memory (memory for skills and faces) are more involved in the basal ganglia, the cerebellum, the motor areas of the cortex, and the temporal cortex.

Thus, the structures of the limbic system are involved in the implementation of such complex brain functions as behavior, emotions, learning, memory. The functions of the brain are organized in such a way that the more complex the function, the more extensive the neural networks involved in its organization. From this it is obvious that the limbic system is only a part of the structures of the central nervous system that are important in the mechanisms of complex brain functions, and contributes to their implementation.

So, in the formation of emotions as states that reflect our subjective attitude to current or past events, we can distinguish mental (experience), somatic (gestures, facial expressions) and vegetative (vegetative reactions) components. The degree of manifestation of these components of emotions depends on the greater or lesser involvement in the emotional reactions of the brain structures with the participation of which they are realized. This is largely determined by which group of nuclei and structures of the limbic system is activated to the greatest extent. The limbic system acts in the organization of emotions as a kind of conductor, enhancing or weakening the severity of one or another component of an emotional reaction.

Involvement in the responses of the structures of the limbic system associated with the cerebral cortex enhances the mental component of emotion in them, and the involvement of structures associated with the hypothalamus and the hypothalamus itself as part of the limbic system enhances the autonomic component of the emotional reaction. At the same time, the function of the limbic system in the organization of emotions in humans is under the influence of the cortex of the frontal lobe of the brain, which has a corrective effect on the functions of the limbic system. It inhibits the manifestation of excessive emotional reactions associated with the satisfaction of the simplest biological needs and, apparently, contributes to the emergence of emotions associated with the implementation of social relationships and creativity.

The structures of the limbic system, built between the parts of the brain that are directly involved in the formation of higher mental, somatic and vegetative functions, ensure their coordinated implementation, maintenance of homeostasis and behavioral responses aimed at preserving the life of the individual and species.

The limbic system, also called the visceral brain, rhinencephalon, thymencephalon, contains a whole complex of structures of different middle, intermediate, final, which are involved in the organization of motivational, visceral and emotional reactions of the body.

The limbic system of the brain has a very complex structure, it combines such sections of the old cortex as the hippocampus, limbic and cingulate gyrus; departments of the neocortex: the frontal, temporal regions and the frontotemporal intermediate zone; subcortical structures: pale ball, putamen, septum, hypothalamus, nonspecific nuclei of the thalamus, reticular formation of the midbrain. All subcortical structures are very closely related to the main structures of the cerebral cortex. The structures of the system are localized mainly on the cerebral hemispheres.

The limbic system, whose functions at the initial stage of the evolution of the animal world were formed on the basis of smell, provides many vital reactions of the body, such as orientation, sexual and food. The sense of smell not only acted as the main integrating factor, but also united the structures of the brain into a single integral complex. Therefore, in higher vertebrates, including humans, the structures of the limbic system, built on the basis of descending and ascending pathways, have a closed system of functioning.

The limbic system controls many of the most important processes in the body - the regulation of water-salt balance, maintaining a constant body temperature, as well as behavioral reactions, in particular, food, aimed at obtaining energy and nutrients. It determines the emotional behavior of a person, sexual behavior, the processes of sleep and wakefulness, learning and remembering. This system determines and manages the motivation of behavior, ensures the purposefulness of all actions. As a result, the adaptation of the body to changes in environmental conditions is constantly being improved. And first of all, this concerns the social environment, since a person is a purely social being.

Also, the limbic system provides another important function - verbal or carrying information about any events, existing knowledge or acquired skills and experience. In clinical practice, it has been found that in case of dysfunction or damage to limbic structures, patients experience the development of amnesia. But scientists argue that the limbic system is not a repository of information, because memory fragments are dispersed throughout the associative cortex. And the limbic system only functionally unites them and makes them available for reproduction. When the limbic structures are violated, the memory is not erased, its fragments remain and are preserved, but only its conscious reproduction fails. Therefore, almost all people with damage to the limbic system are able to instantly master many motor or perceptual skills and abilities, but at the same time they cannot remember where they could have learned this before.

Dysfunctions of the limbic system can cause brain injuries, neuroinfections and intoxications, vascular pathologies, endogenous psychoses and neuroses. Depending on the extent of the lesion or its localization, epileptic convulsive states, automatisms, changes in consciousness and mood, derealization and depersonalization, as well as auditory, gustatory and olfactory hallucinations may occur.